Generals of the Russian-Turkish war 1828 1829. Russian-Turkish wars - briefly

Plan
Introduction
1 War statistics
2 Background and reason
3 Military actions in 1828
3.1 In the Balkans
3.2 In Transcaucasia

4 Military actions in 1829
4.1 On the European theater
4.2 In Asia

5 The most striking episodes of the war
6 War Heroes
7 Results of the war
Bibliography
Russo-Turkish War (1828-1829)

Introduction

The Russian-Turkish War of 1828-1829 was a military conflict between the Russian and Ottoman Empires that began in April 1828 due to the fact that the Porte closed the Bosporus Strait after the Battle of Navarino (October 1827) in violation of the Ackerman Convention.

In a broader context, this war was a consequence of the struggle between the great powers caused by the Greek War of Independence (1821-1830) from the Ottoman Empire. During the war, Russian troops made a series of campaigns in Bulgaria, the Caucasus and northeast Anatolia, after which the Porte sued for peace.

1. War statistics

2. Background and reason

The Greeks of the Peloponnese, who rebelled against Ottoman rule in the spring of 1821, were helped by France and England; Russia under Alexander I took a position of non-intervention, but was in an alliance with the former under the agreements of the Aachen Congress ( see also Holy Alliance).

With the accession of Nicholas I, St. Petersburg's position on the Greek issue began to change; but strife began between the former allies over the division of the possessions of the Ottoman Empire; Taking advantage of this, the Porte declared itself free from agreements with Russia and expelled Russian subjects from its possessions. The Porte invited Persia to continue the war with Russia and prohibited Russian ships from entering the Bosphorus.

Sultan Mahmud II tried to give the war a religious character; Wanting to lead an army to defend Islam, he moved his capital to Adrianople and ordered the strengthening of the Danube fortresses. In view of such actions of the Porte, Emperor Nicholas I declared war on the Porte on April 14 (26), 1828 and ordered his troops, who had until then been stationed in Bessarabia, to enter the Ottoman possessions.

3. Military actions in 1828

3.1. In the Balkans

Russia had a 95,000-strong Danube Army under the command of P. H. Wittgenstein and a 25,000-strong Separate Caucasian Corps under the command of General I. F. Paskevich.

They were opposed by Turkish armies totaling up to 200 thousand people. (150 thousand on the Danube and 50 thousand in the Caucasus); Of the fleet, only 10 ships stationed in the Bosporus survived.

The Danube Army was tasked with occupying Moldova, Wallachia and Dobruja, as well as capturing Shumla and Varna.

Bessarabia was chosen as the basis for Wittgenstein's actions; the principalities (severely depleted by Turkish rule and the drought of 1827) were supposed to be occupied only to restore order in them and protect them from enemy invasion, as well as to protect the right wing of the army in case of Austrian intervention. Wittgenstein, having crossed the Lower Danube, was supposed to move to Varna and Shumla, cross the Balkans and advance to Constantinople; a special detachment was supposed to land at Anapa and, upon capturing it, join the main forces.

On April 25, the 6th Infantry Corps entered the principalities, and its vanguard under the command of General Fedor Geismar headed for Lesser Wallachia; On May 1, the 7th Infantry Corps besieged the Brailov fortress; The 3rd Infantry Corps was supposed to cross the Danube between Izmail and Reni, near the village of Satunovo, but the construction of a road through a lowland flooded with water required about a month of time, during which the Turks strengthened the right bank opposite the crossing point, placing up to 10 thousand people in their position. troops.

On the morning of May 27, the crossing of Russian troops on ships and boats began in the presence of the sovereign. Despite the fierce fire, they reached the right bank, and when the advanced Turkish trenches were taken, the enemy fled from the rest. On May 30, the Isakcha fortress surrendered. Having separated detachments to besiege Machin, Girsov and Tulcha, the main forces of the 3rd Corps reached Karasu on June 6, and their vanguard, under the command of General Fedor Ridiger, besieged Kyustendzhi.

The siege of Brailov quickly moved forward, and the head of the siege troops, Grand Duke Mikhail Pavlovich, hastening to finish this matter so that the 7th Corps could join the 3rd, decided to storm the fortress on June 3; the assault was repulsed, but when Machin’s surrender followed 3 days later, commandant Brailov, seeing himself cut off and having lost hope of help, also surrendered (June 7).

At the same time, a sea expedition to Anapa took place. At Karasu, the 3rd Corps stood for 17 whole days, since after the allocation of garrisons to the occupied fortresses, as well as other detachments, no more than 20 thousand remained in it. Only with the addition of some parts of the 7th Corps and the arrival of the 4th Reserve. the cavalry corps, the main forces of the army would reach 60 thousand; but even this was not considered sufficient for decisive action, and at the beginning of June the 2nd Infantry was ordered to move from Little Russia to the Danube. corps (about 30 thousand); in addition, guards regiments (up to 25 thousand) were already on their way to the theater of war.

After the fall of Brailov, the 7th Corps was sent to join the 3rd; General Roth with two infantry and one cavalry brigades was ordered to besiege Silistria, and General Borozdin with six infantry and four cavalry regiments was ordered to guard Wallachia. Even before all these orders were carried out, the 3rd Corps moved to Bazardzhik, where, according to information received, significant Turkish forces were gathering.

