Odysseus as an epic and novel hero. Features of composition and its functions in Homer's Odyssey. Essay “Odysseus - characteristics of a literary hero

When we hear or read about ancient Greek heroes, we imagine strong, physically developed athletes striving for glory and challenging fate. But was Odysseus, one of the most famous characters in Homer’s poems “The Iliad” and “Odyssey”, like this? How did he glorify and immortalize his name? What feats did you accomplish?

Myths and poems of Homer

From century to century, ancient Greek myths told about the origin and structure of the world, the deeds of heroes and Olympian gods. The wonderful world of mythology fascinated and frightened, explained and prescribed; it reflected the value system of Ancient Greece and the connection of times. Hellenic myths had a huge influence on the formation of European and world culture, and the names of many heroes, gods and monsters became common nouns, symbols of some qualities and properties. For example, a chimera is a symbol of something non-existent that can give rise to dangerous illusions and misconceptions.

With the development of social, economic and other public relations, mythological consciousness began to collapse, and the poems of the legendary Homer “Iliad” and “Odyssey” served as a kind of bridge between folklore and literature.

The heroic epic of Homer is the peak of the development of Hellenic mythology, but at the same time its artistic comprehension. In addition, as archaeological excavations by Heinrich Schliemann have proven, Homer's poems to some extent reflect the reality of the 11th-9th centuries BC. and can serve historical source. Homer is first ancient Greek poet, was, according to legend, blind and lived in the 8th century BC. However, there is no reliable information confirming the fact of its existence yet. But there are wonderful epic poems that recreate the magnificent world of ancient Greek mythology and, at the same time, had a huge impact on the development of all European culture.

The cross-cutting character of both Homer's poems is Odysseus, king of Ithaca, participant in the Trojan War.

If in the Iliad he is one of the minor (albeit key) characters the siege of Troy, then in the Odyssey - the main character.

Biography of Odysseus

The name "Odysseus" in ancient Greek means "angry" or "wrathful". The Romans called him Ulysses. The name Odysseus now has a common meaning: an odyssey is a long, dangerous journey filled with adventures.

Odysseus is the son of Argonaut Laertes and Artemis's companion Anticlea. According to legend, Odysseus's grandfather was Zeus, supreme Olympian god.

Odysseus's wife - Penelope, her name became a symbol of marital fidelity. Long She waited twenty years for her husband to return from the military campaign, deceiving numerous suitors with inventive cunning.

A major role in the poem “Odyssey” is played by the son of the main character, Telemachus.

Turning to the Homeric epic, we can identify the fateful events in the life of the legendary hero:

participation in matchmaking with Helen the Beautiful, where Odysseus meets his future wife Penelope;
participation, albeit reluctantly, in the Trojan War;
protection of the body of Achilles;
creation of the Trojan horse;
a ten-year journey by sea and numerous adventures in which Odysseus loses all his companions;
returning to Ithaca in the guise of an old beggar;
the brutal extermination of Penelope's numerous suitors;
happy family reunion.

All these events create a unique portrait of Odysseus, a characteristic of his personality.

Hero's personality

The main feature of Odysseus’ personality is its universality and cosmic nature. The genius of Homer created the image of a comprehensively developed person. Odysseus appears not only as a brave hero and winner on the battlefield, he also performs feats among monsters and wizards.

He is cunning and reasonable, cruel, but devoted to his homeland, family and friends, inquisitive and crafty. Odysseus is an excellent speaker and wise adviser, a brave sailor and a skilled carpenter and trader. He refused eternal youth and love, offered by the nymph Calypso, who is in love with him, for the sake of returning to his homeland, to his family.

Thanks to his cunning and resourcefulness, Odysseus overcame numerous dangers:

on the island of the Cyclops he blinded the giant Polyphemus and thereby escaped death and saved his comrades;
defeated the sorceress Circe;
heard the sirens singing, but did not die;
passed on a ship between Scylla and Charybdis;
defeated Penelope's suitors.

In essence, Odysseus's voyage is a path into the unknown, comprehension and mastery of the unknown, a road to oneself and the acquisition of one's own personality.

The legendary hero appears in Homer's poems as representative of all humanity, discovering and learning the world. The image of Odysseus embodied all the richness of human nature, its weaknesses and vastness. It is no coincidence that many famous writers and poets turned to this image: Sophocles, Ovid, Dante, Shakespeare, Lope de Vega, P. Corneille, L. Feuchtwanger, D. Joyce, T. Pratchett and others.

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In terms of plot (mythological sequence of events), the Odyssey corresponds to the Iliad. But it tells not about military events, but about wanderings. Scientists call it: “an epic poem of wanderings.” The fate of Odysseus comes to the fore - the glorification of intelligence and willpower. The Odyssey corresponds to the mythology of late heroism. Dedicated to the last 40 days of Odysseus’ return to his homeland. That the center is return is evidenced by the very beginning.

Composition: more complex than the Iliad. There are three in the Odyssey storylines: 1) Olympian gods. But Odysseus has a goal and no one can stop him. Odysseus gets out of everything himself. 2) the return itself is a difficult adventure. 3) Ithaca: two motives: the actual events of the matchmaking and the theme of Telemachus’ search for his father. Some believe that Telemachy is a late insertion.

First appears female image, equal to the male - Penelope, the wise one - the wife of Odysseus. Example: She spins a burial cloth.

The poem is more complex not only in composition, but also from the point of view of the psychological motivation of actions. The main plot of the “Odyssey” refers to a type of tale widespread in world folklore about the “return of the husband” to the moment when his wife is ready to marry another, and upsets the new wedding.

The action of the poem dates back to the 10th year after the fall of Troy. All the most important heroes of the Greek camp of the Iliad, living and dead, are also depicted in the Odyssey. Like the Iliad, the Odyssey was divided by ancient scholars into 24 books.

Any reader would expect that Odysseus’s wanderings would be depicted sequentially, one after another. (Well, like those of adequate poets. But fuck it because Greece) Odysseus’s return home takes 10 years and, full of all sorts of adventures, creates a great congestion of events. In fact, the first three years of Odysseus’s voyage are depicted not in the first songs of the poem, but in the songs IX-XII. And they are given in the form of a story by Odysseus at a feast of one king, to whom he was accidentally thrown by a storm. Here we learn that Odysseus many times ended up with good people, then with robbers, and then in the underworld.

In the center IX songs- the famous episode with the one-eyed cannibal (Cyclops) Polyphemus. This Polyphemus locked Odysseus and his companions in a cave, from which they escaped with great difficulty. Odysseus, having drunk Polyphemus with wine, managed to gouge out his only eye.

In Canto X, Odysseus comes to the sorceress Kirke, and Kirke directs him to the underworld for a prophecy about his future. Song XI- a depiction of this underground world. In XII song, after a series of terrible adventures, Odysseus ends up on the island of the nymph Calypso, who keeps him for seven years.

The beginning of the Odyssey precisely refers to the end of Odysseus’ stay with Calypso. Here it is reported about the decision of the gods to return Odysseus to his homeland and about the search for Odysseus by his son Telemachus. These searches are described in I-IV songs of the poem. Songs V-VIII depict the stay of Odysseus after sailing from the nymph Calypso and a terrible storm at sea, among the good-natured people of the Phaeacians, with their kind king Alcinous. There Odysseus talks about his wanderings ( songs IX-XII).

Beginning from the XIII song to the end of the poem a consistent and clear depiction of events is given. First, the Phaeacians deliver Odysseus to his native island of Ithaca, where he settles with his swineherd Eumaeus, since his own house is besieged by local kings who have been vying for the hand of Penelope, his wife, who selflessly guards the treasures of Odysseus and, through various tricks, delays her marriage with these suitors. IN songs XVII-XX Odysseus, disguised as a beggar, penetrates from the hut of Eumaeus into his house to investigate everything that is happening in it, and in songs XXI-XXIV with the help of faithful servants, he kills all the suitors in the palace, hangs unfaithful maids, meets with Penelope, who has been waiting for him for 20 years, and also pacifies the uprising against him in Ithaca. Happiness reigns in the house of Odysseus, interrupted by a ten-year war and his ten-year adventures.

ESSENTIALLY SPEAKING:

The ODYSSEY is a Greek epic poem, along with the Iliad, attributed to Homer. Being completed later than the Iliad, "O." adjoins the earlier epic, but does not constitute a direct continuation of the Iliad. The theme of the “Odyssey” is the wanderings of the cunning Odysseus, king of Ithaca, returning from the Trojan campaign; in separate references there are episodes of the saga, the time of which coincided with the period between the action of the Iliad and the action of the Odyssey.

COMPOSITION "O". built on very archaic material. The plot of a husband returning unrecognized to his homeland after long wanderings and ending up at his wife’s wedding is one of the most widespread folklore stories, as well as the “son going in search of his father” plot. Almost all episodes of Odysseus's wanderings have numerous fairy-tale parallels. The very form of the story in the first person, used for the stories about the wanderings of Odysseus, is traditional in this genre and is known from Egyptian literature of the beginning of the 2nd millennium.

