The influence of ancient culture on modern China. Chinese culture in the face of the 21st century. Philosophical and religious attitudes dominant in Chinese culture

→ Culture Ancient China

The ideological core of Chinese culture was Confucianism - philosophical and ethical doctrine that arose in the 6th century BC. Its founder was the sage Confucius(551 -479 BC). Confucianism asserted the eternity and immutability of society and the world as a whole. Each member of society must occupy the place initially predetermined for him. Humanity and mercy must permeate relations between people. Everyone is obliged to help others, to achieve what they themselves strive for and not to do what they do not want for themselves. This ethical position was later formulated in and received the name golden rule of morality.

Confucius identified society with the state. The state was understood by Confucius as a large family, in which the sovereign (emperor) is "Son of Heaven" , And "Father and Mother of the People" . In such a state, strict rather than legal mechanisms dominated. For a long time, Confucianism performed a state function in China. ideology.

Another important direction of Chinese philosophy was Taoism (founder Lao Tzu 6th century BC). The central concept of Taoism was proclaimed "dao" - path. From the point of view of Taoism, everything in the world is in motion, in change, in transit, everything is impermanent and finite. It is necessary to follow the established world order corresponding to the Tao. To ensure immortality, you need to perform special exercises reminiscent of yoga.

Chinese for a long time adhered to the belief in their exclusivity and all other peoples until mid-18th century centuries were considered barbarians.

Chinese civilization is the oldest of civilizations. Already in the 10th century BC. it was a highly developed culture. China gave the world hieroglyphic writing, silk, paper, phosphorus, compass, plow, gunpowder, engine. The achievements of Chinese medicine, astronomy, and mathematics are known throughout the world.

In China there was no concept of God. The world is not created by God, it is revealed from its own hidden basis, like from a flower bud.

In Chinese culture there was no concept of spirit and body, no idea of ​​matter. The world was perceived as undivided into spirit and matter. Man is equal to the cosmic forces of Heaven and occupies a central place in the universe. The approach to any phenomenon of life begins, first of all, with the concepts of morality (Confucianism).

Among the categories of Chinese culture, the most important CI . It is not translated into Russian. It is understood approximately like this: just as ice, when heated, turns into water, and water into steam, so Qi, condensing, becomes a substance, thinning out in spirit. Everything that exists in the world is QI; there is nothing except QI. Qi is the primordial spirit in primordial nature. The stone also contains the beginnings of spirituality. Qi is mobile, like everything in the world. Here is the mountain. It is a mountain when it arose, but over time it will age, crumble with the wind, become sand, and sooner or later it will emerge from the sand new mountain. So, Qi is the vital energy that fills the world.

Chinese thinking was different from the cause-and-effect mentality of Europeans. For example, what do metal, the West, the color white, light and justice have in common? The European will not see the connection here. Everything is clear to the Chinese: the primary element in all this is metal.

This type of thinking is based on theory of sympathy. Positive sphere of life - Jan , negative - Yin . Like interacts with like. “You cannot pick a flower without disturbing the stars,” said the Chinese poet.

Chinese culture optimistic. The cosmos is harmonious, orderly, full of life and energy. The sky is the masculine principle, full of Yang charge. The earth is the opposite of the sky - feminine Yin. The soil signifies the harmony of Yang and Yin.

Space : the east is dominated by a young positive force (tree), which has matured in the south. South is fire, West is metal, North is water. The North was perceived by the Chinese as a kingdom of cold and darkness, from where wild nomads launched raids. The south is the source of bright and hot Yang power. This was reflected in the planning of Chinese cities: they were built strictly in a square with the main gate in the south. Facing south, the emperor sat on the throne. At first, the Chinese believed that the sky was round and the earth was square. Then they realized that the sky is an emptiness in which the life force of Qi is diffused.

Concept of life and death: “Life is just swimming with the flow, death is just a rest along the way.” This is how the Chinese imagined the world. There were no teachings about the immortality of the soul in Chinese philosophy. Life and death are two indispensable phases of a single process of time. Life is good, death is evil and must be overcome. One of the religions, Taoism, developed ways to prolong life: special sexual practices, breathing exercises, meditation, gymnastics.

Arts and literature: The Chinese universe is built on beauty. The cosmos is “patterned”; the pattern later became the meaning of “written sign”, writing, “culture expressed in a written sign”. One of the main concepts of Chinese culture is the concept WEN . Wen is a cosmic principle that expresses patterning and decoration in the Universe. The shaman always had this patterned tattoo as a sign of sacredness. Wen is a manifestation of the cosmos in a person. Raising his head up, the sage studies the constellations. Lowering your head down - comprehends hidden meaning animal and bird tracks. The result of this peering was the emergence of hieroglyphic writing and culture. Writing, according to the Chinese, carries the great Tao - the path. Hence the truly reverent attitude of the people towards the written text. Pursuing literature is a noble and worthy cause. But under real literature What was understood was not a novel, but philosophical prose.

Chinese art - this is an image not of things, but of ideas, meanings. Special place occupies one-color paintings in it. The image is applied with black ink on white paper or lightly tinted silk. The artists sought to convey the idea of ​​emptiness, the airy “groundlessness” of all things. The focus in Chinese painting was on searching for harmony and unity with the cosmos.