Between June 24 and 26, Bazardzhik was occupied, after which two vanguards were advanced: Ridiger to Kozludzha and Admiral General Count Pavel Sukhtelen to Varna, to which a detachment of Lieutenant General Alexander Ushakov from Tulcha was also sent. In early July, the 7th Corps joined the 3rd Corps; but their combined forces did not exceed 40 thousand; it was still impossible to count on the assistance of the fleet stationed at Anapa; The siege parks were partly located near the named fortress, and partly stretched from Brailov.

Meanwhile, the garrisons of Shumla and Varna gradually strengthened; Riediger's vanguard was constantly harassed by the Turks, who tried to interrupt his communications with the main forces. Considering the state of affairs, Wittgenstein decided to limit himself to one observation regarding Varna (for which Ushakov’s detachment was appointed), with the main forces to move to Shumla, try to lure the seraskir from the fortified camp and, having defeated him, turn to the siege of Varna.

On July 8, the main forces approached Shumla and besieged it from the eastern side, strongly strengthening their positions in order to interrupt the possibility of communications with Varna. Decisive action against Shumla was supposed to be postponed until the arrival of the guards. However, our main forces soon found themselves in a kind of blockade, since in their rear and on the flanks the enemy developed guerrilla operations, which greatly hampered the arrival of transports and foraging. Meanwhile, Ushakov’s detachment also could not hold out against the superior garrison of Varna and retreated to Derventkoy.

In mid-July, the Russian fleet arrived from near Anapa to Kovarna and, having landed the troops on board the ships, headed for Varna, against which it stopped. The head of the landing forces, Prince Alexander Menshikov, having joined Ushakov’s detachment, on July 22 also approached the said fortress, besieged it from the north, and on August 6 began siege work. General Roth's detachment, stationed at Silistria, could not do anything due to insufficient strength and lack of siege artillery. Things also did not progress near Shumla, and although the Turkish attacks launched on August 14 and 25 were repelled, this did not lead to any results. Count Wittgenstein wanted to retreat to Yeni Bazar, but Emperor Nicholas I, who was with the army, opposed this.

In general, by the end of August, the circumstances in the European theater of war were very unfavorable for the Russians: the siege of Varna, due to the weakness of our forces there, did not promise success; Diseases were raging among the troops stationed near Shumla, and horses were dying from lack of food; Meanwhile, the insolence of the Turkish partisans was increasing.

At the same time, upon the arrival of new reinforcements in Shumla, the Turks attacked the town of Pravody, occupied by the detachment of Admiral General Benckendorf, however, they were repulsed. General Loggin Roth barely held his position at Silistria, whose garrison also received reinforcements. Gene. Kornilov, observing Zhurzha, had to fight off attacks from there and from Rushchuk, where enemy forces also increased. The weak detachment of General Geismar (about 6 thousand), although it held its position between Calafat and Craiova, could not prevent the Turkish parties from invading the northwestern part of Lesser Wallachia.

The enemy, having concentrated more than 25 thousand at Viddin and Kalafat, strengthened the garrisons of Rakhov and Nikopol. Thus, the Turks had superior forces everywhere, but, fortunately, did not take advantage of this. Meanwhile, in mid-August, the Guards Corps began to approach the Lower Danube, followed by the 2nd Infantry. The latter was ordered to relieve Roth's detachment at Silistria, which would then be drawn near Shumla; The guard is sent to Varna. To recover this fortress, 30 thousand Turkish corps of Omer-Vrione arrived from the Kamchik River. Several ineffective attacks followed from both sides, and when Varna surrendered on September 29, Omer began a hasty retreat, pursued by the detachment of Prince Eugene of Württemberg, and headed towards Aidos, where the vizier’s troops had retreated earlier.

Meanwhile, gr. Wittgenstein continued to stand under Shumla; His troops, after allocating reinforcements to Varna and other detachments, remained only about 15 thousand; but on the 20th of September. The 6th Corps approached him. Silistria continued to hold out, since the 2nd Corps, lacking siege artillery, could not take decisive action.

Meanwhile, the Turks continued to threaten Lesser Wallachia; but the brilliant victory won by Geismar near the village of Boelesti put an end to their attempts. After the fall of Varna, the final goal of the 1828 campaign was the conquest of Silistria, and the 3rd Corps was sent to it. The other troops located near Shumla had to winter in the occupied part of the country; the guard returned to Russia. However, the enterprise against Silistria due to the lack of shells in the siege artillery did not materialize, and the fortress was subjected to only a 2-day bombardment.

After the Russian troops retreated from Shumla, the vizier decided to take possession of Varna again and on November 8 moved to Pravody, but, having met resistance from the detachment occupying the city, he returned to Shumla. In January 1829, a strong Turkish detachment raided the rear of the 6th Corps, captured Kozludzha and attacked Bazardzhik, but failed there; and after that, Russian troops drove the enemy out of Kozludzha; in the same month the fortress of Turno was taken. The rest of the winter passed quietly.

3.2. In Transcaucasia

The separate Caucasian Corps began operations a little later; he was ordered to invade Asian Turkey.

