Sculpture relates to architecture. The influence of Cycladic figurines on modern art. Ruins of Ancient Rome

Two weeks ago in New York I visited an exhibition dedicated to Italian futurism. Avant-garde movements of the early 20th century are my special love. The world was changing rapidly, people tried to keep up with the times, sometimes ahead, sometimes not keeping up with progress, and all this chaos gave rise to many interesting artistic solutions and trends. To understand futurism, you need to know the history of its creation, and also remember the historical context of the countries in which this movement received special development: Italy and Russia in those years.

Destroy the old, wash away museums, old experiences and authorities to open the world to the new: cars, speed, aggression. To immediately introduce the main tenets of this new movement, I will give a few quotes from Marinetti's Manifesto, published in Le Figaro, February 20, 1909:
- We say: our beautiful world has become even more beautiful - now it has speed. Under the trunk of a racing car, exhaust pipes snake and spew fire. Its roar is like a machine gun burst, and no Nika of Samothrace can compare with it in beauty.
- We want to glorify the man at the helm of the car, who throws the spear of his spirit over the Earth, in its orbit.
We will destroy museums, libraries, educational institutions of all types, we will fight against moralism, feminism, against any opportunistic or utilitarian cowardice.

To be a futurist is to be modern, young and rebellious. An industrial metropolis, cars and speed - adherents of futurism celebrate destruction and glorify war. They strive to breathe new life into an old, static culture.
In Russia, in 1912, a manifesto also appeared, accompanying the first poetry collection “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste,” which accompanied the Russian Manifesto of the same name. Compare the postulates:
- The past is tight. The Academy and Pushkin are more incomprehensible than hieroglyphs. Abandon Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, etc. and so on. from the steamship Modernity.
- Wash your hands that have touched the dirty slime of the books written by these countless Leonid Andreevs. To all these Maxim Gorkys, Kuprins, Bloks, Sologubs, Averchenkos, Chernys, Kuzmins, Bunins and others. and so on. - All you need is a dacha on the river. This is the reward fate gives to tailors. From the heights of skyscrapers we look at their insignificance!

In my opinion, the Russian manifesto carries a more destructive charge than the Italian one, which is not surprising - such was the mood in the country before the revolution.
Futurism originates in literature, but very soon it takes on other forms: painting, politics, even advertising. The energy of youth and speed is overflowing in these young revolutionaries; it is impossible to remain indifferent to the charge of energy that they carry. If you think that you are thinking progressively, relax - the futurists have already thought of everything before you.

And with this knowledge I come to the exhibition of Italian Futurism at the Guggenheim, 1909-1944.

There are seven themes in total at the exhibition; I will show the most memorable fragments from each of them, presented at the exhibition.

Theme one: Heroic futurism. This phase lasted until 1916. The beginning of the futurist movement is characterized by an atmosphere of optimism, dynamism and rhythm. Futurists sought to convey dynamics in different ways. For example, Giacomo Balla studied in detail and tried to depict universal dynamics through the stratification of motion, for example, through the image of the dispersion of light (the painting is not shown in the exhibition):

Giacommo Balla,Iridescent Interpenetration No.7, 1912

Giacommo Balla's visual vocabulary consisted of combining the principles of dynamics and synchronicity, with an attempt to convey an atmosphere of light, sound and smells.

Two other futurists, Umberto Boccioni and Gino Severini, sought to depict the effect of movement through an object. Boccioni conveyed movement through the athletic body, combining the human figure and the surrounding landscape. Move further away from the screen and you will see how the picture below will form the image of a cyclist flying at high speed (the picture is not shown in the exhibition):

Umberto Boccioni, Dinamismo di un ciclista ” 1913

Severini, my favorite Italian futurist, creates his concept of depicting dynamics through a shift in space in a painting, through fragmentation, connecting displaced and disproportional space, adding the effect of crushed mosaics to everyday objects (he borrowed this idea from the Cubists).