Religion: Confucianism can hardly be considered a religion. This is an ethical-political doctrine. There were many mixed beliefs and cults. This is a syncretic belief, like Taoism. The religions of China allowed for the existence of different beliefs. There was no monotheism. Buddhism came to China from India and was transformed. The Chinese could confess three religions at the same time: at work to be a Confucian, with friends and in the lap of nature - a Taoist, alone with oneself a Buddhist (reflections on life and death).

Social values:

Belief in the possibility of creating a moral society, which required ideal, highly developed leaders;

The family is a special clan, the prototype of the state. A man who properly supports his family can govern the state;

The ideal of a noble husband, official, monarch.

Played a huge role in ancient Chinese culture nobility of birth and the presence of high-ranking ancestors.

The ruling stratum was recruited through examinations. Any resident had the right to take an exam on knowledge of Confucian texts and commentary on literature and could receive one or another academic degree.

For a commoner who has successfully passed even the lowest district exam for a degree syutsaya(a blossoming talent), my whole life changed dramatically. He was exempt from taxes, military and labor service, and wore the robe and headdress of a scientist. This is how it was formed layer of managers(tangerine - tangerines - from the word to command). The terms “official” and “intellectual” coincided in Chinese culture. All this explains the exceptional value of education.

Chinese education was of a distinctly humanitarian nature. Philology, philosophy, history were considered honorable sciences. Natural sciences were of an applied nature. Trade, business, and crafts were not rated very highly. The officials looked at the merchants with contempt. Peasants are the “good” people, traders are the “bad” people.

Family: The ideal was the “five generations under one roof” model. A family is a clan of people who are related. The main thing is that from childhood to death the Chinese feel like part of the clan. Outside the family he is nothing.

Ancestor cult - part of the national religion.

Read the continuation of the topic “Culture” Ancient East»:

Briefly about the culture of ancient China.
Chinese culture is not only one of the most ancient world cultures, but at the same time one of the most unique. It begins its development around the 3rd century BC as a culture ancient state and is actively developing to this day. The beginnings of the culture of ancient China arose before this culture began to be perceived as the heritage of the ancient state, approximately 2-3 centuries before the formation of the empire.
The Chinese have a unique architecture; they practiced different time many religions, many of which have been carried through centuries and are relevant to this day. The people have their own literary tradition, and their musical and dance canons are different from other peoples.

Religion of ancient China

Writing and literature

Architecture, sculpture and painting

Science in ancient China

Chinese culture - one of the oldest and most mysterious cultures in the world. It was China that became the birthplace of such philosophical teachings as Taoism and Confucianism. The Confucian worldview remained for centuries official ideology China.

Numerous neighbors also influenced the culture of China, for example, Buddhism came from India to China.

Chinese culture has long been a role model among neighboring states. Japan, Korea, Vietnam and many other countries have adopted Chinese traditions and customs.

Chinese painting and poetry are filled with deep meaning. The paintings of Chinese masters amaze with their technique and colors.

The Chinese are hardworking and persistent, efficient and resourceful. China became a place of great discoveries; it was in China that the compass and gunpowder were invented. Chinese travelers discovered the Great Silk Road, reached the shores of Africa, and sailed to India, Thailand, and Japan.

One of the brightest symbols of China became calligraphy. This brightest manifestation of Chinese culture originated in ancient times and has become a unique movement in art. According to its fullness chinese calligraphy comparable to painting and music, conveying the harmony and rhythm of the East through the writing of hieroglyphs. In ancient China, calligraphy was called “the first among the arts,” because a true master of calligraphy put a piece of his soul and all his skill into his creation.

In order to perceive calligraphy as an art, the ability to feel, see and, of course, empathize is very important. All hieroglyphs used in calligraphy have deep philosophical implications. Calligraphy had a great influence on Chinese poetry.

Of particular importance are the meaning of what is written and the manner of writing, lines, their direction and dynamism.

Martial arts in China

Chinese martial arts occupy an important place in Chinese culture. Traditional martial arts in modern China have become an excellent replacement for gymnastics, and the most famous ones have entered the category of Chinese cultural values.

Wushu has become the most famous among Chinese martial arts. Wushu is the collective name for martial arts common in China.

Wushu originated in the Shaolin Monastery. According to legend, the founding father of wushu was the Indian monk Bodhiharma, who sat in a cave for 9 years and used a special set of activities, consisting of silent contemplation and physical exercise.

Modern wushu became a type of martial arts on the basis of which appeared different kinds gymnastics and physical exercises. Based on Wushu, various types of martial arts have been developed, which have become popular not only in China, but also abroad.

Lion dance and dragon dance

Lion dance And dragon dance- traditional Chinese dances. They are performed during festivals and holidays, the key one being Chinese New Year.

Lion dance - video

Dragon Dance- video

Mao Zedong and Chinese culture

Great influence on Chinese culture influenced by the coming to power of the communist government. Many important reforms were carried out, such as language reform, which further united the Chinese people.

A significant contribution to the construction of a new society in China was made by Mao Zedong, the political leader of China, who brought the spirit of unity and self-awareness as a nation. Despite certain miscalculations and mistakes made during the reign of Mao Zedong, he remains a revered person in China to this day.

In museums in China, on the streets, and in small shops, you can see Chinese national costumes, which continue to be popular among the population.

National characteristics of China

The Chinese are one of the most difficult peoples to understand, who strictly honor their traditions, customs, and rituals. However, if you follow the basic rules of behavior, you can feel that life in China is much more pleasant and easier than in many other countries in the world.

Residents of China are characterized by such qualities as hard work, patience, patriotism, politeness, and perfect knowledge of etiquette.