In Asian Turkey in 1828, things were going well for Russia: on June 23, Kars was taken, and after a temporary suspension of hostilities due to the appearance of the plague, Paskevich conquered the Akhalkalaki fortress on July 23, and in early August approached Akhaltsikhe, which surrendered on the 16th of the same month. Then the fortresses of Atskhur and Ardahan surrendered without resistance. At the same time, separate Russian detachments took Poti and Bayazet.

4. Military actions in 1829

During the winter, both sides actively prepared for the resumption of hostilities. By the end of April 1829, the Porte managed to increase its forces in the European theater of war to 150 thousand and, in addition, could count on the 40 thousand Albanian militia collected by the Scutari Pasha Mustafa. The Russians could oppose these forces with no more than 100 thousand. In Asia, the Turks had up to 100 thousand troops against Paskevich’s 20 thousand. Only the Russian Black Sea fleet (about 60 ships of various ranks) had a decisive superiority over the Turkish one; Yes, Count Heyden’s squadron (35 ships) also cruised in the Archipelago.

4.1. At the European theater

Appointed commander-in-chief in Wittgenstein's place, Count Diebitsch actively set about replenishing the army and organizing its economic part. Having set himself the goal of crossing the Balkans, in order to provide food for the troops on the other side of the mountains, he turned to the assistance of the fleet and asked Admiral Greig to take possession of any harbor convenient for the delivery of supplies. The choice fell on Sizopol, which, after its capture, was occupied by a 3,000-strong Russian garrison. The attempt made by the Turks at the end of March to recapture this city was unsuccessful, and then they limited themselves to blockading it from the dry route. As for the Ottoman fleet, it left the Bosphorus at the beginning of May, however, it stayed closer to its shores; at the same time, two Russian military ships were accidentally surrounded by it; one of them (the 36-gun frigate "Raphael") surrendered, and the other, the brig "Mercury" under the command of Kazarsky, managed to fight off the enemy ships pursuing it and escape.

At the end of May, the squadrons of Greig and Heyden began to blockade the straits and interrupted all supplies by sea to Constantinople. Meanwhile, Dibich, in order to secure his rear before the movement for the Balkans, decided first of all to take possession of Silistria; but the late onset of spring delayed him, so that only at the end of April he could cross the Danube with the forces required for this purpose. On May 7, siege work began, and on May 9, new troops crossed to the right bank, bringing the forces of the siege corps to 30 thousand.

Around the same time, the vizier Reshid Pasha opened offensive operations with the goal of returning Varna; however, after persistent dealings with the troops, Gen. The company at Eski-Arnautlar and Pravod again retreated to Shumla. In mid-May, the vizier with his main forces again moved towards Varna. Having received news of this, Dibich, leaving one part of his troops at Silistria, with the other went to the rear of the vizier. This maneuver led to the defeat (May 30) of the Ottoman army near the village of Kulevchi.

Although after such a decisive victory one could count on capturing Shumla, however, it was preferred to confine oneself to just observing it. Meanwhile, the siege of Silistria was successful, and on June 18 this fortress surrendered. Following this, the 3rd Corps was sent to Shumla, the rest of the Russian troops intended for the Trans-Balkan campaign began to secretly gather towards Devno and Pravody.

Meanwhile, the vizier, convinced that Diebitsch would besiege Shumla, gathered troops there from wherever possible - even from the Balkan passes and from coastal points on the Black Sea. The Russian army, meanwhile, was advancing towards Kamchik and after a series of battles both on this river and during further movement in the mountains of the 6th and 7th corps, around mid-July, they crossed the Balkan ridge, simultaneously capturing two fortresses, Misevria and Ahiolo , and the important harbor of Burgas.

This success, however, was overshadowed by the strong development of diseases, from which the troops were noticeably melting. The vizier finally found out where the main forces of the Russian army were heading and sent reinforcements to the pashas Abdurahman and Yusuf acting against them; but it was already too late: the Russians moved forward uncontrollably; On July 13, they occupied the city of Aidos, 14 Karnabat, and 31 Dibich attacked the 20 thousand Turkish corps concentrated near the city of Slivno, defeated it and interrupted communication between Shumla and Adrianople.

Although the commander-in-chief now had no more than 25 thousand at hand, but in view of the friendly disposition of the local population and the complete demoralization of the Turkish troops, he decided to move to Adrianople, counting on his appearance alone in the second capital Ottoman Empire force the Sultan to peace.

After intensive marches, the Russian army approached Adrianople on August 7, and the surprise of its arrival so embarrassed the commander of the garrison there that he offered to surrender. The next day, part of the Russian troops was brought into the city, where large reserves of weapons and other things were found.

The occupation of Adrianople and Erzurum, the close blockade of the straits and internal troubles in Turkey finally shook the Sultan’s stubbornness; Commissioners arrived at Diebitsch's main apartment to negotiate peace. However, these negotiations were deliberately delayed by the Turks, counting on the help of England and Austria; and meanwhile the Russian army was melting more and more, and danger threatened it from all sides. The difficulty of the situation further increased when the Scutari Pasha Mustafa, who had until then avoided participating in hostilities, now led a 40,000-strong Albanian army to the theater of war.