I can admire this picture for hours, looking at the intricate interweaving of the landscape, the rushing train and the village. Even if this magic of fragments does not captivate you at first, think about how you would depict the movement of a high-speed train (not a high-speed train, but its movement) and compare it with what Severini did:

G. Severini “Sanitary train rushing through the city”, 1915

I would also like to mention Carr’s painting, the funeral of the anarchist Galli. The subject of the film was a clash at the funeral of Angelo Galli, who was killed by police during the strike. The government feared that the anarchists would make a political demonstration out of the funeral, and banned them from entering the cemetery. The clash could not be avoided, the anarchists began to resist, and the police brutally dealt with them. The artist was present at this scene; and his work is full of vivid memories of violent scenes and chaos: the movement of bodies, the clash of anarchists and police, black flags flying in the air. The artist would later write in his memoirs: “I saw in front of me a coffin covered with red carnations, dangerously swaying on the shoulders of the people carrying the coffin. I saw restless horses, clubs and spears, collisions, and it seemed to me that at any moment the corpse would fall to the ground and be trampled by the horses”...

Carlo Carrà, Funeral of the Anarchist Galli (Funerali dell'anarchico Galli), 1910–11

Topic two. Words-in-freedom, or, as in the Russian manifesto, “word-innovation”. As I already wrote, futurism began with poetry and its key invention is free form poetry. Following Marinetti, futurists free words from their usual form, destroy syntax, abolish punctuation, eliminate adjectives and adverbs, use verbs in the indefinite form, insert musical and mathematical symbols into poetry, and use onomatopoeia (onomatopoeia). Such poems are read as literature, experienced as visual art, and performed as dramatic works. Futurists publish them in a variety of formats and recite them at special evenings (Futurist serate). Marinetti introduced the idea of ​​form-free poetry, many Futurists invented their own interpretations. Mayakovsky’s “Ladder” is most familiar to us as this part of the Futurists’ work, but there were others: Balla with phonovisual designs, Fortunato Depero and the abstract language of sounds (onomalingua), Carlo Carra’s circular structure with a whirlwind of voices and sounds.

Francesco Cangiullo, Piedigrotta. Book (Milan: Edizioni futuriste di Poesia, 1916)

Topic three. Architecture. Futurism, with its rejection of tradition and shockingness, could only exist within the city, and the futurists reveled in the modern city. Many architects proposed their designs for megacities using new materials and industrial methods. Futuristic designs have a floating, light, modern look, with an emphasis on speed and seamless operation of transport systems (air and rail transport should fit seamlessly into the urban architecture). Their projects were not destined to come to fruition, with the exception of several futuristic structures erected for temporary fairs according to sketches by Enrico Prampolini. Compare the sketch and reality:

Enrico Prampolini, Design for hall, decorations, and furnishings for Aeronautica Company: Plan for Milan Triennial Installation, ca. 1932–33

The Futurist Pavilion at the exhibition in the Parco Valentino in Turin (1928) was designed by Enrico Prampolini.

Then their ideas were not destined to come true, but look now at modern cities - isn’t this the dream of the futurists?

Topic four. Reconstructing the universe. Poetry, literature, painting - this was not enough. To move forward with old ideals and live in new times, it was necessary to change every detail of the everyday world. In 1915, Balla and Depero, already familiar to us, wrote another manifesto, which I especially love for its title: “Reconstruction of the Universe.” Using habitually aggressive language, they call for the reconstruction of every object in the world around them, even demanding futuristic toys. A futurist should be surrounded by a futuristic environment, new clothes, new room design, new furniture, dishes and clothes. Balla and Depero created such spaces in their lives: one renovated a house in Rome, the second a studio in his hometown of Roverto. At the exhibition there were many objects in futuristic design: ceramics, sets, vests and suits. Now all this looks quite funny and certainly does not at all correspond to the futuristic vision of design to which we are accustomed. For me, futuristic design comes from the Dutch and Scandinavians. But if the futurists had not turned to such trifles then, who knows whether we would have received modern design (and architecture) in the form in which we have it now?