They are expressed in the behavior and actions of its inhabitants. The Chinese are characterized by courtesy and politeness, they do not show emotions too much and know how to react to events with restraint.

When meeting a Chinese person, a light handshake and a nod is enough. However, the Chinese are by no means closed, but are very sociable and will gladly enter into dialogue.

It is believed that modesty is one of the key qualities resident of China. They are very pleased with praise, but the Chinese can react to it with restraint and even dryly.

National characteristics of China are also expressed in local cuisine. Each of the Chinese provinces has its own special dishes, but the main product in China is traditionally rice. Any meal must begin with a cup of green tea.

Since about 1871, sociologists, anthropologists, scientists have created different classifications of cultures, which, in the end, manifested themselves in the classical structure, according to which 164 phenomena in the history of mankind fall under the macroscopic This is the unification of material and spiritual treasures, the heritage of mankind created in the process its historical and social development. It is especially closely connected with spiritual aspects, such as literature, painting, science, and philosophy.

Chinese culture - Zhonghua wenhua, also called Huaxia wenhua (Huaxia is the ancient name of the country) - a unique phenomenon that denotes a set of aspects specific to China: way of thinking, ideas, ideas, as well as their embodiment in Everyday life, politics, art, literature, painting, music, martial arts, cuisine.

Three very important features Characterize it - antiquity, continuity, tolerance.

Indeed, it is the oldest in human history, existing for more than 5,000 years. Chinese culture crystallized from three sources: the Yellow River civilization, the Great Northern Steppe civilization.

It has remained unchanged since its inception. In world history there are many great civilizations, famous for their rich cultures, but which have not survived to our times, unlike China.

All foreign influences were harmoniously assimilated into Chinese culture. In the history of the Celestial Empire, there have never been large-scale wars on religious grounds. Three religions (Buddhism, Islam, Christianity) spread freely throughout the empire.

The culture of this country is usually classified into the following categories: elite, ancient, modern and folk.

Elite Chinese culture - sort of thematic. It is associated with outstanding personalities in the history of the country who contributed greatly to its development.

Which is the most important segment of Chinese culture as a whole, classified into periods (or dynasties) from the reign of the Three to 1840 (the beginning of the first Opium War). Also in line with typical features: Chinese traditions, calligraphy, painting, music and opera, education, philosophy, economics, science, politics and so on.

From generation to generation, researchers agree that the country's modern economic power directly depends on the fact that China in ancient times was able to create and preserve a great culture, thanks to which a multi-ethnic society exists in stability and harmony.

China is home to 56 nationalities, each with its own time-honored culture. folk music, dances, rituals and beliefs, myths and legends, painting and architecture.

Ancient and modern culture chronologically shares the beginning between the British Empire and China under the Qing Dynasty (1636-1911). The milestone in the classification corresponds to the beginning of the country's modern history, when for the first time there was interference in its internal affairs by foreign states.

Modern Chinese culture is the “child of mixed blood”, joint “upbringing” of local and Western traditions.

What is the quintessence of Chinese culture?

1. First of all, this is Confucian ethics, which is considered as the highest manifestation of Chinese culture. The classical definition of “Li” was widely used in Confucian and post-Confucian philosophy.

"Li," which does not embrace a concrete object but rather an abstract idea, refers to any of the secular social functions of everyday life, akin to the concept of "culture" in Western thinking. These are social customs, rituals, traditions, etiquette or mores. It is important to note that although the word "li" is translated as "ritual", it has a specialized meaning in Confucianism (as opposed to ordinary religious meanings). In Confucianism, actions in daily life are considered rituals. They do not necessarily have to be systematized, but they are routine, monotonous, mechanically performed work, something that people consciously or unconsciously do during their ordinary lives. Rituals (“Li”) organize a healthy society, which is one of the main goals of Confucianism.

2. Basic concepts formulated by Mencius, who argued that kindness is an innate quality of a person who only needs positive influence society.

3. The teaching of universal love by Mo Tzu.

4. Tao and Te are the two principles of Lao Tzu’s philosophy.

5. Views on the forms of government of Han Fei.

All these theories developed on the basis of conclusions about the exceptionalism of man and nature. China comes from different philosophical and ideological traditions. During the first dynasties religious life Shamanism had a great influence. His ideas influenced later cultural manifestations, such as ancestor worship and natural philosophy.

Each of the great classical cultures of the East is unique. The originality and uniqueness of Chinese traditional culture comes down primarily to that well-known phenomenon, which at the level of ordinary consciousness has long received a fairly accurate name - “Chinese ceremonies.” Of course, in any society, and especially where there are traditions dating back to ancient times, a significant place is occupied by strictly formulated stereotypes of behavior and speech, historically established norms of relationships, principles social structure and administrative and political structure. But if we are talking about Chinese ceremonies, then everything recedes into the shadows. And not only because in China the network of mandatory and generally accepted norms of behavior was the densest. In community caste India there were, apparently, no fewer similar regulations and prohibitions, but only in China were ethical-ritual principles and the corresponding forms of behavior already in ancient times decisively brought to the fore and so exaggerated that over time they replaced the ideas of religious and mythological perception of the world, so characteristic for almost all early societies. Demythologization and even, to a large extent, desacralization of ethics and ritual in ancient China resulted in the formation of a unique sociocultural “genotype,” which for thousands of years was fundamental for the reproduction and autonomous regulation of society, the state and the entire culture of ancient China. This had far-reaching consequences for China. In particular, the place of mythical cultural heroes was taken by the skillfully demythologized legendary rulers of antiquity, whose greatness and wisdom were closely related to their virtues. The place of the cult of the great gods, primarily the deified ancestor Shandi, was taken by the cult of real clan and family ancestors, and the “living gods” were supplanted by a few abstract deities - symbols, the first and main among which was the impersonal naturalistic Sky. In a word, mythology and religion on all counts receded into the background under the onslaught of desacralized and desacralizing ethical and ritual norms. This process found its most complete and vivid completion in the teachings of Confucius.