In mid-August he occupied Sofia and advanced the vanguard to Philippopolis. Diebitsch, however, was not embarrassed by the difficulty of his position: he announced to the Turkish commissioners that he was giving them until September 1 to receive final instructions, and if after that peace was not concluded, then hostilities on our part would resume. To reinforce these demands, several detachments were sent to Constantinople and contact was established between them and the squadrons of Greig and Heyden.

An order was sent to Adjutant General Kiselyov, who commanded the Russian troops in the principalities: leaving part of his forces to guard Wallachia, cross the Danube with the rest and move against Mustafa. The advance of Russian troops towards Constantinople had its effect: the alarmed Sultan begged the Prussian envoy to go as a mediator to Dibitsch. His arguments, supported by letters from other ambassadors, prompted the commander-in-chief to stop the movement of troops towards the Turkish capital. Then the Porte's representatives agreed to all the conditions proposed to them, and on September 2 the Peace of Adrianople was signed.

Despite this, Mustafa of Scutaria continued his offensive, and at the beginning of September his vanguard approached Haskioy, and from there moved to Demotika. The 7th Corps was sent to meet him. Meanwhile, Adjutant General Kiselev, having crossed the Danube at Rakhov, went to Gabrov to act on the flank of the Albanians, and Geismar’s detachment was sent through Orhanie to threaten their rear. Having defeated the side detachment of the Albanians, Geismar occupied Sofia in mid-September, and Mustafa, having learned about this, returned to Philippopolis. Here he remained for part of the winter, but after the complete devastation of the city and its environs he returned to Albania. The detachments of Kiselev and Geismar already at the end of September retreated to Vratsa, and at the beginning of November the last troops of the Russian main army set out from Adrianople.

4.2. In Asia

In the Asian theater of war, the 1829 campaign opened in difficult conditions: residents of the occupied areas were every minute ready to revolt; already at the end of February, a strong Turkish corps besieged Akhaltsikhe, and the Trebizond Pasha with an eight-thousand-strong detachment moved to Guria to facilitate the uprising that broke out there. The detachments sent by Paskevich, however, managed to drive the Turks away from Akhaltsikhe and Guria.

But in mid-May, the enemy took offensive actions on a more extensive scale: the Erzurum seraskir Haji-Saleh, having gathered up to 70 thousand, decided to go to Kars; The Trebizond Pasha with 30 thousand was supposed to invade Guria again, and the Van Pasha was to take Bayazet. Paskevich, notified of this, decided to warn the enemy. Gathering about 18 thousand with 70 guns, he crossed the Saganlug mountain range, on June 19 and 20 won victories over the troops of Hakki Pasha and Haji Saleh at the Kainly and Millidyut tracts, and then approached Erzurum, which surrendered on June 27. At the same time, the Pasha of Van, after 2 days of desperate attacks on Bayazet, was repulsed, retreated, and his hordes scattered. The actions of the Trebizond Pasha were also unsuccessful; Russian troops were already on the way to Trebizond and captured the Bayburt fortress.

5. The most striking episodes of the war

· Feat of the brig "Mercury"

· Transition of the Transdanubian Cossacks to the side Russian Empire

6. War heroes

· Alexander Kazarsky - captain of the brig "Mercury"

7. Results of the war

· Most of the eastern coast of the Black Sea (including the cities of Anapa, Sudzhuk-Kale, Sukhum) and the Danube Delta passed to Russia.

· The Ottoman Empire recognized Russian supremacy over Georgia and parts modern territory Armenia.

· Türkiye reaffirmed its obligations under the Akkerman Convention of 1826 to respect the autonomy of Serbia.

· Moldavia and Wallachia were granted autonomy, and Russian troops remained in the Danube principalities during the reforms.

· Türkiye also agreed to the terms of the 1827 Treaty of London granting autonomy to Greece.

· Türkiye was obliged to pay Russia an indemnity in the amount of 1.5 million Dutch chervonets within 18 months.

Bibliography:

1. Urlanis B. Ts. Wars and population of Europe. - Moscow., 1960.

2. The population is indicated within the boundaries of the corresponding registration year (Russia: encyclopedic Dictionary. L., 1991).

3. Of these, 80,000 are regular army, 100,000 are cavalry and 100,000 are sepoys or vassal horsemen

The next Russian-Turkish war (1828-1829) was caused by several key reasons. The main one was the dispute over the straits, which opened the route from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea.

The problem of the straits

Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, stood on the Bosphorus. Previously, it was Constantinople (the Slavs called it Constantinople). Before this was the capital of Byzantium. It was this country that became the conductor of Orthodoxy in Russia. Therefore, the Moscow (and then St. Petersburg) rulers believed that they had the legal right to own the city, which was the main stronghold of Christianity for a millennium.

Of course, in addition to ideological reasons, there were also pragmatic motives. Free access to the Mediterranean could facilitate trade for our country. In addition, this would be another reason to confirm the status of one of the main European powers.

Conflict in the Caucasus

At the beginning of the 19th century, Türkiye was already noticeably lagging behind its neighbors in its development. Russia won several wars with this country and gained access to the Black Sea.