Narration technique in "O." in general it is close to the Iliad, but the younger epic is distinguished by greater art in combining diverse material. Individual episodes are less isolated in nature and form integral groups. The Odyssey is more complex in composition than the Iliad.

The plot of the Iliad is presented in a linear sequence, in the Odyssey this sequence is shifted: the narrative begins in the middle of the action, and the listener learns about the previous events only later, from Odysseus’s own story about his wanderings, i.e. one of the artistic means is retrospection .

The “song” theory that explained the emergence great poems mechanical “stitching” of individual “songs”, was therefore rarely applied to “O.”; Kirchhoff’s hypothesis that “O.” is much more widespread among researchers. is a reworking of several “small epics” (“Telemachy”, “Wanderings”, “Return of Odysseus”, etc.).

The disadvantage of this construction is that it tears into pieces the plot of the “return of the husband,” the integrity of which is evidenced by parallel stories in the folklore of other peoples, which have a more primitive form than “O.”; a theoretically very plausible hypothesis of one or more “proto-odysseys,” i.e., poems that contained the entire plot and formed the basis of the canonical “O.”, encounters great difficulties when trying to reconstruct the course of action of any “proto-odyssey.” .

The poem opens, after the usual appeal to the Muse, brief description situation: all the participants in the Trojan campaign, who escaped death, have returned home safely, only Odysseus languishes in separation from his family, forcibly held by the nymph Calypso. Further details are put into the mouths of the gods discussing the issue of Odysseus at their council: Odysseus is on the distant island of Ogygia, and the seductress Calypso wants to keep him with her, hoping that he will forget about his native Ithaca,

But, in vain, wanting to see even the smoke rising from his native shores in the distance, he prays to death alone.

The gods do not give him help because Poseidon is angry with him, whose son, the Cyclops Polyphemus, was once blinded by Odysseus. Athena, who patronizes Odysseus, offers to send the messenger of the gods Hermes to Calypso with an order to release Odysseus, and she herself goes to Ithaca, to Odysseus’s son Telemachus. In Ithaca at this time, suitors wooing Penelope feast daily in the house of Odysseus and squander his wealth. Athena encourages Telemachus to go to Nestor and Menelaus, who have returned from Troy, to find out about their father and prepare for revenge on the suitors (book 1).

The second book gives a picture of the Ithacan people's assembly. Telemachus brings a complaint against the suitors, but the people are powerless against the noble youth, who demand that Penelope choose someone. Along the way, the image of the “reasonable” Penelope appears, using tricks to delay consent to marriage. With the help of Athena, Telemachus equips a ship and secretly leaves Ithaca for Pylos to visit Nestor (book 2). Nestor informs Telemachus about the return of the Achaeans from Troy and about the death of Agamemnon. Having escaped, thanks to the miraculous intervention of the goddess Leucothea, from the storm raised by Poseidon, Odysseus swims ashore. Scheria, where he lives happy people- Phaeacians, seafarers who have fabulous ships, fast, “like light wings or thoughts,” not needing a rudder and understanding the thoughts of their shipowners. The meeting of Odysseus on the shore with Nausicaa, the daughter of the Phaeacian king Alminoes, who came to the sea to wash clothes and play ball with the servants, forms the content of the 6th book, rich in idyllic moments. Alcinous, with his wife Aretha, receives the wanderer in a luxurious palace (book 7) and arranges games and a feast in his honor, where the blind singer Demodocus sings about the exploits of Odysseus and thereby brings tears to the eyes of the guest (book 8). The picture of the happy life of the Phaeacians is very curious. There is reason to think that, according to the original meaning of the myth, the Phaeacians are shipbuilders of death, carriers in kingdom of the dead, but this mythological meaning in the Odyssey has already been forgotten, and the shipmen of death have been replaced by a fabulous “fun-loving” people of sailors leading a peaceful and luxurious lifestyle, in which, along with the features of the life of the trading cities of Ionia in the 8th - 7th centuries, one can also see memories about the era of power of Crete.

Finally, Odysseus reveals his name to the Phaeacians and talks about his ill-fated adventures on the road from Troy. Odysseus's story occupies the 9th - 12th books of the poem and contains whole line folklore stories, often found in fairy tales of modern times. The form of the story in the first person is also traditional for stories about fabulous adventures seafarers and is known to us from Egyptian monuments of the 2nd millennium BC. e. (the so-called “shipwrecked story”).

The first adventure is still quite realistic: Odysseus and his companions plunder the city of the Cyconians (in Thrace), but then a storm carries his ships along the waves for many days, and he ends up in distant, wonderful countries. At first it is a country of peaceful lotophages, “lotus eaters,” a wonderful sweet flower; Having tasted it, a person forgets about his homeland and forever remains a lotus collector.

Then Odysseus finds himself in the land of the Cyclopes (Cyclops), one-eyed monsters, where the cannibal giant Polyphemus devours several of Odysseus’s companions in his cave. Odysseus saves himself by drugging and blinding Polyphemus, and then leaves the cave, along with his other comrades, hanging under the belly of long-wooled sheep. Odysseus avoids revenge from the other Cyclopes by prudently calling himself “Nobody”: the Cyclopes ask Polyphemus who offended him, but, having received the answer “nobody,” they refuse to intervene; however, the blinding of Polyphemus becomes the source of numerous misadventures of Odysseus, since from now on he is haunted by the wrath of Posidon, the father of Polyphemus (book 9).

The folklore of seafarers is characterized by the legend of the god of the winds, Aeolus, who lives on a floating island. Aeolus kindly handed Odysseus a fur with unfavorable winds tied in it, but not far from their native shores, Odysseus’s companions untied the fur, and the storm again threw them into the sea. Then they again find themselves in the country of the cannibal giants, the Laestrygonians, where “the paths of day and night converge” (the Greeks apparently heard distant rumors about short nights northern summer); The Laestrygonians destroyed all of Odysseus's ships, except one, which then landed on the island of the sorceress Kirke (Circe).

Kirka, like a typical folklore witch, lives in a dark forest, in a house from which smoke rises above the forest; she turns Odysseus’s companions into pigs, but Odysseus, with the help of a wonderful plant indicated to him by Hermes, overcomes the spell and enjoys the love of Kirk for a year (book 10). Then, on the instructions of Kirka, he goes to the kingdom of the dead in order to question the soul of the famous Theban soothsayer Tiresias.

In the context of the Odyssey, the need to visit the kingdom of the dead is completely unmotivated, but this element of the legend contains, apparently in naked form, the main mythological meaning of the entire plot about the “journeys” of the husband and his return (death and resurrection; cf. p. 19). on Ithaca and the journey of Telemachus, and from the 5th book attention is concentrated almost exclusively around Odysseus: the motif of the unrecognizability of the returning husband is used, as we have seen, in the same function as the absence of the hero in the Iliad, and yet the listener does not lose Odysseus out of sight - and this also testifies to the improvement of the art of epic storytelling.

#The concept of a hero in an epic. Heroes of the Iliad: Achilles, Hector, Agamemnon, Helen, Paris

The image of Achilles and his role in the development of the plot of the Iliad

1) From Galushin’s documents

ACHILLES/Achilles (swift-footed, god-like) is the central character of the poem; without the participation of this warrior, Troy could not have fallen. Achilles is the ideal warrior of the heroic era. Cruel, bloodthirsty, selfish. Achilles contains enormous destructive power, bestial revenge, bloodlust and cruelty. During the battle for the body of his murdered friend, Patroclus, Achilles, without armor, scares the Trojans with his very appearance. Achilles is bloodthirsty: he avenges the death of his beloved friend and kills so many Trojans that the water in the river turns into blood (including killing the sons of Priam) Completely cold-blooded and indifferently sacrifices captured young men to the grave of Patroclus.

The image of Achilles is dominated by individualism, pride, and touchiness. He raises his personal quarrel with Agamemnon to cosmic proportions. His refusal to participate in the fight against Troy is a disaster for the Greeks. Even when an embassy is sent to him with requests to take gifts, they offer to return Briseis (many heroes take part in the embassy - Ajax, Odysseus), he refuses. He indifferently continues to take revenge for a personal insult (A rare egoist, in short...) Even the tears of his best friend, Patroclus, who begs him to join the battle (when the Greek ships are burning), do not stop him. True, he gives him armor and asks him not to pursue the Trojans. (And Patroclus, of course, in his own mind, dies, because he had to obey...) Patroclus is killed by Hector, confusing him with Achilles because of his armor. And only after learning about this, Achilles rushes into battle. But still, this is primarily personal revenge. Achilles dreams only of personal glory and is ready to give his life for this.

Croizet wrote that “the character of Achilles is full of contradictions”: now we see coldness and indifference, now ardent passion (furious in the lament for Patroclus). The image of a beloved friend lives along with bestial rage and inhumanity. Achilles first appears in a wild and ferocious form, and after the panic caused by his terrible cry among his enemies, he sheds “hot tears” over the corpse of his faithful comrade. However, Achilles loving son, often turning to his mother and crying around her, as, for example, after an insult received from Agamemnon or after the news of the death of Patroclus. This antithesis is the most characteristic feature of Achilles. On the one hand, he is angry, hot-tempered, vindictive, merciless in war, he is a beast, not a man, so Patroclus is quite right in telling him

You are cruel at heart. Your father was not Peleus the horse-wrestler,

Mother is not Thetis the goddess. You were born by the sparkling sea.