In Confucianism, the concept of “li” (“ethics-ritual”), covering related concepts (“rules of behavior”, “rite”, “custom”, “decency”, etc.) became the highest symbol of ritualized ethics, turned into the most general characteristics correct, even idealized, social structure and human behavior: “The ruler leads his subjects through li,” “Overcoming oneself and turning to li constitutes humanity. On the day when they overcome themselves and turn to Li, the Celestial Empire will return to humanity.”

The non-isolation of ethics from a syncretic set of norms, covering morality, customs, law, rites, ceremonies, rituals, etc. and its practical fusion with ritual and with the “moral theory of human action” helped Confucianism, which at first was purely philosophical teaching, gradually master religious functions, effectively using not only reason, but also faith in his preaching. With the acquisition of powerful social and spiritual sanctions of official-state, rational-philosophical, emotional-psychological, religious, Confucian and Confucianized ethical-ritual norms and values ​​became indisputably mandatory for all members of society, from the emperor to the commoner.

The social functioning of these norms was a rigid automatism of a stereotype acquired from the cradle. This was the main strength of the “Chinese ceremonies”, which were clearly prescribed to each Chinese in accordance with his status, which, by the way, could change. A commoner in China more than once even became an emperor, especially since he could become a Taoist, a Buddhist monk, and later a Muslim or Christian. But in one respect, the Chinese always, from birth to death, did not change: he, willingly or unwillingly, consciously or unconsciously, remained the bearer of the unshakable principles of the Confucianized complex of ethical and ritual norms.

If India is a kingdom of religions, and Indian religious thinking is saturated with metaphysical speculation, then China is a culture of a different type. Social ethics and administrative practice have always played a greater role here than mystical abstractions and individualistic searches for salvation. If in India the individual sought to dissolve in the spiritual Absolute and thereby save his immortal soul from the shackles of matter, then the true Chinese valued the material body, that is, his life, above all else. Ethically determined rationalism also determined the norms of social and family life of the Chinese.

Specifics of religious structure and psychological characteristics thinking, the entire spiritual orientation in China is visible in many ways. Here, too, there is a higher divine principle - Heaven. But the Chinese Heaven is not Yahweh, not Jesus, not Allah, not Brahman and not Buddha. This is the highest supreme universality, abstract and cold, strict and indifferent to man. You cannot love her, you cannot merge with her, you cannot imitate her, just as there is no point in admiring her. True, in the system of Chinese religious and philosophical thought there existed, in addition to Heaven, Buddha (the idea of ​​him penetrated into China along with Buddhism from India at the beginning of our era), and Tao (the main category of religious and philosophical Taoism). Moreover, Tao in its Taoist interpretation (there was also a Confucian interpretation of Tao in the form of the Great Path of Truth and Virtue) is close to the Hindu Brahman. “However, neither Buddha nor Tao, but Heaven has always been central category supreme universality in China.

Traditional Chinese culture is not characterized by a God-person relationship, direct or mediated by the figure of a priest (theologian), as was typical of other cultures. Here the connection is of a fundamentally different type: “Heaven as a symbol of a higher order is an earthly society based on virtue,” mediated by the personality of the ruler overshadowed by heavenly grace. This imperative, strengthened a hundredfold by Confucianism, determined the development of China for thousands of years. As is known, the main content of the teachings of Confucius comes down to the proclamation of the ideal of social harmony and the search for means of achieving this ideal, the standard of which the sage himself saw in the reign of the legendary sages of antiquity - the very ones who shone with virtues. Having criticized his own century and highly valued the past centuries, Confucius, on the basis of this opposition, creates the ideal of a perfect person who must have humanity and a sense of duty. Confucianism with its ideal is high moral person was one of the foundations on which a gigantic centralized empire with its powerful bureaucratic apparatus was built.

However, neither society as a whole, nor an individual, no matter how shackled they were by the official dogmas of Confucianism, could always be guided only by them. After all, beyond the boundaries of Confucianism there remained the mystical and irrational, to which a person is always drawn. The existential function of religion in these conditions fell to Taoism (the philosophy of Lao Tzu, an older contemporary of Confucius) - a teaching that aimed to reveal to man the secrets of the universe, eternal problems life and death. At the center of Taoism is the doctrine of the great Tao, the universal Law and the Absolute, ruling everywhere and in everything, always and limitlessly. No one created him, but everything comes from him; invisible and inaudible, inaccessible to the senses, nameless and formless, it gives origin, name and form to everything in the world; even the great Heaven follows the Tao. To know the Tao, to follow it, to merge with it - this is the meaning, purpose and happiness of life. Taoism gained popularity among the people and the favor of emperors thanks to the preaching of longevity and immortality. Based on the idea that the human body is a microcosm similar to the macrocosm (the Universe), Taoism proposed a number of recipes for achieving immortality:

• 1) restriction to a minimum in food (a path studied to perfection by Indian ascetics - hermits);
• 2) physical and breathing exercises, ranging from innocent movements and poses to instructions on communication between the sexes (the influence of Indian yoga is visible here);
• 3) performing over a thousand virtuous deeds;
• 4) taking pills and the elixir of immortality; It is no coincidence that the fascination with magical elixirs and pills in medieval China caused the rapid development of alchemy.