What surprises me most here is the scope: from speeds and airplanes to tea sets. How can so much and so little coexist in one idea? It seems to me that nationality is of great importance here, the aesthetics of everyday life is important to Italians, but in Russian futurism everything ended at the level of global ideas, without tea sets.

Gerardo Dottori, Cimino home dining room set, early 1930s

Topic five. Arte meccanica, or machine aesthetics. After the First World War, new artists came to futurism, introducing new qualities, one of which was the aesthetics of mechanical objects. I can’t say that this is something fundamentally new in futurism, since initially the movement was built on the celebration of progress and speed. New members of the movement emphasized the Futurists' enduring interest in mechanical objects. The powerful train depicted in Ivo Panadji's painting rolls diagonally towards you, which enhances the effect of presence (hello 3D fans!), You hear the deafening whistle of the train and the loud operation of the engine. Panadji doesn't paint a picture, he conveys a sensory experience. The artistic techniques used here convey movement, speed and power. Look at this picture, it conveys the trajectory of the train in fragments (like Severini), or, more simply, like in animation, in parts:

Ivo Pannaggi, Speeding Train (Treno in corsa), 1922

Topic six. Aeropittura or painting inspired by flight. Soaring or diving, sometimes simply abstract, aerial painting appeared in 1930, at the late stage of futurism. Airplanes fit perfectly into the idea of ​​the cult of machines in futurism, both as a symbol of progress and as the embodiment of speed, so they immediately shift the focus to themselves, leaving cars and trains behind. In addition, airplanes open up new perspectives on familiar objects due to new, previously unseen inspection angles. Aeropainting begins with simply documenting flights, and moves on to depicting soaring in space. It represented a new approach to the world that combined speed, technology, war, and national pride. In the early thirties in Italy, it is clear that nationalist sentiments were very strong, and the power and technical equipment of the Italian army spurred the Futurists to increase national pride. It would seem that the futurists had everything to become official art in fascist Italy - this is the glorification of progress, and the worship of aggression and war, and the denial of the old world, and destruction. One nuance got in the way: Hitler could not stand “degenerate art” (any non-classical art), and over time forced Mussolini to get rid of the favoritism of the Futurists.

Gerardo Dottori, Aerial Battle over the Gulf of Naples or Infernal Battle over the Paradise of the Gulf, 1942

Topic seven. Photo. Futurists could not ignore photography, which they began to adapt in 1911. The Bragaglia brothers sought to bring the painting to life and developed a whole method of capturing movement: photodynamism. The movement of the figure in their photographs usually goes from right to left, with the stages of the beginning of the movement blurred. After these experiments, the Futurists left photography until the 1930s, until Marinetti, in collaboration with Tato, in his next manifesto (no one else had so many manifestos!) declared photography to be an excellent tool for eliminating barriers between art and life, since with the help of a camera one can both create art and explore its social function (however, Tato used the camera for diametrically opposed purposes; his works expressed ideological support for the fascist regime).

Anton Giulio Bragaglia, Waving (Salutando), 1911

In 1944, the founder and ideological inspirer of futurism, Marinetti, died. With his death, futurism ceases to exist. Russian futurism began to disappear even earlier, in the late 20s, with the establishment of Soviet power in Russia, and finally became obsolete with the death of Mayakovsky and the emigration of the main authors (after all, in Russia futurism was more of a literary movement than a painting one). The authors who started with futurism joined other directions.

What did futurism bring to humanity? The shocking and aggressive manner characteristic of futurism helped to popularize and glorify progress. The modern development of art owes a lot to futurism: their merits include the liberation of poetry from the usual form, poetic performances, a new look at the depiction of movement, and the fragmentation of speed. Rejection of authorities is always a search for something new, always an expansion of the usual view of the world around us. The search for new ideals and the creation of new norms helps humanity not to stand still, helps to develop. And of course - the glorification of the “beautiful distance”, progress, the power of human thought, for this desire for an ideal world, special thanks to them.