A solid rock - they make you have a hard heart.

However, this is how he reacts to the death of his friend:

A black cloud of sorrow covered Peleus' son.

Taking a handful of smoky ashes with both hands,

He sprinkled it on his head, making his beautiful appearance ugly.

He stained his entire fragrant tunic with black ash,

He himself, large, stretched out in a large space, lay

In the gray dust and tormented his hair, disgracing it.

This antithesis of a stern fighter and a tender heart is the main thing we find in Achilles.

Achilles' experience coincides with the dictates of fate and his own turbulence of life. He knows that he will not return from Troy, and nevertheless, he undertakes a difficult and dangerous campaign:

Why are you, Xanth, prophesying death for me? It's not your concern!

I know well that fate is destined for me to die

Here, far from father and mother. But I won't get off

From the battle, until the Trojans have had their fill of war!

Short version

Fleet-footed, god-like. The ideal of the Greek warrior. He has powerful, alive, half-demon. Son of the goddess Thetis. Bloodthirsty (one sight scares the Trojans.) Cold-blooded and equal. sacrifices captive youths. Individualism, pride, resentment. Quarrel with Ag. rises to cosmic proportions. Refusal from the embassy, where many heroes were participating, asking to return to battle. Even after the death of Patroclus he enters into battle, because... this is personal revenge. You are cruel at heart/Your father was not Peleus the horse-wrestler/Your mother was not Thetis the goddess. You were born of the sparkling sea / Solid rock - from them you have a hard heart.

Croizet wrote that Akh. is full of contradictions: sometimes he is furious, sometimes he cries and tears out his hair after the death of P. Obr. to mother. P. Tells him that he was born of a rock. The antithesis of a tough fighter and a tender heart.

Super brief (much less)

A cruel, bloodthirsty egoist half-demon, who loves his mother, the goddess Thetis, and who values only himself in the world.

2) Information about Achilles from the "Mythological Dictionary"

Achilles wears typical features a mythological epic hero, a courageous warrior, in whose value system the most important thing is military honor. Proud, hot-tempered and proud, he participates in the war not so much in order to return the king of Sparta Menelaus his wife Helen, kidnapped by Paris (this was the reason for the war with Troy), but rather in order to glorify his name. A. thirsts for more and more new exploits that will strengthen his glory as an invincible warrior. He sees the meaning of his life in constantly risking his life

Achilles is one of the greatest heroes of the Trojan War, the son of Peleus and Thetis. Thetis was involved in his upbringing, since she wanted Achilles to grow up as a strong and invulnerable warrior, she tempered him in fire at night, and rubbed him with ambrosia during the day. According to another version, Thetis dipped him into the underground river Styx, holding him by the heel, his only vulnerable spot.

Achilles grew up with his friend Patorokles under the supervision of the centaur Chiron.

It was Chiron who dissuaded Achilles from wooing Helen, so when Helen was kidnapped, he could not participate in the Greek campaign against the Trojans - only those who offered her hand and heart before she married Menelaus had to fight.

To protect her son from the war, Thetis hid him in the king's palace on the island of Skyros. While living there, Achilles dressed in women's clothes (Of course, it's damn hard to recognize a healthy jock under a lord's tunic. The Greeks are such Greeks, honestly). However, the cunning Odysseus exposed him and forced him to him to go to Troy. On the way to this city, Achilles entered into battle: he killed the hero Cycnus, which incurred the wrath of Apollo.

The Greeks spent ten years under the walls of Troy. During this time, the alpha male Achilles looked for a normal concubine Briseis (the daughter of a local king). However, the bastard Agamemnon took this woman away from him, so Achilles refused to fight. Instead, his friend Patroclus entered the battlefield. Hector killed Patroclus, although he thought that he killed Achilles (Patroclus put on his outfit). Achilles, naturally angry as hell, kills everyone and everything until they kill him.

In the Iliad, 23 Trojans, named by name, for example, Asteropeus, died at the hands of Achilles. Aeneas crossed arms with Achilles, but then fled from him.

HECTOR is the central character of Homer’s poem “The Iliad” (between the 10th and 8th centuries BC). Son of King Priam of Troy, father of fifty sons and fifty daughters. Husband of Andromache, daughter of Getion, king of Thebes, killed by Achilles. In the Iliad G. is accompanied by the epithets “great”, “brilliant”, “armor-shining”, “helmet-shining”. He is the main defender of Troy, besieged by the Achaeans, led by Menelaus and Agamemnon.

Book VII shows his single combat with Ajax, the son of Telamon, a friend of Hercules. Nobody won this fight. The opponents, making sure that their strengths were equal, exchanged gifts.

Homer shows how two desires fight in Hector’s soul: to avoid defeat in the war and to keep his reputation untarnished as a brave warrior and hero. Because of this, the image of G. is more complex than the image of his main opponent, Achilles. G.'s behavior is often contradictory, since the motives for his actions are either a thirst for glory (which is typical of an epic hero), or an understanding of duty to his homeland and the people, which he, as the son of a king and a leader, has no right to sacrifice in pursuit of a reputation as an invincible warrior and brave man.

Pride does not allow him to seek protection behind the fortified walls of the city. Even anticipating his death, which, as he perfectly understands, will inevitably entail the fall and sack of Troy, G. neglects the interests of the country and enters into a fatal single combat with Achilles. And yet, before his death, G. admits that he acted rashly: “The very last citizen can say in Ilion: / Hector destroyed the people, relying on his own strength!”

AGAMEMNON - king of Mycenae, leads the Greek campaign against Troy. Appears before us as an arrogant and selfish ruler. He is despotic and even inhuman, greedy and cowardly, but he heartily grieves over the defeat of his army, he rushes into battle and is wounded, and in the end ingloriously dies at the hands of his own wife; but tender feelings are not alien to him either. Agamemnon is the supreme leader of the Achaeans, the son of Atreus and Aeropa. The Iliad describes Agamemnon as a valiant warrior, but does not hide his arrogance and intransigence; It is these qualities of the leader that cause many disasters for the Greeks. Boasting a successful shot during a hunt angers the goddess Artemis, and she deprives the Greek fleet of a fair wind. Having captured Chryseis in raids on the outskirts of Troy, he refuses to return her for ransom to Chryses, the priest of Apollo, for which God sends a pestilence to the Greeks. In response to Achilles’ demand to return his daughter to her father, he takes away Achilles’ captive Briseis, which incurs the hero’s wrath. This episode forms the plot of the Iliad. Agamemnon tests the loyalty of the army in a witty way: he invites everyone to return home, and only after that begins combat operations. Other sources say that after the capture of Troy, Agamemnon returns to his homeland with great booty and Cassandra, where death awaits him.

ELENA - the author does not give Full description, but only details, long hair, clothes, easy gait. Elena is the most beautiful woman in Europe; in Homer’s work “The Iliad” Elena is presented as a daring, fatal nature. But in another famous work Homer, she is shown as loving, calm, flexible. Helen in Greek mythology is a Spartan queen, the most beautiful of women, the daughter of Zeus and Leda, the wife of the ancient Laconian king Tyndareus, the sister of Clytemnestra. Famous in the Greek epic for her beauty, Helen, originally considered a goddess in ancient Greek legends, in Homer's poems is a mortal woman, the wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta. The rumor about Helen's beauty spreads so widely throughout Greece that heroes from all over Hellas gather to woo the girl. Menelaus is chosen as the husband. But Paris kidnaps Helen and flees with her to Troy, taking with her great treasures and many slaves. Helen in the Iliad is clearly burdened by her position; on the night of the capture of Troy, Helen's sympathy is on the side of the Greeks. After the fall of Troy, Menelaus wanted to kill her, but at the sight of his wife, he lets go of the sword and forgives her. The Achaean army, already ready to stone Helen, upon seeing her, abandons this idea.

PARIS-Paris is the son of Priam and Hecuba. Paris is a hero-lover, a handsome man, an inexperienced but selfless warrior. Paris grew up handsome and strong. Paris was the feminine god of beauty and delicacy, although in times of need he was not without courage. According to the prediction, he was supposed to be the culprit in the death of Troy, and his parents threw him on Mount Ida to be devoured by wild beasts. But the child survived and was raised by a shepherd. The goddess Aphrodite awarded him to become the owner of the most beautiful woman. She later helped him to captivate Elena and make her his wife. Paris returned to Troy, where he was recognized by his sister, the prophetess Cassandra, and recognized by his parents. He again went to Greece, stayed with King Menelaus and became the culprit of the Trojan War, kidnapping the king's wife Helen. During the fighting, Paris was killed by Philoctetes' arrow.

What is the conclusion:

Heroics and heroes play in Homer's epic huge role. A person is a hero because he is devoid of egoistic traits. Always connected internally and externally with public affairs. He can be strong and powerless, winner and loser, he can love and hate, but he must be in unity with the life of the people. All of Homer's heroes are strong, beautiful, noble, they are “divine”, “equal to God”, or at least take their origin from the gods. However, this depiction of heroes in Homer is not standard. It is always distinguished by its diversity, instability, and inconsistency. Homer's interest is focused not only on the heroes he glorifies, but also on ordinary workers; Homer paid great attention to everyday pictures peaceful life, and this is closer to the time of rising Greek democracy and civilization. In Homer's works, all heroes are equal to God, or come from the gods.