In the II-III centuries. Buddhism penetrates into China, and the main thing in it is that it was associated with the alleviation of suffering in this life and salvation, eternal bliss in future life- perceived the common people. The top of Chinese society, and, above all, intellectual elite, drew much more from Buddhism. Based on the synthesis of ideas and concepts extracted from the philosophical depths of Buddhism, with traditional Chinese thought, with Confucian pragmatism, one of the most profound and interesting, intellectually rich movements in the world arose in China and still enjoys considerable attractiveness. religious thought- Chan Buddhism (Japanese Zen).

Buddhism existed in China for almost two millennia, changing greatly as it adapted to Chinese civilization. However, he had a huge impact on traditional Chinese culture, which was most clearly manifested in art, literature and

especially in architecture (oval complexes, elegant pagodas, etc.). Buddhist and Indo-Buddhist philosophy and mythology had a significant influence on the Chinese people and their culture. Much of this philosophy and mythology, from the practice of gymnastic yoga to the ideas of hell and heaven, was adopted in China. Buddhist metaphysics played a role in the formation of medieval Chinese natural philosophy. Even greater impact on philosophical thought China was influenced by the ideas of Chan Buddhism about an intuitive impulse, sudden insight, etc. In general, we can say that classical Chinese culture is a fusion of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism.

IN political history China, in the development of Chinese statehood and functioning political culture Legalism and Confucianism played a significant role in imperial China. The legalists were main force, opposing Confucianism precisely in the sphere of social policy and ethics. The doctrine of legalism, its theory and practice in a number of important points are radically opposite to what the Confucians proposed. Unlike the Confucians with their primacy of morality and customary law, a call for humanity and a conscious sense of duty, the cult of ancestors and the authority of the personality of the sage, legalist legalists, as realists, based their doctrine on the unconditional primacy of the Law, the power and authority of which should be based on cane discipline and cruel punishments. Neither family, nor ancestors, nor traditions, nor morality - nothing can resist the law, everything must bow before it. Laws are developed by wise reformers, and the sovereign issues them and gives them force. He is the only one who can be above the law, but he shouldn't do it either. The law is implemented and its norms are implemented by ministers and officials, servants of the sovereign, who govern the country in his name; respect for the law and administration is ensured by a specially introduced strict system of mutual responsibility and cross-denunciations, which, in turn, rests on the fear of severe punishment even for minor offenses; punishments for obstinacy are balanced by rewards for obedience: those who succeeded in agriculture or military prowess (only these two types of occupations were considered worthy by legalists, the rest, especially trade, were persecuted) could count on being assigned the next rank, which increased their social status.

It is significant that Confucianism relied on high morality and ancient traditions, while Legalism placed above all administrative regulations, based on strict punishments and the demand for absolute obedience of a deliberately stupid people. Confucianism focused on the past, and Legalism openly challenged this past, offering extreme forms of authoritarian despotism as an alternative.

The crude methods of legalism were more acceptable and effective for the rulers, because they allowed them to more firmly hold centralized control over private owners, which was of great importance for the strengthening of the kingdom and success in their fierce struggle for the unification of China. Testing the ideas of legalism in practice (the founding of the Qin dynasty in the 3rd century BC, its fall and the emergence of the Han dynasty) turned out to be sufficient to reveal its inconsistency for China at that time. The openly totalitarian doctrine of the legalists, with its contempt for people in the name of the prosperity of the state, turned out to be unviable; legalism was defeated, but in order to preserve the already established imperial structure, for the prosperity of its ruling elite, who exercised their power with the help of a powerful administrative-bureaucratic apparatus created through the efforts of the legalists, a doctrine was needed that could give this entire system a decent and respectable appearance. Confucianism turned out to be such a doctrine. The synthesis of Confucianism and Legalism turned out to be not so difficult, because they had a lot in common. As a result of the reforms of the Han Emperor Wudi, the original Confucianism was modified and became the state ideology.

Social injustice, internecine wars, popular uprisings, and various kinds of troubles in society give rise to utopias. The dream of an ideal society, where there is no violence or war, where all people equally enjoy earthly goods without offending or oppressing each other, lives in every nation, and the Chinese nation is no exception. Already in the ancient era of Chinese history, the concepts of “Datong” (“great unity” or “great harmony”) and “Taining” (“great balance” or “great tranquility”) were developed, with which the entire history of socio-political and, naturally, the utopian thought of China.

A clear expression of utopian ideas about a happy country is “Peach Spring” by Tao Yuan Ming, which has become synonymous with a beautiful, joyful, comfortable society. Utopian motifs can also be found in such stories as “The Traveler to the West”, “Flowers in the Mirror”, in the stories of Liao Zhai and other literary works. Social-utopian ideas of reorganization of the world, property equality, equal distribution of earthly goods, discussions about honest and wise officials who know no other thoughts than “serve the people” are found in the works of many political thinkers - from Confucius and Mo Tzu to Kang Youwei and Sun Yat-sen, who, having become acquainted with the theories of Western socialism (scientific and non-scientific), did not accept them in their pure form, but remade them in the Chinese way.