Like no other form of fine art, sculpture is close to architecture. Both types are three-dimensional and light and shadow participate in creating an artistic image. Even the material when it comes to stone sculpture can be the same. There are also sculptures that match the size of architectural structures, such as the Sphinx in Giza, the colossal bronze Buddha in Kamakura (Japan) or the Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor. Works created specifically for buildings and organically related to them are called architectural sculpture, although, of course, stone sculpture and sculpture made of metal, concrete or plaster are different from each other. Architectural plastic only in rare cases serves simply as decoration; more often than not, it clearly expresses the meaning and purpose of the structure and thus gives additional expressiveness to the building.

None of the objects is more suitable for this purpose and attracts the sculptor more than the human figure, his image, body, plasticity. Figures of animals have also been and remain the subject of architectural sculpture. Evidence of this is the Romanesque portal with lions and the Königslutter and quadrigas on the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin and on the Opera building in Dresden. This also includes such fabulous animals and birds as vultures, chimeras and sphinxes. The forms of depicting people within the framework of architectural plasticity are generally varied. They range from head portraits in medallions and more or less grotesque masks, such as the head of Medusa, to busts and full-length figures depicting the clothed and naked human body, sometimes of enormous size. The seated colossal figures of the Egyptian rock temple of Abu Simbel are 20 m high.

An individual or group of people are represented on or near buildings in various actions and positions. Various types of sculpture are used, including relief images, niche sculpture and circular sculpture. In some cases, statues also take on the functions of a load-bearing architectural element. The caryatids calmly and majestically prop up the entablature with their heads. Atlanteans and giants carry their weight on their shoulders or arms, and it seems that the mass of portals, balconies or flights of terraces almost crushes them. Herms-caryatids or simply herms are load-bearing sculptures, the lower part of the body of which turns into a pilaster tapering downwards.

Sculpture reached Central European architecture in the 13th century. its first flowering, depicting religious scenes, figures of saints and saints. For example, the quality of the sculptures of saints in Naumburg Cathedral is excellent. 500 sculptures, most of them larger than a man, decorate the western portal of the cathedral in Reims; 1800 statues were originally part of the decoration of Chartres Cathedral. We owe the sculptures of the Medici tomb in the New Sacristy of the Florentine Cathedral of San Lorenzo to the outstanding artistic genius of the past, Michelangelo. Characteristic of the period after 1500 was the replacement of religious motifs with ancient mythological and images of rulers. Both themes were very closely intertwined during the Baroque period. Sculptures of Mars, Zeus or Hercules are often to be understood as an allegory of the power of a prince or king. Often rulers were depicted in Roman togas.

To the purely architectural sculptures celebrating their triumph in the Dresden Zwinger or Sanssouci Castle, garden sculptures and sculptures decorating fountains were added. Internally and inextricably linked with architecture, sculpture of the 18th century. fell into some isolation during the period of classicism. Reliefs, figures and teams of horses borrowed from antiquity sometimes seemed only a decorative addition and least of all an organic architectural detail.

This distance between sculpture and building grew even more in the 20th century. due to the contradictions between a work of art and a mass industrial product - a building. However, the goal of modern architectural creativity is to preserve new and well-established old forms of art related to architecture and use them to add more emotion to the architectural environment around us.

Schmalkalden (district Suhl), the so-called “architect's head” on the buttress of the altar of the city church of St. Georg. This portrait appeared after 1437 in a false window with iron-clad window shutters. It can be assumed that the architect depicted himself in his heyday.