This, in principle, is not necessary. The question only requires you to talk about the heroes, but you never know, suddenly you just want to read a comparative characterization of Achilles and Hector and then BAM, and it’s below! FANTASTIC

Comparative characteristics of the images of Achilles and Hector.

In the poem "Iliad" both the Greeks and Achilles are inferior in honesty to Hector. Hector, the son of Priam, acquires the most humane, pleasant features from Homer. Hector, unlike Achilles, is a hero who knows what social responsibility is; he does not put his personal feelings above others. Achilles is the personification of individualism (he takes his personal quarrel with Agamemnon to cosmic proportions). Hector does not have the bloodthirstiness of Achilles, he is generally an opponent of the Trojan War, he sees in it a terrible disaster, he understands all the horror, all the dark, disgusting side of the war. It is he who proposes to fight not with troops, but to field representatives (Paris the tr., Menelaus the Greeks). But the gods do not allow him to do this. Paris, thanks to Aphrodite, escapes from the battlefield.

Hector, unlike Achilles and other heroes, is shown from a completely different side, in peaceful life. The scene of his farewell to Andromache (wife) is one of the most subtle, psychological scenes in the poem. She asks him not to participate in the battle, because... there is Achilles, who destroyed Thebes and her entire family. Hector loves his loved ones very much and understands that Andromache will be left completely alone without him, but the duty of the defender of the Fatherland is above all for him. *sob sob* Shame will not allow him to hide behind the wall.

So, both Hector and Achilles are famous warriors. However, if Achilles puts his personal feelings, personal gain above all else, then Hector sacrifices himself for the sake of the Fatherland, giving up a peaceful family life in the name of his state. *sob sob*

Hector is accompanied by gods (Apollo, Artemis), but his difference from Achilles is infinite. Achilles is the son of the goddess Thetis, he is not susceptible to human weapons (except for the heel). Achilles is, in fact, not a man, but a half-demon. Getting ready for battle, Achilles puts on the armor of Hephaestus. Hector, on the other hand, is a simple man who faces a terrible test; he understands that only he alone can accept A’s challenge. It is not surprising that at the sight of Achilles he is overcome with horror and runs (the heroes run around Troy three times, hyperbole). The moira goddesses decide the fate of the heroes by placing their lots on the scales. Athena helps Achilles. Dying, Hector asks for only one thing - to hand over his body to his relatives so that they can perform the funeral ceremony (very important for the Greeks). However, Achilles takes revenge for the death of his friend and says that he will throw Hector’s body to be devoured by dogs and thieves.

The images of these two heroes are very different. If the name of Achilles opens the poem, the name of Hector ends it. “So they buried the body of the horseman Hector.” Hector contains everything human (both strengths and weaknesses (he is terrified of Achilles, runs away) Achilles is almost a half-demon.

Short version

Achilles is the person.of individualism, the living.principle, half-demon, the ideal of the Greek warrior.Hector properties. everything is human. He is honest, an opponent of war, he offers to fight not with troops, but with representatives. (Paris, Menelaus) G. is shown in peaceful life: farewell to Andromache - a subtle.psychic scene of the poem. Patriot. Shame did not allow him to hide behind the walls. When he sees Ah.is.horror, he runs away. They run around Troy 3 times, G. comes to terms with fear. The lot decides the death of G. He asks Akh. to give up the body of his relatives, but Akh. refuses, because he is avenging Patroclus.

Super brief

Hector is a normal person, and Achilles is a cruel half-demon egoist who loves himself. For Hector, duty to the Fatherland is above all.

9. The concept of the hero in the epic. The ideological and artistic originality of the image of Odysseus and its significance for European culture.

The images of Homer's heroes are static, that is, their characters are illuminated somewhat one-sidedly and remain unchanged from the beginning to the end of the action of the poem, each character has its own face, different from the others. Each has its own story, its own way of implementation, and the characters themselves, of course, are not depicted too psychologically, there are no contradictions in them.

Unlike "I", "O" has only one main character, and this already makes it special. The hero of the epic is always the embodiment of perfection of physical and moral qualities, here for the first time we meet the synthesis of a high mind and a strong body. Odysseus has no equal in cunning and the art of advice and words, tolerance. In "O" heroic strength gives way to intelligence. Odysseus's "many mind" is his main, defining feature. In addition, he has a strong-willed character. He is enterprising and curious. We are convinced of this when we read about the adventures of Odysseus on the island of the Cyclops. Out of pure curiosity, Odysseus sets off to find out who lives in the cave, for which he pays with the lives of people from his crew. But he tricked Polyphenes by giving him wine and blinding him. But the “godlike” Odysseus is not devoid of earthly, human qualities. He is ambitious and because of this he makes a huge mistake by telling Polyphemus his real name. At this moment he dooms himself to terrible suffering in the abyss.

Odysseus is recklessly in love with his rocky Ithaca: he does not need eternal life, nor the beautiful nymph Calypso, nothing. This is the hero of Greece, the lone hero, the victorious hero. He conquers the elements and spaces on the way to his Ithaca, where his faithful Penelope awaits him and his son Telemachus grows up. Even the great gods cannot deprive him of the opportunity to return home. “God-like” Odysseus is the only one who did not want to go to war against the Trojans. In "O" it is not battles or heroes that are glorified, but peaceful life.

Odysseus is a harmonious hero, there are no extremes in him. This is a holistic image that is presented in all life situations. The image of Odysseus is a prototype, an ever-repeating archetype. That's why this image belongs special place in literature. And more than once, many authors will interpret the image of Odysseus, king of Ithaca, in their own way.

10. Ancient Greek lyrics. Archilochus and Tyrtaeus.

Archilochus (beginning of the 7th century BC) became famous throughout time for his iambics, which is why he was compared with Homer. Archilochus was born on the island of Paros. His life, little known to us, was stormy. He himself openly tells how, as a mercenary, he threw down his shield in a battle with the Thracian barbarians. There is a legend about his unsuccessful romance with Neobula, daughter of Lycambus, who opposed this marriage. They say that Archilochus took revenge on him in iambics and drove him to despair and suicide. Archilochus found his death in the battle between the Parian and Naxian people.

Little is known about his hymns (although his famous hymn to Hercules was traditionally sung in honor of victors). He also wrote fables, erotic poems and epics. But they are quite well aware of his elegies. The themes in the elegies are funny, witty, cheerful, naive and courageous.

He declares that the interests of the god of war and the muses are equally close to him, boasts of his profession as a warrior, laughs at his betrayal, is not afraid of the criticism of the mob, loves the pleasures of life, is not afraid of fate and accidents, and recommends enduring everything, being persistent and not losing heart. Archilochus was also known for epigrams, and in particular epitaphs (gravestone inscriptions). However, the iambs of Archilochus were especially famous. Here he expressed his love for Neobula with great passion and excitement.

The significance of Archilochus is very great. He amazes with the variety of his rhythms, uses the so-called “paracatalogue” - a performance halfway between singing and reading, something like melodeclamation or recitative. It is known that he himself composed musical works for flute. But the main thing is the remarkable content of the lyrics of Archilochus, in which we find morality in a very witty and brilliant form, devoid of any boredom, as well as a clear and calm dedication to the flow of life, starting from Ares, the god of war, and ending with the Muses, goddesses of art, starting from humor about one’s own betrayal and ending with a menacing curse on a traitorous friend. He is a warrior, a woman lover and a misogynist, a poet, an “idle reveler,” and a passionate lover of life, and in the end also a philosopher, reminding us of the fluidity of human life, but at the same time comforting us with the teaching of its eternal return. It was, perhaps, most affected by the transition period from the ancient and strict forms life to the new, when the poet, having broken away from the old, has not yet had time to join the new and is in a state of eternal wandering and expressive reactions to the chaos of life. He is also characterized by a great breadth in the choice of genres (from hymns to fables). Archilochus lived in an era of violent socio-political conflicts; the mood of the era is clearly reflected in his poems. Archilochus abandons the heroic ideal of the Homeric tradition. He prefers active participation in life; he contrasts the subjective poetry of the individual - the antagonist with social conventions - to the impersonal “epic of the aristocracy.”

Papyrus finds of recent decades have significantly expanded the understanding of the work of Archilochus. The approximately 120 surviving fragments of Archilochus' works are distinguished by great diversity. Archilochus wrote in various genres(hymns to the gods, elegies, fables, epigrams), however, his “iambs”, or epodes - poems polemically directed against aristocratic ideas about honor, valor and posthumous glory - acquired the greatest fame.

The famous verses of Archilochus are about how, in order to save his life, he threw his shield onto the battlefield (which was considered a shame). In these verses Archilochus uses the meter and epic formulas of the Iliad; which gives the text an openly parodic character.