Chinese art also has a unique appearance. Like art Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia and India, its roots go back to the 11th millennium BC. In those distant times, various tribes attacked the peoples of China, conquered them, and in the 13th century. Mongol rule established in China. But these foreign conquerors could not lead Chinese art astray from its own path - it can be said that no other art has created such strict, clear, original and lasting traditions as Chinese. Buddhism from India was transferred to China, but the Chinese did not accept the Buddha ready-made, but created their own image; the same thing happened with temple architecture. Chinese pagodas are fundamentally different from Indian temples.

The uniqueness of Chinese art is that poetry, painting and calligraphy do not know the boundaries that usually separate these types of art, regardless of their specific features. These three types of art are inspired and determined by the nature of hieroglyphic expression and with the help of the same tool - the brush - they reflect the deep essence of being, the “life force”, filling each of these forms with life and a unique harmony. The goal of Chinese aesthetics is to achieve the true essence of the life-giving sources of harmony in life: art and the art of living are one and the same. Both in painting and in poetry, every stroke depicting a tree branch or characters should always be a “living form; it is this desire to identify the essence that is inherent in calligraphy, poetry and painting. But only painting unites all three types of art.

If painting in China is a holistic art form in which poetry and calligraphy form an integral part of the work of painting, recreating the harmony and mystery of the universe in all its manifestations, then poetry is considered the quintessence of art. It transforms inscribed signs, revered almost like a shrine, into sound, and its highest purpose is the connection of human genius with the primary sources of the vital forces of the world. Imbued with the ideas of Confucianism and Taoism, Chinese poetry unites reason and detachment, it strives to penetrate reality and convey with all its poignancy the spirit of life, the “intangible thrill of sounds”, which is facilitated by the musicality inherent in the multi-tonal Chinese language. It is no coincidence that ancient Chinese poetry is inseparable from music.

Calligraphy was also given great importance in Russian culture. “... They signed their names superbly, all these old abbots and metropolitans of ours, and with such taste sometimes...<...>... the same English font, but the black line is a little blacker and thicker than in English, and the proportion of light is broken; and notice too: the oval has been changed, a little rounder, and in addition a stroke is allowed, and a stroke is the most dangerous thing! The flourish requires extraordinary taste; but if only it was successful, if only the proportion was found, then such a font is incomparable with anything, so much so that you can fall in love with it” (Dostoevsky F.M. Idiot).

In China, calligraphy exalts the graphic beauty of hieroglyphs. By engaging in this main form of art in the country, every Chinese person rediscovers the inner harmony of his Self and enters into communication with the Universe. Not limited to simple copying, calligraphy awakens the expressiveness of movement and the imaginary power of signs, calligraphy should be a complete reflection of the state of mind. The calligrapher must also use the pictorial capabilities of hieroglyphs, their figurative power. This is how the skill of the famous calligrapher Zhang Xu, who lived in the Tang era, is described: “He takes in everything with his gaze: landscapes, animals, plants, stars, storms, fires, wars, feasts - all the events of the world, and expresses them in his art.”^ Thus, poetry, calligraphy and painting formed a single art in China, a traditional form that uses all the spiritual depths of the adherents of this art: drawn-out melodies and spaces, magical gestures and visible images.

Confucianism left a deep imprint on all aspects of the life of Chinese society, including the functioning of the family, namely, the Confucian cult of ancestors and the cult of filial piety contributed to the flourishing of the cult of family and clan. The family was considered the core of society, its interests far exceeded the interests of the individual, who was considered only in the aspect of the family, through the prism of its eternal interests - from distant ancestors to distant descendants. The growing son was married, the daughter was given in marriage according to the choice and decision of the parents, and this was considered so normal and natural that the problem of love did not arise. Love could come after marriage, or it could not come at all (in a wealthy family, a man could compensate for her absence with a concubine, and the wife had no right to prevent this). However, this did not interfere with the normal existence of the family and the fulfillment of a conscious social and family duty - the birth of children, especially sons, called upon to continue the family line and strengthen the position of the family for centuries.

Hence the constant trend towards family growth. As a result, large families, including several wives and concubines of the head of the family, a considerable number of married sons, many grandchildren and other relatives and household members, became very common throughout Chinese history (the lifestyle of one of them is well described in the classic Chinese novel " Dream in the Red Chamber"). The further process of family development led to the emergence of a powerful branched clan of relatives who held tightly to each other and sometimes inhabited entire villages, especially in the south of the country.

The power and authority of these clans was recognized by the authorities, who willingly provided them with solutions to various petty lawsuits and internal village affairs. And the clans themselves jealously monitored the preservation of these rights for them - it was customary to bring all concerns, both civil and property, and purely intimate, to the court of relatives: there was nothing sacred, personal, personal that the family and clan should not know. Violation of traditions was not encouraged: strict norms of the cult of ancestors and corresponding upbringing suppressed selfish tendencies in childhood. From the first years of life, a person got used to the fact that the personal, emotional, one’s own on the scale of values ​​is incommensurate with the general, accepted, rationally conditioned and obligatory for everyone. Obedience to elders was one of the important foundations of social order in imperial China.

Despite the changes taking place in the family structure of modern China, it still remains the basic unit of society. Now sociologists distinguish four categories of families: incomplete nuclear, extended (nuclear and other relatives), large (two or three nuclear families) families. Research shows the growth of large families (21.3%) and the strengthening of extended family ties (21.6%), and such families are not identical to the natural clans of earlier times.