However, any peace concluded with Turkey was only a truce. Conflicts of interest echoed even in years when there was no war between the rivals. We are talking about the Caucasus.

In 1818, Russian troops began a war against the highlanders, the indigenous inhabitants of this region. The head of the campaign was Alexey Ermolov. However, our army had difficulty fighting the mountaineers due to the fact that it was not adapted to war in the mountains. In addition, the residents of the Caucasus were helped by Türkiye itself, which sold them weapons. The flow of rifles, cannons and money through the Ottoman Empire allowed the mountaineers to successfully repel Russian attacks for several decades. Of course, in St. Petersburg they knew about Muslims helping Muslims. Therefore, the Russian-Turkish War (1828-1829) was supposed to stop this cooperation between rivals, which was detrimental to the Russian Empire.

Greek question

Finally, the third reason for the conflict between the two countries was the Greek revolution. This is what is called in historiography national movement of this Balkan people. For several centuries the Greeks were under the rule of the Turks. Ethnic contradictions were complemented by religious ones. Muslims often oppressed Christians.

In 1821, the Greek uprising began, which turned into a many-year war for independence. Christians were supported by numerous European countries: Great Britain, France and Russia. The Turkish Sultan responded with massive repressions against the Greeks. For example, on the island of Crete, the metropolitan and several archbishops were killed during a church service.

The war inside Turkey has hit the Russian economy hard. Shortly before this, the rapid growth of Odessa began. This new Black Sea port became a free economic zone where there were no duties. In peacetime, hundreds of ships sailed here. Most of them were Greek and belonged to Christian subjects of the Ottoman Empire.

Because of this, the Russian-Turkish War (1828-1829) was inevitable. Only with the help of force could it be possible to help the Greeks and stop the crisis in the economy of the southern regions of the country. When greek war had just begun, Russia was ruled by Alexander I. He was not in the mood to fight. In this endeavor he was supported by Austrian diplomacy. Therefore, until his death, Russia limited itself to only symbolic actions towards the Turks.

Nicholas I's decision

However, in 1825, Alexander’s younger brother, Nikolai, came to power. In his youth, he received a military education, since no one expected him to become an heir. Another brother, Constantine, was supposed to rule after Alexander, but he refused the throne. By the way, this great prince was named after the great Roman emperor who founded Byzantium. This was a symbolic gesture of Catherine II - she wanted to place her grandson on the throne in

Nikolai's military education and habits immediately made themselves felt. The country began to prepare for an escalation of the conflict. In addition, Nicholas wanted to conduct an independent foreign policy, and not look back at the European allies, who often stopped Alexander. The Western powers did not want Russia to become too strong at all. As a rule, they tried to maintain a balance of power in the region, which, of course, Nikolai did not like. The Russian-Turkish War (1828-1829) was supposed to destroy it. It should also be considered a separate episode of the Greek revolution and the struggle for independence (1821-1830).

Battle of Navarino

In 1827, they began preparing a squadron in the Baltic that was supposed to sail to the southern seas. Emperor Nicholas himself held a solemn review of the departing ships in Kronstadt.

In the area of ​​the Ionian Islands, the Russian squadron united with allied ships from France and England. All together they went to Navarino Bay, where the Turkish and Egyptian fleets were located. This was done in order to force the Ottoman Empire to stop its repressive policies against the Greeks and give them autonomy. The head of the Russian squadron was Rear Admiral Login Heyden. He invited the allies to take the most decisive measures. General leadership was transferred to British Admiral Edward Codrington.

The Turkish commander was given an ultimatum: to stop military operations against the Greeks. He (Ibrahim Pasha) left this message unanswered. Then the Russian admiral persuaded the allies to enter the bay and begin battle against the Turks if they opened fire. The combined flotilla included dozens of battleships, frigates, and brigs (about 1,300 guns in total). The enemy had slightly more ships (in total they carried 22 thousand sailors).

At this time, the Turkish ships were anchored. They were well protected, since the Navarino fortress was nearby, which could open artillery fire on the enemy fleet. The bay itself was on west coast Peloponnese Peninsula.

Codrington hoped to avoid battle and persuade Ibrahim Pasha without the use of weapons. However, when the Russian ship "Azov" entered the bay, fire was opened on it from the Turkish battery located on the island of Sfakteria. In addition, at the same time, the Turks killed two envoys from England. Despite open fire, the Allied ships did not respond until they had taken the positions that were prescribed to them, according to the Allied plan. The admirals wanted to completely close the Turkish fleet in the bay. This was made easier by the fact that the bay was closed by land on three sides (the mainland and the island of Sfactoria). All that remained was to close the narrow strait, where the European ships went.

Only when the allied squadron anchored was return fire opened. The battle lasted more than four hours. The biggest contribution to the victory was made by the Russians and the British (the French admiral lost control of his ships during the battle).

In our fleet, “Azov” especially distinguished itself. Lieutenant Nakhimov and midshipman Kornilov, future heroes and symbols of the Crimean War, served on it. As night fell, the bay was illuminated by numerous fires. The Turks destroyed the damaged ships so that they would not fall to the enemy. The Allies did not lose a single ship, although, for example, the Russian Gangut received fifty holes.