The relationship of sculpture with architecture and the environment

Easel sculpture is usually exhibited in museums. It is viewed regardless of other works or interior design. It can be rearranged from room to room, transported to another city, it is relatively light and movable. Monumental and monumental-decorative sculpture is strongly associated with a specific place. And although there are known examples of the rearrangement of monuments (in Moscow the monument to A.S. Pushkin was moved), these cases are extremely rare. Monumental sculpture is very heavy, its weight is measured in tons and tens of tons, and its rearrangement is complex and time-consuming. In addition, such movements rarely make sense: monumental sculpture is erected in the open air - in squares and streets - and its surroundings are taken into account in advance by artists and architects. Monumental-decorative sculpture is lighter in weight, but even stronger, “roots”, connected with those around it: with the greenery of the alley in which it stands, with the niche in which it hides, with the building that supports or crowns it.

The inclusion of sculpture in the architectural and natural background provides it with the greatest expressiveness. A monumental sculpture erected on the square becomes its semantic and compositional center: the upward vertical or alternating volumes of the monument create a rhythmically organized space around itself, which, combining or contrasting with the rhythms of the houses surrounding the square and the streets flowing into it, gives it completeness.

Often sculpture determines the “sound” of the square, colors it romantically, makes it solemn, joyful or stern. Thus, the gloomy power of the equestrian statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni, elevated to a very high and disproportionately narrow pedestal, creates around itself such a harsh, intensely closed environment that is not characteristic of any other square in Venice.

Monumental sculpture has a much stronger impact on the viewer than easel sculpture, and the point here is not so much in its size, but in its involvement in current life. Surrounded by air space, beautifully and clearly outlined against the sky, it interacts with the whiteness of the snow and the greenery of the trees, brightens under the rays of the sun, dims in the evenings, and flickers mysteriously on moonlit nights. Easel works in museums and exhibitions are often staged in such a way that it is difficult, if not completely impossible, to get around them.

Today's urban ensembles are unthinkable without solemn monumental sculpture. But no less important is monumental and decorative sculpture (often called simply decorative), which makes the ensemble elegant and joyful. Monuments are installed separately. One monumental monument organizes the square; two - immediately enter into an argument. Decorative sculptures do not interfere with each other and only benefit from their proximity to similar works. Twenty monuments on an embankment or avenue, Mukhina liked to repeat, will kill any idea; twenty decorative sculptures will make up a festive round dance.

Decorative sculpture includes statues and reliefs that are not without independent significance, but are part of architectural ensembles or intended to decorate city squares and streets, the interiors of buildings, and parks. It also includes all kinds of sculptural ornamentation on buildings - stucco, cast and chased decorations, gate coats of arms, mascarons, i.e. reliefs in the form of fantastic masks of people and animals, and statues that serve as auxiliary architectural elements. These are the Atlanteans and Caryatids - male and female figures who play the role of columns or pilasters in architecture.

Both of these words - “Atlanteans” and “caryatids” - came to us from Ancient Greece: “caryatid” comes from the word “bark”, i.e. girl. In myths, Atlas was the name of the giant who supported the earth’s vault. Ancient Greece also left us one of the best examples of the use of these half-statues, half-columns. One of the porticoes of the Athenian temple of Erechtheion (421-460 BC) is supported by sculptural images of girls in long clothes - the folds falling down resemble the ribs of columns. These tall, strong figures stand calmly and majestically; Neither in their poses, nor in the proudly raised heads, nor in the serene peace of their faces, is there any sense of the weight that they hold. In depicting Atlanteans, sculptors, on the contrary, most often emphasize what a huge weight lies on their shoulders; In the images of the Atlanteans, male strength and endurance are glorified.

It is customary to crown bridges with decorative sculpture (let us at least remember the already familiar groups of “Horse Tamers” on the Anichkov Bridge in Leningrad), the flights of ceremonial stairs that slowly rise to the top. It can be seen at portals and entrances, on the roofs of palaces, arches, theaters: on the building of the Drama Theater. A. S. Pushkin in Leningrad - four horses controlled by Apollo, the god of poetry; on the building of the opera house in Lviv - allegorical figures of Victory, Glory and Love. The placement of figures on roofs requires special thought. A figure raised to a height visually changes its proportions - it seems wider and squat than it actually is. Therefore, not just any statue can be raised to a great height, but only a statue specially made for this purpose. In addition, the capabilities of human vision should also be taken into account: if the sculptural silhouette loses its clarity and “blurs,” then this will be equally disastrous for both the sculpture and the building that it is intended to decorate.