Taoism also played a significant role in Chinese culture, with which the development of science and technology in traditional China is closely connected. An even more fundamental fact is that Chinese society was an agrarian one, and a centralized bureaucracy primarily had to solve complex technical problems related primarily to irrigation and water conservation. Therefore, astronomy (the importance of calendar calculations and astrological beliefs), mathematics, physics, and hydraulic engineering in their engineering applications had a high status. In general, a centralized feudal-bureaucratic type social order in the early stages favored the development of science.

Almost half of the most important inventions and discoveries on which our lives are based today came from China. If ancient Chinese scientists had not invented such nautical and navigational instruments and devices as a tiller, compass and multi-tiered masts, there would have been no great geographical discoveries. Columbus would not have sailed to America, and Europeans would not have founded colonial empires.

Through China, stirrups came to Europe from the Great Steppe to help stay in the saddle, without which medieval knights would not have been able, sparkling in their armor, to rush to the aid of noble ladies in trouble. Then the age of chivalry would not have come. If guns and gunpowder had not been invented in China, bullets would not have appeared that pierced armor and ended the times of knighthood. Without Chinese paper and printing devices, books in Europe would have been copied by hand for a long time. There would also be no widespread literacy. Movable type was not invented by Johannes Gutenberg, William Harvey did not discover the circulation of blood, and Isaac Newton did not discover the first law of mechanics. All this was first thought of in China.

Many remarkable results have been obtained in Chinese science. In the field of mathematics - decimals and an empty position to indicate zero; that in Europe since the 17th century. called “Pascal’s triangle”, in China by the beginning of the 14th century. was considered the old fashioned way solving equations; what is known as the Cardan pendant (14th century) should in fact be called the Ding Huan pendant (2nd century). In China, during the Tang Dynasty (VII-X centuries), mechanical watches were invented. The development of silk weaving led to such fundamental inventions as the drive belt and chain drive. When creating blowing machines for metallurgy, the Chinese were the first to use the standard method of converting circular and translational motion into each other, the main area of ​​application of which in Europe was early steam engines. The essay “Description of Herbs and Trees of the Southern Region” (340) contains a report of the world’s first case of using some insects (ants) to fight others (ticks and spiders). The tradition of biological plant protection is still maintained. Thus, numerous myths collapse when we find the true origins of many things familiar to us. It should be remembered that modern world- is a fusion of eastern and western cultural layers.

There is a different opinion on this matter. Both horse riding, stirrups, and their natural addition - the heel on the boot, without which effective horse riding is impossible - were invented in Europe (on the Don and in the Northern Black Sea region). “The relationship between rider and horse began in the Copper Age society known as the Sredny Stog culture, which flourished in what is now Ukraine six thousand years ago... The oldest evidence dating back to Bronze Age, is a surface-carved scout image of a horse and rider at Kamennaya Mogila (Ukraine)... Horse tribes quickly spread across the eastern steppes, but it took them longer to penetrate the populated western regions. Chariots drawn by horses reached the Middle East by 1800 BC, approximately two millennia after the origin of horse riding" (Anthony D., Telegin D., Brown D. The Origin of Horse Riding // In the World of Science. 1992. No. 2 . P. 36).

Traditional transcription - Harvey.

Recently, medical specialists have become convinced of the undoubted effectiveness of such methods of ancient medicine of China, India, Tibet and Mongolia as acupuncture, moxibustion, massage, etc. in the treatment of various kinds of functional disorders and pain syndromes. These methods are a type of reflexology, when the effect on a sick body is carried out by irritating strictly defined areas of the skin - acupuncture points (biologically active points).

Ancient Chinese doctors developed a doctrine according to which “vital energy” circulates in the human body - chi, which is an integral function of all the activities of the body, its energy, vitality tone. Another postulate of Chinese and Oriental medicine in general is the doctrine that the form of manifestation of vital energy is the interaction and struggle of such “polar forces” as yang (positive force) and yin (negative force). On the principle of yang-yin (it describes the picture of the world in the religious and philosophical thinking of the ancient Chinese), Eastern scientists base the relationship of organs with each other and their connections with the integument of the body. By regulating metabolism, i.e. oppositely directed processes of assimilation and dissimilation, phenomena of excitation and inhibition, etc. can affect 44 individual organs (or the entire body) and change its energy levels. From this perspective, illness is an imbalance in the distribution of energy between yang and yin. Measurements in energy distribution are carried out by influencing acupuncture points, the number of which is 696.

According to the scheme of oriental medicine, “vital energy” in the process of circulation passes through all the organs sequentially and completes the circuit within a day. Therefore, a particular organ is most susceptible to treatment at a certain point in the day, which finds parallels in studies of biological rhythms, which are becoming increasingly widespread in modern medicine and biology.

Recently, in China and other countries of the world, more and more attention has been paid to therapeutic gymnastics "Wushu", which at the same time acts as a type of wrestling, the art of self-defense, delivering aesthetic enjoyment. International Wushu competitions are held in the ancient Chinese city of Luoyang. Gymnasts from many countries: the USA, Japan, Canada, France, Singapore, Thailand, etc., together with the Chinese, participate in nine types of competition: exercises with a saber, pike, ball, two swords, fighting with edged weapons and without weapons. The popularity of “wushu” is a clear example of how the old traditions of Chinese culture enter the modern life of the country, how they gain the right to life in modern Chinese society with its rapid pace of economic development, computers, electronics and ultra-modern discos.