It is the battle in Navarino Bay that is considered the prologue that marked the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829. (although it started several months later). After news of the defeat was learned in Istanbul, Sultan Mahmud II addressed an appeal to his subjects. He gave the order to all Muslims to prepare for jihad against Europeans, including Russians. Thus began the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829.

War at sea

Our government remained silent for some time. This was due to the fact that at the same time the war with Persia was continuing, and in St. Petersburg no one wanted a war on two fronts. Finally, in February, a peace treaty was signed with the Iranians. On April 14, 1828, he signed a manifesto on war with Turkey.

At this time, the Russian squadron that took part in the Battle of Navarino was undergoing repairs in the port of Malta. This island was the property of Great Britain. The British did not support Russia in its war against Turkey (again, the peculiarities of European diplomacy had an impact). Great Britain declared its neutrality. At the same time, its government favored Turkey more, not wanting the strengthening of Russia. Therefore, our squadron left Malta to avoid unnecessary conflicts. She relocated to the island of Paros in the Aegean Sea, which in Russian sources was called the Archipelago until the 20th century.

It was her ships that took the first blow from the Turks in open war. April 21 happened sea ​​battle between the Egyptian corvette and the Russian battleship Ezekiel. Victory was for the latter. With the outbreak of war in the Baltic, several more fresh ships were urgently prepared, which went to the rescue in the Mediterranean Sea (the straits from the Black Sea, of course, were closed). This complicated the Russian-Turkish War (1828-1829). The reasons for the need for reinforcements were the lack of ships to blockade

Siege of the Dardanelles

This task was set before the fleet in the first year of the war. This was necessary in order to cut off Istanbul from supplies of food and other important resources. If the blockade had been established, the Russian-Turkish war (1828-1829), the main events of which were still ahead, would move to a completely different level. Our country could take the strategic initiative into its own hands.

The Russian-Turkish War (1828-1829), the table shows this well, was fought in approximately equal conditions. Therefore, it was urgently necessary to acquire such a blockade advantage. Frigates and other ships headed towards the strait. The Dardanelles were blocked on November 2. The Russian ships participating in the operation were based on the three closest islands (Mavri, Tasso and Tenedos).

The blockade was complicated by persistent winter weather (by local standards). Storms began and a strong wind blew. Despite this, the Russian sailors brilliantly completed all the tasks that were assigned to them. Istanbul was cut off from supplies coming from the Mediterranean.

In Smyrna alone there were about 150 ships of merchants, whose bread spoiled as unnecessary. Until the end of hostilities, not a single Turkish ship was able to pass through the Dardanelles. Until August 1829, the blockade was led by Admiral Heyden. When Russian soldiers entered Adrianople, the squadron was subordinate to Johann Diebitsch, a commander with Prussian origin. The fleet was preparing to break through the Dardanelles. All that was needed for this was an order from St. Petersburg. Russian troops won victory after victory on land, which guaranteed the success of the operation. However, the order never came. Soon peace was signed and the Russian-Turkish War (1828-1829) ended. The reasons for this delay were hidden in the fact that the European powers, as always, did not want the final victory of Russia. The capture of Istanbul could lead to a war with the entire West (primarily with England).

In 1830, all the ships that fought in the Mediterranean returned to the Baltic. The exception was "Emmanuel", which was given as a gift to the Greeks who became independent.

Balkans

The main force of Russia in the region was the Danube Army (95 thousand people). Türkiye had a contingent that was approximately one and a half times larger.

The Danube army was supposed to occupy the principalities located in the basin of this river: Moldavia, Dobruja and Wallachia. The troops were commanded by Peter Wittgenstein. He headed to Bessarabia. This is how the Russian-Turkish War (1828-1829) began on the mainland. The table shows the aspect ratio in this region.

The important fortress of Brailov was the first to fall. The siege of Varna and Shumla began. While the Turkish garrisons were waiting for support, an important battle took place in Wallachia, in which Russian units won. Because of this, the besieged enemy army was left without hope of help from its compatriots. Then the city was surrendered.

Campaign of 1829

In the new year of 1829, Johann Diebitsch was appointed to replace Wittgenstein. He was given the task of crossing the Balkans and reaching the Turkish capital. Despite the outbreak of disease in the army, the soldiers completed their task. Adrianople was the first to besieged (it was approached on August 7). The reasons for the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829 were control over the straits, and they were already very close.

The garrison never expected that Diebitsch's army would go so far into the Ottoman Empire. Due to unpreparedness for confrontation, the commandant agreed to surrender the city. In Adrianople, the Russian army discovered a huge amount of weapons and other important resources in order to gain a foothold in the region.

This rapid success stunned everyone. Türkiye agreed to negotiations, but deliberately delayed them, hoping that England or Austria would help it.

Meanwhile, the Albanian Pasha headed to Bulgaria with 40,000 troops. With his maneuver he could cut off Diebitsch's army stationed in Adrianople. General Kiselev, who at that time was guarding the Danube principalities, moved towards the enemy. He was the first to occupy Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria. Because of this, Mustafa was left with nothing and had to fight with significant forces to gain a foothold in Bulgaria. He did not dare to do this and retreated back to Albania. The Russian-Turkish War of 1828-1829, in short, became increasingly successful for Russia.