Sometimes the sculpture is installed in niches in front of the building. Thus, she seems to enter the wall and at the same time receives only the space allotted to her, in which light and shadow play. Such a sculpture looks only from the front side, and yet its position is quite convenient and advantageous: the appearance of a shadow in a niche gives a clearer sense of volume, and highlights of light create the impression of expressive movement emerging in it.

The main role in urban planning belongs to architecture, but sculpture, both monumental and decorative, largely complements the appearance of the city. In Paris, Florence, Leningrad, Dresden, Krakow there are architectural and sculptural ensembles known throughout the world. They are carefully preserved, they themselves are monuments of art. The ancient Market Square in Lviv has been preserved without the slightest change for more than a century. Four large decorative sculptures, set in a regular square at equal distances from each other, emphasize its immaculate quadrangular shape; their festive elegance is especially evident in contrast with the stern impressiveness of the town hall located in the center of the square, with the solemnity of the heraldic lions guarding its entrance. The square is closely surrounded by houses of the 16th-17th centuries, lavishly decorated with statues of ancient gods, kings and knights, winged lions, laughing mascarons, ornamental reliefs with playing dolphins, children's heads and flower garlands. The stern, somewhat gloomy architecture of the square breathes with hidden energy and strength; the sculpture softens its severity and gives it a major sound. You need to walk along Market Square slowly, carefully looking at every cornice, every statue - every step brings a new impression, teaches you to understand how great and varied the possibilities of combining architecture and sculpture are.

A true synthesis of the arts, a combination of two or more types of art, the interrelation of all their parts and types in a new, harmonious unity and stylistic generalization is achieved in cases where the elements of various types of art are united by a common ideological and stylistic concept and form an organic whole. This result can be achieved in the interaction of monumental sculpture with the urban ensemble, decorative sculpture with the architectural environment. It is synthesis that determines the artistic expressiveness of such Leningrad ensembles as Decembrist Square with the Bronze Horseman dominating it, and such buildings as the General Staff, the Exchange or the Admiralty.

Art serves as an expression of the thoughts, feelings, and unique personality of the artist, but it is also a mirror of the culture and history of the era in which this person was destined to create. The energy of creativity, which defines the entire history of art, binds masters separated in time with a single thread. And if you look from this point of view, then there is no need to consider various artistic movements and their representatives separately, since these are different phases of a great movement that is continuous in its progression. One generation is replaced by another; Ideas, theories and passions age, just like people, giving way to new trends. When an artist, through his own creativity, managed to awaken to life some new process of deep spiritual and artistic search, new styles were born, and the thread connecting them with the past was never interrupted, no matter how thin it might seem.
This book presents the history of art from ancient civilizations to the latest movements: in its inherent means of expression - painting, sculpture, architecture - and as a panorama of major movements, brilliant masters and the works that characterize their achievements. The history is presented in chapters according to the main artistic movements and different eras, and is subject to chronological order - from art in ancient society to the first flowering of medieval creativity in the Carolingian era, from the Renaissance to the Baroque, from Impressionism and Symbolism of the 19th century. to the early avant-garde, from abstractionism to postmodern architecture. Each chapter begins with abstracts that explain the essence of the process at one stage or another.

Art in the Ancient World.
Unusual forms of communication and artistic expression, primarily of a magical-religious nature, distinguish ancient society: just remember the temples and palaces in Mesopotamia or the Egyptian pyramids and temple complexes, but there were also decorative items and beautiful metal objects represented in the culture of almost all nations.