In the poems of Archilochus, for the first time in Greek lyric poetry, poetic individuality is clearly and unambiguously expressed. Archilochus is a poet-warrior living in an era of displacement of the old aristocratic value system; He contrasts the vicissitudes of fate with courage, perseverance and an understanding of the rhythm that underlies life and returns events to a favorable state.

Tyrtaeus. According to ancient legend, he was a lame teacher whom the Athenians sent to help the Spartans when they were in a difficult situation during the Second Messenian War. Tyrtaeus so inspired the Spartans with his poems that they rushed into battle and won.

Tyrtaeus's poems, written in the style of Ionian elegy and largely echoing Greek epic, contain praise of Spartan institutions, myths sanctifying the system of the Spartan community, calls for the preservation of "good order", glorification of military valor and a description of the pitiful fate of a coward. The artless but powerful poems of Tyrtaeus served as war songs among the Spartans.

11. Lesbian lyrics. Alcaeus and Sappho

Among the Slavic names of Greek lyric poets, one female one stands out, truly legendary. This is Sappho, the first poetess of the ancient world. The overarching theme of her poetry is love, which she spoke about with such poignant frankness as no one before her. The ancients called Sappho a “mystery”, a “miracle”.

Today we will meet this interesting character, like Odysseus (sometimes also called Ulysses). This is King Odysseus - the son of Laertes and Anticlea. According to some versions of the myth, he is the son of Sisif. Sisyphus allegedly seduced Anticlea before she married Laertes. Autolycus, the father of Anticlea (according to Homer - “the great oathbreaker and thief”), was the son of Hermes, whom he helped in his cunning. Hence the hereditary qualities of Odysseus, coming from Hermes - dexterity, practicality, intelligence. Among others, cunning should be noted. Odysseus, whose characteristics interest us, acquired new features in Homer’s work. What did he bring to his image? Let's figure it out.

Innovation of Odysseus in the depiction of Homer

Initially, the biography of this hero was not connected with the Trojan War. Odysseus, the story of which was the property of only adventure-fairy tales, was not depicted so vividly before Homer. It was presented in the following folklore motifs: a long sea voyage that threatens every hour with death, the character’s stay in the “other world,” as well as the return of the husband precisely at the moment when his wife faces the need to enter into a new marriage. These motifs were transformed by Homer's epic about the Trojan War. The poet introduced a number of important ideas into them: selfless love Odyssey to his native hearth, return to his homeland, the suffering of the hero who experienced the wrath of the gods. Note that the name "Odysseus" itself comes from the Greek word meaning "I am angry." That is, it can be translated as “a man of divine wrath,” “hated by the gods.”

What does Homer write about such an interesting hero as Odysseus? Mythology offers us many interesting stories, but the Trojan War deserves special attention. The fact that Homer included this hero among the leaders who fought against Troy led to the formation of ideas about his military exploits, about his decisive role in the capture of the city (the motif of the wooden horse invented by Odysseus). From this moment on, the folklore cunning, who is the “destroyer of cities,” is heroized. The brave Odysseus appears before us. Mythology is replenished with many interesting stories about him.

Image of Odysseus

Odysseus is the most striking figure of the Ionian stage of the epic. The King of Ithaca is the bearer of tireless energy, practical intelligence, the ability to navigate difficult life circumstances, the ability to speak convincingly and eloquently, and deal with people. In his depiction, in comparison with the heroes of other earlier myths (for example, such as Ajax Telamonides, Diomedes or Achilles), a clear novelty is noticeable. Odysseus wins not only with weapons, but also with his mind and words. He goes to the Trojan camp with Diomedes. However, bringing the soldiers seduced by Thersites to submission, he not only beats Thersites and exposes him to ridicule, but also pronounces a fiery, inspired speech, with which he arouses the fighting ardor of the troops. Odysseus is even more consistent with the heroism of Homer's Iliad when he goes to Achilles as one of the ambassadors or during a speech in the council. Here he utters words that no mortal can compete with. This is the hero Homer glorified in his work.

Odysseus is “great in soul and heart,” “glorious with his spear.” Only Philoctetes surpassed him in archery. Homer notes this. Odysseus in his portrayal is “impeccable.” Nevertheless, the hero himself admits to Alcinous that among people he is famous for his cunning inventions. Athena confirms that even a god can hardly compete with him in cunning and cunning. This is Odysseus. The mythology of Ancient Greece introduces us to many stories related to it. Let's talk briefly about the most famous ones.

How did Odysseus prove himself before the start of the Trojan War?

Odysseus managed to prove himself even before the start of the Trojan War. He was among the many suitors of the beautiful Queen Helen, but he preferred Penelope, her cousin, Tyndareus’s niece, who became his wife.

After Paris kidnapped Helen, this hero must take part in the campaign against Troy. Odysseus, not wanting to leave his wife and newborn son Telemachus, pretends to be insane. However, Palamedes exposes him in pretense (Odysseus subsequently killed him for this), testing the hero on his fatherly love. Odysseus sets off for Troy with 12 ships. He helps the Greeks locate Achilles, whom Thetis hid on the island. Skyros, and also find him among the maids of the daughter of King Lycomedes (Deidamia). After this, Odysseus volunteers to deliver She was doomed to be slaughtered to Artemis. The Greeks, on his advice, leave the wounded Philoctetes on the island. Lemnos. Subsequently, he will bring it in the 10th year of the war near Troy.

Before the start of the war, Odysseus goes with Menelaus to Troy, trying in vain to settle the matter peacefully. During the siege, he takes revenge on Palamedes, whom he considers an enemy. In the last year of the war, Odysseus captures Dolon, a Trojan scout, and makes a sortie with Diomedes against King Res, who has just arrived to help the Trojans. After the death of Achilles, the hero of interest to us was given his armor, which was also claimed by Ajax Telamonides. Odysseus, having captured Helen (the Trojan soothsayer), learns from him that in order to win it is necessary to take possession of the statue of Pallas Athena, which is located in Troy in the temple of this goddess. The king of Ithaca, disguised as a beggar, makes his way into the besieged city. He steals the statue. In addition, according to one version, Odysseus came up with the idea of creating a wooden horse.

Contrasting two worlds

In the biography of Odysseus, adventure-fairy tale plots are permeated with the motif of suffering. This hero, with his constant piety, finds himself in situations in which either he himself or his companions violate it. This leads to more death and suffering. The severity and cruelty of Odysseus is the property of archaic heroism. All this recedes into the background, giving way to intellectual heroism. The hero is patronized by Athena. The Odyssey characteristically contrasts the terrible ancient world, in which sorcerers, cannibals, magic, Poseidon and Polyphemus reign, and Athena, rich in plans, smart, who leads the hero to his homeland, despite all obstacles. Thanks to her, Odysseus is saved from the world of dangerous wonders that captivate him.

It's not just Olympians who help this hero. He forces them to serve himself and Kirk, turning evil sorcery into good. Odysseus fearlessly goes to Hades with an awareness of his future. No wonder the gods are afraid that if they do not return him home, Odysseus, “despite fate,” will return on his own. That's why they patronize this hero.

How Odysseus's return to his homeland begins

Odysseus, whose homeland is Ithaca, for a long time tried to return home. It took him 10 years to return, which begins with the fall of Troy. The storm threw his ships into the land of the Kikons, where he had to confront them. Odysseus ravaged the city of Ismar, but then was forced to retreat under enemy pressure, suffering heavy losses. After 9 days he ended up with the lotophages, and after that - in the country of the Cyclops.

Odysseus among the Cyclopes

Here, together with 12 companions, he became a prisoner of the one-eyed Polyphemus, a giant cannibal. Having lost 6 comrades, he gave the giant Thracian wine to drink.

When Polyphemus fell asleep, Odysseus gouged out his eye with a sharpened stake. The hero, together with his companions, got out of the cave in the following way: by grabbing his hands into the wool of the rams, which the giant released every morning to pasture. Odysseus, while on the ship, named himself to the blinded Polyphemus. He called upon him the curses of Poseidon, his father. His anger will haunt Odysseus in the future, until his return to his homeland.

Odysseus on the island of Aeolus

Odysseus, the myth of whose return we describe, then finds himself on the island of Aeolus. Here, as a gift, he receives a fur with nasty winds tied in it. These winds should make it easier for travelers to return. They bring Odysseus's fleet closer to Ithaca, but here his companions decide to untie the fur simply out of curiosity. The winds, breaking free, again nail the fleet to the island. Eola. He refuses the hero further help.

At the sorceress Kirka

After Odysseus's fleet is attacked by the man-eating velkans Laestrygonians, only Odysseus's ship is saved out of 12 ships. He pesters Fr. Eya, where the sorceress Kirk rules. She turns half of the hero's companions, whom he sent on reconnaissance, into pigs. The same fate threatens Odysseus himself. However, Hermes provided him with the miraculous root of "moth", which averts the effects of magic. The hero forces Kirk to return his injured comrades to human form. They spend a year on this island.

Odysseus and the Sirens

Odysseus, on Kirk's advice, visits the underworld. He learns from the shadow of Tiresias, a deceased soothsayer, about the dangers that threaten him on his way to his homeland, as well as in his own home, located in Ithaca. Odysseus's ship, having left the island, sails past the coast. Here, sailors are lured onto the sharp coastal rocks by sweet-voiced sirens. Odysseus plugs the ears of his companions with wax, thanks to which he manages to avoid danger. He himself listens to their singing, tied to the mast. The hero's ship manages to safely pass the rocks floating in the sea, and also pass through the narrow strait located between Scylla, a six-headed monster, manages to drag off the ship and eat six of his comrades.