Caucasian Front

In parallel with the events at sea and the Balkans, the war unfolded in the Caucasus. The Russian corps in this region was supposed to invade Turkey from the rear. In June 1828 he managed to take the Kars fortress. The course of the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829. here, too, the situation was in favor of Russia.

The further march of Ivan Paskevich’s army was complicated by numerous mountain paths and inaccessible crossings. Finally, on July 22, she found herself at the walls of the Akhalkalaki fortress. The detachment that defended her consisted of only a thousand people. In addition, the walls and fortifications of the fort were in a state of disrepair. Despite all this, the garrison refused to surrender.

In response to this, Russian guns began an intense artillery bombardment. The fortress fell in just three hours. The infantry, under the cover of artillery, quickly captured all the fortifications and the main citadel. This was another success for which the Russian-Turkish War (1828-1829) will be remembered. The main battles at this time took place in the Balkans. In the Caucasus, the Russian army was still fighting with small detachments, overcoming natural obstacles.

On August 5, she crossed the Kura River. On its tributary stood the important fortress of Akhaltsykh. On the 8th, artillery fire was opened on it. This was done in order to deceive the 30,000-strong enemy army stationed nearby. And so it happened. The Turks decided that Paskevich was preparing to storm the fortress.

Meanwhile, the Russian army quietly approached the enemy and unexpectedly attacked. Paskevich lost 80 people killed, while the Turks left two thousand corpses on the battlefield. The remainder fled. Subsequently there was no noticeable resistance in Georgia.

In Transcaucasia, the Russian-Turkish War (1828-1829), in short, ended in a complete fiasco for the Ottoman Empire. Paskevich occupied all of modern Georgia.

An interesting fact is that the great poet Alexander Pushkin was traveling around this country at that time. He witnessed the fall of Erzurum. This episode was described by the writer in the work “Journey to Arzerum”.

A few years earlier, Paskevich successfully led a campaign against Persia, for which he became a count. After victories over the Turks, he received the Order of St. George, first degree.

Peace and results

When negotiations were already underway with the Turks, there was a heated debate in St. Petersburg about whether to end the war or still reach Istanbul. Nicholas, who had recently taken the throne, hesitated. He did not want to come into conflict with Austria, which opposed the strengthening of Russia.

In order to resolve this problem, the emperor established a special committee. It included numerous bureaucrats who were incompetent in the issues that faced them. It was they who adopted the resolution, according to which it was decided to forget about Constantinople.

The parties to the conflict made peace on September 2, 1829. The signing of the document took place in Adrianople. Russia received many cities on the eastern coast of the Black Sea. In addition, the Danube Delta passed to her. Results of the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829. also consisted in the fact that the Porte recognized the transition to Russia of several states in the Caucasus. These were Georgian kingdoms and principalities. The Ottoman Empire also confirmed that it would respect autonomy for Serbia.

The same fate awaited the Danube principalities - Moldavia and Wallachia. Russian troops remained on their territory. This was necessary to carry out reforms in them. These were important results of the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829. Greece received autonomy (and a year later - independence). Finally, the Porte had to pay a significant indemnity.

The straits became free for Russian merchant ships. However, the agreement did not stipulate their status during hostilities. This has caused uncertainty in the future.

The Russian-Turkish War (1828-1829), the causes, results and main events of which are described in this material, did not reach its main goal. The Empire still wanted to take control of Constantinople, which was opposed in Europe. Despite this, our country continued its expansion in the south.

Russian-Turkish wars 1806-1812, 1828-1829. confirmed this trend. Everything turned upside down a few decades later. Shortly before the death of Nicholas I, the Crimean War began, in which European countries openly supported Turkey and attacked Russia. After it, Alexander II had to make concessions in this region and engage in reforms within the state.

Russo-Turkish War 1828–1829 was caused by Turkey's desire to preserve the disintegrating Ottoman Empire. Russia, supporting the uprising of the Greek people against Turkish rule, sent a squadron of L.P. to the shores of Greece. Heyden for military operations together with the Anglo-French fleet (see Archipelago Expedition of 1827). In December 1827, Turkey declared a “holy war” on Russia. Russian troops successfully operated in both, the Caucasian and Balkan, theaters of war. In the Caucasus, troops of I.F. Paskevich took Kars by storm, occupied Akhaltsikhe, Poti, Bayazit (1828), captured Erzurum and reached Trebizond (1829). At the Balkan theater, Russian troops P.Kh. Wittgenstein crossed the Danube and took Varna (1828), under the leadership of I.I. Dibich defeated the Turks at Kulevcha, captured Silistria, made a bold and unexpected transition through the Balkans, directly threatening Istanbul (1829). Under the peace treaty, Russia acquired the mouth of the Danube, the Black Sea coast from Kuban to Adjara and other territories.

Archipelago Expedition (1827)

Archipelago expedition of 1827 - campaign of the Russian squadron L.P. Heyden to the shores of Greece to support the Greek anti-Turkish uprising. In September 1827, the squadron joined the Anglo-French fleet in the Mediterranean for joint action against the Turks. After Turkey rejected the Allied ultimatum to cease hostilities against Greece, the Allied fleet completely destroyed the Turkish fleet at the Battle of Navarino. Heyden's squadron distinguished itself in the battle, destroying the center and right flank of the enemy fleet. During the subsequent Russian-Turkish war of 1828–1829. The Russian squadron blocked the Bosphorus and Dardanelles.