The Celts are a group of Indo-European peoples based in the 2nd millennium BC. e. in the area between the upper Danube and the eastern part of what is now France, from where they then spread (from the 7th century BC) throughout almost all of Western Europe, the Balkans, Italy and Asia Minor. The period of this expansion ended at the turn of the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e., when the power of Rome was already growing, and waves of migrating Germanic peoples began to roll in from the depths of Asia. Celtic society, with its tribal structure, was ruled by a king and gained resources through war, hunting and herding. The sense of tribal identity was very strong. Artistic production. Celtic art is characterized by a clearly defined and consistent anti-naturalism. Immersed in a magical and religious atmosphere, it found its most adequate expression in abstract ornamentation, which decorated primarily metal products (the beginning of the Iron Age, the first half of the 1st millennium BC); all the elements acquired in contact with different peoples were melted in it.

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• Art, 9th grade, Domestic and world artistic culture, Kolbysheva S.I., Zakharina Yu.Yu., Tomasheva I.G., 2019

Sculpture, sculpture, plastic art (from Latin sculptura, from sculpo - I cut, carve) is a type of fine art, the works of which have a three-dimensional, three-dimensional form.
The sculpture can be made in any genre, the most common genres being figurative (portrait, historical, genre composition, nude, religious, mythological) and animalistic genre. The materials for making sculpture are varied: metal, stone, clay and baked clay (faience, porcelain, terracotta, majolica), plaster, wood, bone, etc. The methods for processing sculpture are also varied: casting, forging, chasing, carving, modeling, carving and etc.
There are two main types of plastic art: round sculpture (freely placed in space) and relief (three-dimensional images are located on a plane).

Round sculpture

Bypass is one of the most important conditions for the perception of round plasticity. The image of the sculpture is perceived differently from different viewing angles, and new impressions are born.
Round sculpture is divided into monumental, monumental-decorative, easel and small forms. Monumental and monumental-decorative sculpture are closely related to architecture.

Easel sculpture- a type of sculpture that has independent meaning, designed to be perceived at close range and not related to architecture and the object environment. Typically, the size of an easel sculpture is close to life-size. Easel sculpture is characterized by psychologism and storytelling, and symbolic and metaphorical language is often used. It includes various types of sculptural composition: head, bust, torso, figure, group. One of the most important genres of easel sculpture is the portrait, which provides a unique opportunity for perception - viewing the sculpture from different points of view, which provides enormous opportunities for the multifaceted characterization of the person being portrayed.

Easel sculpture includes:

	A bust, waist or shoulder-length depiction of a person in a round sculpture.
	Small sculptural works created for interior decoration. Small sculptures include genre figurines, tabletop portraits, and toys.
	A type of small sculpture - a desktop (cabinet) size statue much smaller than life-size, used for interior decoration.
	Statue- a free-standing three-dimensional image of a full-length human figure or an animal or a fantastic creature. Usually the statue is placed on a pedestal.
	A sculptural image of a human torso without head, arms and legs. The torso can be a fragment of an ancient sculpture or an independent sculptural composition.

Monumental sculpture- sculpture directly related to the architectural environment and characterized by its large size and significance of ideas. Located in an urban or natural environment, it organizes an architectural ensemble, organically integrates into the natural landscape, decorates squares and architectural complexes, creating spatial compositions that may include architectural structures.

Monumental sculpture includes:

	Memorial
	Monument- a monument of significant size in honor of a major historical event, an outstanding public figure, etc.
	Monumental sculpture, designed for perception from long distances, is made of durable materials (granite, bronze, copper, steel) and is installed in large open spaces (on natural elevations, on artificially created embankments).
	Statue- a work of art created to immortalize people or historical events. Single- and multi-figure compositions, busts, equestrian monuments
	Stele- a vertically standing stone slab with an inscription, relief or pictorial image.
	Obelisk- a tetrahedral pillar tapering upward, topped with a point in the form of a pyramid.
	Rostral column- a free-standing column, the trunk of which is decorated with sculptural images of the bows of ships
	Triumphal Arch, triumphal gate, triumphal column - a ceremonial building in honor of military victories and other significant events.