Sacred cows of Helios and the wrath of Zeus

On about. Trinacia Odysseus faces a new test. Here they graze sacred cows Helios. Odysseus, warned by Tiresias, tells his comrades that they should not attempt to kill these animals. However, they are starving and decide to disobey him. The comrades, taking advantage of the fact that Odysseus fell asleep, kill cows and eat their meat, despite the bad omens accompanying the meal. Zeus, as punishment for this blasphemy, throws lightning at Odysseus's ship, which went out to sea. All his companions die, and he himself manages to escape on a collapsed mast. A few days later, Odysseus lands on the island. Ogygia. The nymph Calypso, who lives here, keeps the hero with her for 7 years, until, at the insistence of Athena, the gods order him to be released to his homeland.

How Odysseus gets to his homeland

His travels end as follows. Odysseus builds a raft on which he sets sail. After 17 days he sees land. But then Poseidon discovers him and unleashes a storm on the raft, so Odysseus is forced to resort to a last resort - he decides to use Leucothea’s magic blanket. The hero swims to the island of Scheria. The Phaeacian people live here. Odysseus, with the help of Nausicaä (the princess), finds his way to the palace of Alcinous, the Phaeacian king. He takes part in a feast where the storyteller Demodocus sings a song about the capture of Troy.

Odysseus cannot hold back his tears because of the flood of memories. He introduces himself and begins a story about what he has experienced over the past years. The Phaeacian people collect rich gifts for him. With their help, Odysseus gets home on a fast ship.

The homeland, however, does not greet the hero very hospitably.

Murder of Suitors

Odysseus is not recognized because Athena transforms him. He watches the outrages of the suitors, who force Penelope to take a new husband. The king of Ithaca enters into a fight with Ir. He experiences all kinds of bullying from potential suitors. Odysseus, in a conversation with Penelope, pretends to be a Cretan who once met her husband. He tries to instill in the woman confidence that her husband will return. Meanwhile, the nurse Eurycleia, whom Odysseus’s wife instructs to wash his feet, recognizes him by his scar, but keeps the secret under pain of punishment. At the suggestion of Athena, Penelope arranges a competition in archery, which belongs to Odysseus. None of the contenders can even pull the bow. Then Odysseus takes the bow and, with the help of Athena, together with Telemachus, kills his offenders. To Laertes and Penelope, who had lost hope of his return, he makes himself known by signs known only to them. Athena, with the consent of Zeus, establishes peace between the king of Ithaca and the relatives of the murdered suitors. After this, Odysseus reigns peacefully.

Versions of the last years of Odysseus' life

Telegonus (son of Kirk and Odysseus) arrives in Ithaca during one of his absences. He was sent by his mother to find Odysseus. A battle takes place between the newcomer and the king of Ithaca. In a duel, Telegon mortally wounds his father, whom he does not recognize. After a belated identification, according to one version, he takes his body for burial to Kirke. According to other versions, the king of Ithaca dies peacefully in Epirus or Aetolia, where he was revered as a hero with the gift of posthumous prophecy. The local cult of Odysseus probably existed for a long time. After some time it spread throughout Italy.

Odysseus gained great popularity. The mythology of Ancient Greece has become very famous these days. Ancient Greek myths known and loved by people all over the world.

Homer was born around the 12th-7th century BC, exact years life is unknown. He is credited with such famous works like the Iliad and the Odyssey. Ancient legends say that the poet was a blind wandering singer, and also knew these two poems by heart. But we will analyze only the second book, which tells about the adventures of the cunning Greek king, the lucky favorite of the gods Odysseus.

The plot of the Odyssey is constructed using such an artistic means as retrospection. The story begins in the middle, and the reader learns about all the events later, from the stories of the main character.

The story is based on the return of the king of Ithaca to his homeland after victory in the Trojan War. The cunning ruler spent ten years in the war and for the same amount of time he sailed home. From the revelations of the wise warrior, we learn that at the beginning of his journey he fell into the hands of the Cyclops Polyphemus, who devoured travelers. In order to get out of the clutches of the one-eyed villain, Odysseus got him drunk and pierced his eye, which angered the Cyclops. The enraged giant appealed to Poseidon and begged him to take revenge on the offender.

The king of Ithaca also tells how he came to the island of Kirk, who turned all his friends into pigs. The hero had to remain Kirka's lover for exactly a year. After this, he descends into underground Hades to talk with the soothsayer Tiresias.

Odysseus sails past the Sirens, who are trying to destroy the sailors with their singing. It also passes between Scylla and Charybdis. Soon the hero loses his ship and floats onto the island of Calypso, who was forcibly captured for seven years.

History of creation

The poem was written in hexameter - this is the size of the heroic poetry of times ancient Greece. It is divided into 24 songs, according to the number of letters in the Greek alphabet. It is believed that this book had no ancestors, but before the creation of the work, many tales and songs had already arisen, on the basis of which “Odysseus” was created.

The language of the work is not similar to any dialect Greek language. Often there are inflectional forms that were never used in the living ancient language.

Main characters

The main character of the poem is Odysseus, the king of Ithaca. The main traits of his character, oddly enough, are considered not heroism and courage, but intelligence, cunning and resourcefulness. His only desire is to return home to his beloved wife and son, whom he has not seen for about 20 years. Throughout the entire story, the hero is patronized by the goddess of wisdom - Athena.
Odysseus appears before the reader in different roles: a navigator, a robber, a brave warrior, a beggar wanderer, etc. However, no matter who he is, he still passionately longs to return home, and sincerely suffers for his fallen friends.
Penelope is the faithful wife of Odysseus, sister of Helen of Troy. She is modest and reserved, her moral character is impeccable. Loves handicrafts and home comfort. He is distinguished by his cunning, as he manages to deceive suitors for more than one year. An exceptionally decent woman.
Telemachus is the son of Odysseus. A brave and courageous fighter, a man of exceptional honor. He loves his family and honors the duty of the heir to the throne.

Mythology about Odysseus

Based on myths, we learn that the hero was the son of King Laertes and Artemis’s companion Anticlea. He was also the husband of Penelope and the father of Telemachus.

Being one of Elena's suitors, he chose her cousin Penelope over the most beautiful earthly woman.
He became famous thanks to his participation in the Trojan War. In addition, he was one of the key characters not only in the Odyssey, but also in the Iliad. He was not only brave, but also cunning, in honor of which he was given the nickname “cunning.” Thanks to his resourcefulness, he manages to escape from all troubles.

Odysseus' homeland is Ithaca, an island in the Ionian Ocean. There he was born and raised, and soon replaced his father, becoming king in his place. While the hero was swimming in the sea, trying to return home, the suitors who wooed his wife captured the city. They constantly plundered his palace and held feasts.

The king's son, unable to bear such a long absence of his father, prompted by Athena, goes in search of him.
Returning to his homeland, the cunning warrior finds out what happened in the city during his wanderings.

main idea

The cunning and dexterous fighter was too arrogant, which angered the Gods, or rather Poseidon. In a fit of narcissism, he exclaimed that he could choose his own destiny. This Deity was not forgiven him. Thus, the meaning of the work is that one should not indulge in pride and follow its lead. As mentioned above, the ruler of Ithaca deprived the son of the sea ruler of his sight, and was very self-confident, believing that the favor of fate was based on his merits and imaginary superiority. His conceit went beyond all bounds, for which God sent a curse on him and forced him to swim in the sea until he realized his guilt.

Homer in his poem showed that a person who considered himself the arbiter of his destiny and the crown of creation could suffer from this, and quite seriously. Even the king did not cease to have an inflated ego. In addition, the religious motive is strong: the poet, like all people of his time, believed that nothing in this world depends on the subject, everything is predetermined in advance.

Subjects

Homer reflected many themes in his heroic message. The main theme of the work is an adventurous journey full of adventures - the return of the king of Ithaca from the Trojan battle. Odysseus's colorful stories completely immerse the reader in the atmosphere of the book.
The stories of his arrival on the island of Calypso, how he sailed between Scylla and Charybdis, the Sirens and other stories of the Lord of Ithaca are imbued with the theme of love. The hero sincerely loves his family and does not agree to change them to a paradise island with a goddess as his mistress.
Also, the strength of feeling is expressed in the image of Penelope. With its help, the author reveals the theme of marital fidelity. She was cunning with all her might so as not to get to someone else. The woman believed in his return, even when no one believed.
The theme of fate appears in every episode of the work. Homer shows the rebellion of the individual against destiny, against the gods, leaning toward the idea that he is useless and criminal. Fatum even foresees these movements of the soul; all of them have already been calculated and drawn by the Moirai in the form of a thread of life.
Honor and dishonor are also a topic for the poet’s reflection. Telemachus considers it his duty to find his father and restore the former greatness of the house. Penelope thinks that moral failure- this is cheating on your husband. Odysseus believes that it would be dishonorable to give up and not try to return to his homeland.