The enduring values ​​of Chinese traditional culture include:

• - an intuitive way of thinking based on an undifferentiated idea of ​​the world, consonant with the ideas of modern physics, in particular, quantum field theory;
• - emphasis on the development of culture, moral self-improvement of a person, harmony of interpersonal relationships and relations between the individual and society;
• - moral and ethical principles: respect for elders, helping one's neighbor, harmony in society;
• - traditional legal views on the priority of moral and ethical standards;
• - traditions of family relationships;
• - the desire for a combination of power and duty, justice and benefit, the interests of the individual and the masses.

At the same time, it should be noted that Chinese culture, for all its monolithic nature and continuity of development, includes many elements, the presence of which can only be explained by borrowings. There is a pattern in the history of China: periods of prosperity were accompanied by intense exchange with the outside world, while periods of decline were accompanied by isolation from the outside world and fear of cultural exchange.

The Great Silk Road, which was built in the 2nd century, played a significant role in the cultural contacts of China with the outside world. BC. the embassy of Zhang Nian, sent by Emperor Wu Di to Bactria. From that time on, transportation of Chinese silk to the West began, and China became known in Europe as “Sepsa” (“Land of Silk”). Born in 76 BC. the great Roman poet Virgil wrote poems praising silk. Along this route, not only silk was transported from East to West, but also Arabic incense, gems, muslin and spices from India. Glass, copper, tin, lead, red corals, fabrics, dishes, and gold were brought from the West to the East. The Great Silk Road stretched for almost 12 thousand km through the then known lands, connecting Xi'an (the capital of the late Han Dynasty) and Gades (modern Cadiz) on the Atlantic coast.

Caravans of heavily laden camels continued to plod along the Silk Road as the new Maritime Silk Road emerged in 100 BC. captain of the Greek ship Hippalos. The sea route was less dangerous and more economical, so maritime trade between East and West developed rapidly, reaching unprecedented proportions during the Tang (618-907), Song (960-1279) and Yuan (1260-1368) dynasties. Seven expeditions to the “western seas” undertaken by the famous admiral Zheng He in 1405-1433. also stimulated the further development of China's trade.

Along these land and sea “Silk Roads” there was not only trade, but also cultural exchange between China and other countries that contributed to the appearance of Chinese culture. Thus, the history of relations between China and India in the Tang and Song eras shows that the interaction of local and foreign cultures was two-way; that Buddhist philosophy, Indian fine arts, architecture, music, medicine, yoga, etc. did not at all absorb Chinese culture and were not absorbed by it, but intertwined and formed a single indissoluble whole.

The Tang dynasty also saw the powerful rise of Islam, a new force that was destined to have such a significant impact on relations between East and West. The first Arab embassy in China appeared in 651, and the Arab conquest of Persia in 652 brought them closer to the zones of Chinese influence. The Arabs began to play an extremely important role as intermediaries in cultural and commercial exchanges between East and West. It was through them that such ancient Chinese inventions as the compass, paper, printing, and gunpowder came to Europe.

Along the trade routes from China to Europe were not only rolls of silk, boxes of porcelain and tea, but also various moral, philosophical, aesthetic, economic and pedagogical ideas that were destined to influence the West. Painting, sculpture, architecture and handicrafts in China made great contributions in the 18th century. European Rococo style. The influence of Chinese architectural styles can be seen in the lines of some of the palaces of European rulers. Chinese-style parks have also become very popular in the West, and their influence is still felt today.

In the field of philosophy, the attention of European scientists was primarily attracted by Confucianism. Confucius acquired a reputation as an enlightened sage, the creator of ethical and political teachings. The outstanding German philosopher G. Leibniz was one of the first to recognize the importance of Chinese thought for Western culture. He believed that if China sent enlightened men to Europe who could teach “the purposes and practice of natural theology,” this would help Europe more quickly return to its high ethical standards and overcome its period of decline. The great Russian writer and thinker L.N. Tolstoy discovered that his views were in many ways close to the philosophy of Lao Tzu, and at one time he even intended to translate the Tao Te Ching (The Book of Path and Virtue) into Russian. Some European Enlightenment thinkers saw the educational system of feudal China as an example to follow. German theologian of the 18th century. X. Wolf preferred the Chinese education system with its separate schools for children and adults. He believed that this system was consistent with the nature of the human spirit. Chinese schools not only taught reading and writing, but also taught students ethics classes and introduced them to methods of acquiring knowledge.

The influence of Chinese culture can also be seen in Western literature and art. Some people think it's good famous fairy tale"Cinderella" is a Western version of the legend "Yu Yang Za Zu" written by Duan Chengshi during the Tang era. The Chinese classic play "The Orphan of Zhao" has been translated into English, Italian and French languages. Under her influence, Voltaire wrote a five-act play, The Chinese Orphan, in which he set out the norms of Confucian morality. There are quite a lot of such examples.

However, we should not forget that China and the West mutually influenced each other. While the West was influenced by the rich cultural heritage of China, the latter, in turn, adopted the advanced scientific and technological achievements of the West, its philosophical and artistic ideas. All this contributed to strengthening friendly ties and mutual understanding between the cultures of the world.

L I T E R A T U R A

Vasiliev L.S. History of the religions of the East. M., 1988.

History of the Ancient East / Ed. IN AND. Kuzishchin. M., 1988.

Kulikov Ts.S. The Chinese about themselves. M., 1988.

Pervlolyuv L.S. Word of Confucius. M., 1992.

Driver E. Golden peaches of Samarkand. M., 1981.