Naval battle of Navarino (1827)

The battle in Navarino Bay (the southwestern coast of the Peloponnese Peninsula) between the united squadrons of Russia, England and France, on the one hand, and the Turkish-Egyptian fleet, on the other, took place during the Greek national liberation revolution of 1821–1829.

The united squadrons included: from Russia - 4 battleships, 4 frigates; from England - 3 battleships, 5 corvettes; from France - 3 battleships, 2 frigates, 2 corvettes. Commander - English Vice Admiral E. Codrington. The Turkish-Egyptian squadron under the command of Muharrem Bey consisted of 3 battleships, 23 frigates, 40 corvettes and brigs.

Before the start of the battle, Codrington sent an envoy to the Turks, then a second one. Both envoys were killed. In response, the united squadrons attacked the enemy on October 8 (20), 1827. The Battle of Navarino lasted about 4 hours and ended with the destruction of the Turkish-Egyptian fleet. His losses amounted to about 60 ships and up to 7 thousand people. The Allies did not lose a single ship, with only about 800 men killed or wounded.

During the battle, the following distinguished themselves: the flagship of the Russian squadron "Azov" under the command of Captain 1st Rank M.P. Lazarev, who destroyed 5 enemy ships. Lieutenant P.S. acted skillfully on this ship. Nakhimov, midshipman V.A. Kornilov and midshipman V.I. Istomin - future heroes Battle of Sinop and defense of Sevastopol in Crimean War 1853–1856

The feat of the brig "Mercury"

The brig "Mercury" was laid down in January 1819 at the shipyard in Sevastopol, launched on May 19, 1820. Tactical and technical characteristics: length - 29.5 m, width - 9.4 m, draft - 2.95 m. Armament: 18 24-pounder guns.

There was a Russian-Turkish war of 1828–1829. In May 1829, "Mercury" as part of a small detachment under the flag of Lieutenant Commander P.Ya. Sakhnovsky, together with the frigate "Standard" and the brig "Orpheus", carried out patrol duty in the Bosphorus area. On the morning of May 26, a Turkish squadron consisting of 18 ships was discovered, including 6 battleships, 2 frigates and 2 corvettes. The overwhelming superiority of the enemy was undeniable, and therefore Sakhnovsky gave the signal not to accept the battle. Having raised all sails, "Standard" and "Orpheus" escaped the pursuit. "Mercury", built from heavy Crimean oak, and therefore significantly inferior in speed, lagged behind. The high-speed ships of the Turkish fleet, the 110-gun battleship Selimiye and the 74-gun Real Bay, rushed in pursuit and soon overtook the Russian brig.

Seeing the inevitability of a battle with the enemy, the brig commander, Lieutenant Commander A.I. Kazarsky gathered the officers. Traditionally, the first to speak was the youngest lieutenant in the corps of naval navigators I.P. Prokofiev expressed the general opinion - to accept the battle, and if there is a threat of capture of the ship - to blow it up, for which purpose leave a loaded pistol near the cruise chamber.

The brig was the first to fire a salvo at the enemy. Kazarsky skillfully maneuvered, preventing the Turks from conducting aimed fire. Somewhat later, Real Bay was still able to take up a firing position on the left side and Mercury came under crossfire. The Turks showered the brig with cannonballs and cannonballs. Fire started in many places. Part of the team began to extinguish it, but the well-aimed fire from the Turkish ships did not weaken. The Russian gunners managed to inflict such significant damage to the Selimiye that the Turkish ship was forced to drift. But Real Bay continued to fire at the Russian brig. Finally, he also received a cannonball hit in the front mast and began to fall behind. This unprecedented battle lasted for about 4 hours. "Mercury", despite the fact that it received 22 hits in the hull and about 300 in the rigging and masts, emerged victorious and the next day joined the Black Sea squadron. For the feat, captain-lieutenant A.I. Kazarsky was awarded the Order of St. George, IV degree and promoted to captain of the 2nd rank, and the ship was awarded the stern St. George flag and pennant. In addition, the imperial rescript stated that “when this brig becomes unusable, build according to the same drawing and in perfect similarity with it the same ship, named “Mercury”, assigning it to the same crew, to which it will be transferred and St. George's flag with a pennant."

This tradition, which has developed in the Russian fleet, continues to this day. In the wide expanses of seas and oceans they carry Russian flag sea ​​minesweeper "Kazarsky" and hydrographic vessel "Memory of Mercury".

The commander of the legendary brig A.I. Kazarsky was appointed to the retinue of Nicholas I in April 1831 and soon received the rank of captain 1st rank. On June 28, 1833, he died suddenly in Nikolaev. In Sevastopol according to the project of A.P. Bryullov, a monument to the brave sailor was laid. On the stone truncated pyramid there is a stylized model of an antique warship and a short inscription: “To the Kazars - as an example to posterity.”

Russo-Turkish War 1828–1829