Issues

Since the poem tells about the ten-year wanderings of the main character, his countless exploits, brave actions and, finally, a successful return home, then in the first place in the work there is a fabulously adventurous theme: the arbitrariness of the gods, the pride of Odysseus, the crisis of power in Ithaca, etc.
Ten years have passed since the king sailed from Ithaca to Troy, all the participants in the battle returned home, and only one he still does not come. He becomes a hostage deep sea. His problem is that he loses faith in his own strength and experiences despair. But no matter how deep it is, the hero still goes towards his goal, and the thorns on his path only fuel his passion. The exploits and adventures that are described in the poem occupy most of the narrative and are its core basis.
The problem of divine intervention in the destinies of people is also acute in the work. They control people like puppets, depriving them of self-confidence. The inhabitants of Olympus also resolve conflicts among themselves through a person, so sometimes he finds himself hostage to a situation for which he is not at all to blame.

Composition and genre

A poem is a large work written in poetic form. It combines lyrical and epic principles. Homer wrote the Odyssey in this genre - a lyric epic poem.

The composition is built on old techniques. A very typical plot for that time is about how a husband returns home, unrecognized by anyone, and ends up at his wife’s wedding. There are also widespread stories about a son who went in search of his father

The Iliad and the Odyssey differ in structure: thus, in the first book the story is presented sequentially, in the second this sequence is shifted. It was previously mentioned that this artistic method is called retrospection.

How did it end?

After ten years of Odysseus's voyage, the Gods took mercy and decided to let him go to land. But the king of Ithaca, before returning home, asks the Gods to turn him into an old man in order to find out who was waiting for him.

The hero meets his son and conspires with him against Penelope's suitors. The cunning ruler's plan works. The faithful wife recognizes the old man as her husband, who tells her only one thing: known secret. After which Telemachus and his father brutally deal with those who had the courage to dare and create chaos in his palace in the absence of the king.

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Composition: more complex than the Iliad. There are three storylines in the Odyssey: 1) the Olympian gods. But Odysseus has a goal and no one can stop him. Odysseus gets out of everything himself. 2) the return itself is a difficult adventure. 3) Ithaca: two motives: the actual events of the matchmaking and the theme of Telemachus’ search for his father. Some believe that Telemachy is a late insertion.

For the first time, a female image appears equal to the male one - Penelope, the wise wife of Odysseus. Example: she is spinning a funeral cloth. The poem is more complex not only in composition, but also from the point of view of the psychological motivation of actions.

The main plot of the “Odyssey” refers to a type of tale widespread in world folklore about the “return of the husband” to the moment when his wife is ready to marry another, and upsets the new wedding.

Any reader would expect that Odysseus's wanderings would be depicted sequentially, one after another. Odysseus's return home takes 10 years and, full of all sorts of adventures, creates a great congestion of events. In fact, the first three years of Odysseus's voyage are depicted not in the first songs of the poem, but in songs IX-XII. And they are given in the form of a story by Odysseus at a feast of one king, to whom he was accidentally thrown by a storm. Here we learn that Odysseus many times ended up with good people, then with robbers, and then in the underworld.

The “beginning” of the poem is the scene on Olympus, where the gods decide the fate of Odysseus. The goddess Athena, who visited Odysseus’s homeland of Ithaca, observes the excesses of the suitors who are harassing Penelope, Odysseus’ wife, who is considered a widow, and who are plundering Odysseus’s property. Athena proposes to send Hermes to the nymph Calypso and entrust him with “our verdict to inform that the time has come for Odysseus, who is constantly in trouble, to return to his land.” In the 2nd song, the action moves to Ithaca, where, despite the impudence and persistence of the suitors, Penelope remains faithful to her husband, despite his 20-year absence. With the help of all sorts of tricks, Penelope delays marriage with suitors for her hand. The goddess Athena in the male form of Mentor, son of Alcimus. appears to Odysseus's son Telemachus and advises him, having equipped a ship, to sail in search of his father. The suitors must wait another year to hear from him. Telemachus conducts national assembly, but the grooms. First of all, they were turned on by Angina; they accuse Telemachus, “unbridled, proud,” and his mother, Penelope, of secret intentions against them. They did not give him a ship, but the goddess comes to his aid.

NYMPH CALYPSO AND KING ALCINE. In the 5th song the action moves to the island of Ogygia. Telemachus already disappears from the narrative: he will appear only when his father arrives in Ithaca. Hermes brings the decision of the gods to the nymph Calypso. She bitterly complains and reproaches the Olympians for simply being jealous of her happiness. Forced to submit to the gods, she helps Odysseus build a raft with a sail. However, on the 7th day of calm sailing at sea, he is noticed by Poseidon, who wanted to settle accounts with Odysseus for blinding his son, the Cyclops Polyphemus. The god of the sea creates a storm to destroy Odysseus. His raft is broken into pieces, but thanks to the help of the nymph Leucotea, Odysseus manages to escape, and the waves carry him to the island of Scheria, inhabited by peaceful and hospitable people - the Phaeacians, excellent sailors. Exhausted, Odysseus falls asleep in the shallows, buried in seaweed. Then he is discovered by the royal daughter Nausicaa, whom Athena, “caring with her heart about Odysseus’s speedy return home,” inspired in a dream to go with the maids to wash clothes on the seashore.

First, Odysseus's companions end up in the country of the Cyconians in Thrace. Then their ships were driven away by a storm to distant lands. The first adventure on the way is the country of lotophages. (I). lotus eaters. Anyone who tastes its sweet fruit will forget his homeland. Odysseus has to forcibly take away those who managed to feast on him. Then he and his companions sail to the land of the one-eyed Cyclops, (II). they come to the cave of one of them - Polyphemus, the son of Poseidon. The cannibal kills several of Odysseus' companions by smashing their heads on rocks and devouring them. The survivors are locked in a cave with a stone rolled over the entrance. Odysseus manages to escape from a seemingly hopeless situation thanks to his foresight and cunning. When asked what his name is, Odysseus answers: “Nobody.” He gives Polyphemus wine, and when he falls asleep, he burns out his only eye with a red-hot sword. Hearing the lamentations of Polyphemus, other Cyclopes come running to the cave and ask who offended him so much. He answers: “Nobody.” after which the Cyclopes are removed. After this, Odysseus and his companions tie themselves under the belly of the sheep; In the morning, Polyphemus, releasing them to pasture, feels from above, and thus the heroes manage to break free.

This episode, like many others, emphasizes Odysseus's foresight, his ability to count several moves ahead. If the “explosive”, hot-tempered Achilles had been in his place, he would have killed the intoxicated Polyphemus in revenge for the murder of his friends. But then he would have been walled up in the cave forever, because he would not have been able to cope with the giant stone.

Next episode: Odysseus on the island of the wind god Aeolus. (III). who gives him a bag with unfavorable winds tied in it. But already in sight of Ithaca, when Odysseus falls asleep, the companions, hoping that gold and silver are hidden there, untie the bag, and the winds escaping from there drive the long-suffering hero’s court far from his native shores. The next adventure, a clash with the cannibalistic giants Laestrygonians, (IV), leads to the fact that they destroy all of Odysseus’s ships except one, after which the action is transferred to the island of the sorceress Kirke (Circe) (V), who turns some of his companions into pigs . For a year, the hero enjoys the love of this sorceress. With the help of the god Hermes, Odysseus manages to overcome her spell. Odysseus, on Kirk's instructions, visits the kingdom of the dead (VI), where he meets disembodied souls, his mother, and his comrades in the Trojan campaign, Agamemnon and Achilles. Returning from the land of eternal night, Odysseus sails past the island of the Sirens, (VII), creatures with a female head and a bird's body, possessing a bewitching voice, who lure sailors with their captivating singing. and then they are destroyed. To avoid cruel death at their hands, Odysseus plugs the ears of his companions with wax, and orders himself to be tied more tightly to the mast, since he still wants to hear this wonderful singing.

Odysseus swims past two dangerous rocks: on one of them is the six-headed Syilla, who devoured people, on the other, the monster Charybdis (VIII). Three times a day, Charybdis destroyed ships, swallowing the black ox along with the ships. Realizing that someone alone cannot be avoided, Odysseus comes close to Syilla, who with six mouths grabbed and swallowed six of his companions. But the rest survived too. Since then, an expression has become popular: to be between Scylla and Charybdis means that one must choose the lesser of two inevitable evils.

After meeting with the monsters, Odysseus’s companions reach the island of Greenacria, where the herds of the sun god Helios (IX) graze. huddle towards sacred bulls. Meanwhile, their food supplies were depleted. When the goddesses sent Odysseus sleep, his companions, exhausted by hunger, slaughtered several bulls. For this, Zeus, yielding to Helios’ complaint, punished them by smashing Odysseus’s ship with lightning. Only the long-suffering hero himself escaped and swam to the island of Ogygia, where the nymph Calypso (according to Greek mythology, the daughter of Atlas) kept him for seven years (the last, X adventure). The nymph fell in love with Odysseus and promised to make him happy, but he continued to feel homesick, which he told Alcinous about. From there, as readers already know, he ended up in the country of the Phaeacians. ODYSSEY IN ITHACA. THE SWINEHERD HAS EUMEAUS. The second half of the Odyssey (cantos 13–24) is the story of Odysseus returning home and taking revenge on the suitors. In this part the fantastic element plays a much smaller role; I buy events! everyday authenticity.

The very image of the central character reflected those belonging to different eras ideas about what should be, about the human ideal. The hero of an epic is always the perfection of physical and moral qualities, but if in the Iliad the central characters differed primarily physical strength and military talents, then Odysseus is the first hero of world literature in whom bodily perfection is combined with a high mind.

The roots of the image of Odysseus go back to ancient times.

Mythological Odysseus is the great-grandson of the god Hermes, the patron of trade and thieves, from whom he inherited intelligence, dexterity, and practicality. His grandfather Autolycus is the “great oathbreaker and thief,” his parents are Laertes and Anticlea. But the poem no longer emphasizes the divine origin of the hero, although he, as is typical of an epic hero, is a brave warrior, a master of hand-to-hand combat and archery. But many people surpass him in military prowess and physical strength. Odysseus has no equal in intelligence, cunning, initiative, patience, and in the art of advice and words. In the Odyssey, for the first time, strength is forced to give way to intelligence. Intelligence itself is an ethically neutral quality. It manifests itself in Odysseus in a wide range: from selfish cunning to sublime wisdom. "Many minds" and a bright mind are the main advantages of Odysseus. Homer also depicts his will, enterprise, his greedy curiosity, interest in new lands, life, love for family, homeland, but the “godlike” Odysseus is endowed with human weaknesses: he is arrogant, boastful, subject to momentary fear and despair.

All researchers emphasize the amazing breadth of Odysseus’s image, his openness. Odysseus, with his rush into the unknown and at the same time his desire to go home, arousing the envy of the gods, experiences the fullness of life. He is the most controversial and therefore the most modern of all the heroes of the ancient epic.

Such completeness of disclosure of the image makes it classic in the above sense. Odysseus embodies the ancient requirement of balance, rejection of extremes. This is a holistic image, presented in all life situations that may befall a man. Only Homer depicted man in all his fullness: Odysseus - wise king, loving husband and father, brave warrior, eloquent and inventive politician, brave wanderer, lover of the goddess, suffering exile, legislator, triumphant avenger, favorite of Athena.

7.The works of Hesiod (“Works and Days”, “Theogony”).

The time of Hesiod's life can only be roughly determined: the end of the 8th or the beginning of the 7th century. BC e. He is thus a younger contemporary of the Homeric epic. But while the question of the individual “creator” of the Iliad or Odyssey is, as we have seen, a complex and unsolved problem, Hesiod is the first clearly expressed personality in Greek literature. He himself gives his name and provides some biographical information about himself.

Two poems are associated with his name: “Works and Days” and “Theogony”. The first is an example of an artistic and mythological worldview. It focuses on the person and his needs. Myths about gods perform only a service function. In Works and Days, Hesiod talks about his conflict with his brother. The poem itself is Hesiod's instruction to his unlucky brother Persian. He squandered his share of the inheritance, and then brazenly sued Hesiod’s share for himself. Hesiod experienced social injustice. Hence the pathos of this poem. Hesiod was starving. But his honesty and hard work saved him. Hesiod encourages his brother to work honestly. He describes for him the cycle of agricultural work in Boeotia.

“Works and Days” is a poem divided into two independent parts, addressed to the poet’s brother, Persian, and written at different times.

Only part of them relates to Persian, the rest are of a more general nature and are weakly related to each other. Even if they belong to the pen of Hesiod, we must consider them simply interpolations, not relevant to the matter.

The Persian found his brother, who had retired from his homeland, and asks him for help; but Hesiod, instead of material support, gives him advice regarding Agriculture and home economics, showing him the path to the honest acquisition of wealth. Speaking in Works and Days about agriculture, Hesiod presents the seasons with a description of those agricultural works that are characteristic of each of them; then he gives some instructions regarding navigation, since the Boeotian farmer in the fall, after completing field work, himself loaded his harvest onto ships and traded with his neighbors. Toward the end of the poem there is again a series of separate rules and sayings of various kinds that are not relevant to the matter. The last part of the poem, which talks about the days of the month convenient for this or that activity, apparently should be considered an independent poem, although Hesiod could be the author of this passage.

The second poem is an example of a religious-mythological worldview.

"Theogony" is a story about the origin of the gods. It was influenced by the Sumerian-Akkadian Enuma Elish. Since the gods personify the phenomena of nature and social life, this is also a story about the origin of the universe and people. "Theogony" for the most part was written on behalf of the Muses.

“On the origin of the gods” - from the very beginning of the universe until the time when immortal gods mortal heroes began to be born

In the beginning there was Chaos (“gaping”), in which everything was merged and nothing was divided. Then Night, Earth-Gaia and Underground-Tartarus were born from it. Then Day was born from Night, and from Earth-Gaia - Sky-Uranus and Sea-Pont. Sky-Uranus and Gaia-Earth became the first gods: starry sky lay on the wide Earth and fertilized it. And the first creatures of the gods swirled around - sometimes ghostly, sometimes monstrous.

The main ones were the Titans - twelve sons and daughters of Uranus and Gaia. Uranus was afraid that they would overthrow him, and did not allow them to be born. One after another they swelled the womb of Mother Earth, and now she became unbearable. “From gray iron” she forged a magic sickle and gave it to the children; and when Uranus again wanted to unite with her, the youngest and most cunning of the Titans, named Cronus, cut off his genital member. With a curse, Uranus recoiled into the heights, and his severed member fell into the sea, whipped up white foam, and from this foam the goddess of love and desire Aphrodite - “Foamy” - came ashore.

The second kingdom began - the kingdom of the Titans: Krona and his brothers and sisters. One of them was called Ocean, he became related to old Nereus, and from him all the streams and rivers in the world were born. The other was called Hyperion, from him were born the Sun-Helios, the Moon-Selene and the Dawn-Eos, and from the Dawn the winds and stars. The third was called Iapetus, from him were born the mighty Atlas, who stands in the west of the earth and holds the sky on his shoulders, and the wise Prometheus, who is chained to a pillar in the east of the earth, and for what - this will be discussed further. But the main one was Cronus, and his rule was alarming.

Cronus was also afraid that the children he fathered would overthrow him. From his sister Rhea he had three daughters and three sons, and he took each newborn from her and swallowed him alive. She decided to save only the youngest, named Zeus. She allowed Crohn to swallow a large stone wrapped in swaddling clothes, and hid Zeus in a cave on the island of Crete. There he grew up, and when he grew up, he cunningly forced Kron to spew out his brothers and sisters. The elder gods - the Titans and the younger gods - the Olympians, came together in a fight. “The sea roared, the earth groaned and the sky gasped.” The Olympians freed the fighters from Tartarus - the Hundred-Arms and the blacksmiths - the Cyclops; the first hit the Titans with stones of three hundred hands, and the second bound Zeus with thunder and lightning, and the Titans could not resist this. Now they themselves were imprisoned in Tartarus, in the very depths: as much as from heaven to earth, as much from earth to Tartarus. The hundred-armed stood guard, and Zeus the Thunderer and his brothers took power over the world.

The third kingdom began - the kingdom of the Olympians. Zeus took the sky with the celestial Mount Olympus as his inheritance; his brother Poseidon is the sea, where both Nereus and Oceanus obeyed him; the third brother, Hades, is the underground kingdom of the dead. Their sister Hera became the wife of Zeus and gave birth to the wild Ares, the god of war, the lame Hephaestus, the blacksmith god, and the bright Hebe, the goddess of youth. Sister Demeter, goddess of arable land, bore Zeus a daughter, Persephone; She was kidnapped by Hades and became an underground queen. The third sister, Hestia, goddess of the hearth, remained a virgin.

Zeus was also in danger of being overthrown: the old Gaia and Uranus warned him that the daughter of Ocean, Metis-Wisdom, should give birth to a daughter smarter than everyone else and a son stronger than everyone else. Zeus united with her, and then swallowed her, as Cronus once swallowed his brothers. The smartest daughter of all was born from the head of Zeus: it was Athena, the goddess of reason, labor and war. And the son, the strongest of all, remained unborn. From another of the daughters of the Titans, Zeus gave birth to twins Apollo and Artemis: she is a hunter, he is a shepherd, as well as a healer, as well as a soothsayer. From the third, Zeus gave birth to Hermes, guardian of crossroads, patron of road travelers and merchants. From another one three Oras were born - goddesses of order; from another - three Haritas, goddesses of beauty; from another - nine Muses, goddesses of reason, words and songs, with which this story began. Hermes invented the string lyre, Apollo plays it, and the Muses dance around him.

The two sons of Zeus were born from mortal women, but still ascended to Olympus and became gods. This is Hercules, his beloved son, who went around the whole earth, freeing it from evil monsters: it was he who defeated the Hydra, and Geryon, and Kerberus, and others. And this is Dionysus, who also went around the whole earth, working miracles, teaching people to plant grapes and prepare wine and admonishing them when to drink in moderation and when to drink without restraint.