English phraseological units as a reflection of English national culture. Russian and English phraseological units

Toropova Ekaterina

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Municipal educational institution secondary school with in-depth study of individual subjects No. 52 in the city of Kirov.

Students of class 10A

Toropova Ekaterina

Supervisor:

English teacher

Klestova Irina Leonidovna.

Kirov, 2009

I. Introduction

II. Main part: “Phraseology and phraseological units of the English language”

2.2. Classification of phraseological units of the English language

2.3. Translation of phraseological units into Russian

2.4.Biblicalisms

2.5. Phraseologisms borrowed from the fiction of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome

2.6. Phraseologisms borrowed from the works of Shakespeare

2.7. The meaning of phraseological units and their regional value

III.Conclusion

I.Introduction

Phraseologisms are widespread both in oral speech and in fiction. In the process of studying, I often come across literary texts; we often refer to them in English lessons, analyze excerpts from the works of various writers. In one of these texts I came across such a phrase asto spill the beans, which means to give away a secret. I had some questions: why the translation of the whole phrase differs from its literal translation, and why it was used as a single whole in the sentence. I decided to find answers to these questions. It turned out that such phrases are called phraseological units or phraseological units. I was interested in this topic because I have been studying English for nine years, this language is widely used nowadays, and its knowledge is necessary for my future profession. In the process of this work, I would like to find out whether English phraseological units have equivalents in the Russian language and how phraseological units are translated from one language to another.

II. Main part

Phraseology and phraseological units of the English language.

2.1. What is phraseology and phraseology

Phraseology (gr. phrasis - “expression”, logos - “science”) is a linguistic discipline that studies stable combinations of words with a completely or partially rethought meaning - phraseological units (or phraseological units). Phraseology studies only such combinations of words existing in speech, the total meaning of which is not equal to the sum of the individual meanings of the words that make up the phraseological phrase (“give in the paw” - give a bribe, and not anything else.).

A phraseological unit, or phraseological unit, is a phrase that is stable in composition and structure, lexically indivisible and integral in meaning, performing the function of a separate lexical unit. A phraseological unit is used as a whole, ready-made combination of words that is not subject to further decomposition and usually does not allow rearrangement of its parts within itself.

Phraseologisms include phrases of the following types:

1. idioms (drink till all "s blue (drink up to the green serpent), drink smb. under the table (drink someone), burn the candle at both ends (burn through life));
2. collocations (heavy rain, make a decision, grain of truth, pose a question);
3. proverbs (if you drive more quietly, you will go further, don’t get into the wrong sleigh); sayings (here’s Yuryev’s day for you, grandma; the ice has broken!);
4. grammatical phraseological units (almost; almost; whatever it may be);
5. phrase patterns (...he is in Africa...; to all...-am...;...like...).

Phraseology emerged relatively recently as an independent linguistic discipline. The tasks of phraseology as a linguistic discipline include a comprehensive study of the phraseological fund of a particular language. Important aspects of the study of this science are: the stability of phraseological units, the systematic nature of phraseology and the semantic structure of phraseological units, their origin and main functions. A particularly complex branch of phraseology is the translation of phraseological units from language to language, which requires considerable experience in the field of research in this discipline. Phraseology develops the principles of identifying phraseological units, methods of studying them, classification and phraseography - descriptions in dictionaries. Phraseology uses various research methods, for example, component analysis of meaning. Phraseology offers various types of classifications of the phraseological composition of a language, depending on the properties of phraseological units and methods of their study.
The subject of the history of phraseology is the study of the primary, original forms and meanings of phraseological units, determining their sources from all available monuments, identifying the areas of their use in different eras of the existence of the language, as well as establishing the volume of phraseological composition and its systemic ordering in a particular historical era of language development.
Unfortunately, in the English and American linguistic literature there are few works specifically devoted to the theory of phraseology, but even the most significant works available (A. McKay, W. Weinreich, L.P. Smith) do not pose such fundamental questions as scientifically based criteria for identifying phraseological units , the relationship between phraseological units and words, the systematic nature of phraseology, phraseological variability, phrase formation, the method of studying phraseology, etc. Also, English and American scientists do not raise the question of phraseology as a linguistic science. This explains the lack of a name for this discipline in English.
Phraseologisms are an integral and specially highlighted component of the language, the most striking, original, unusual, “individual”, culturally significant and nationally specific, capable of concentrated expression not only of the characteristics of a given language, but also of its speakers, their attitude, mindset, mentality, national character and style of thinking.

2.2 Classification of phraseological units of the English language.

As in any other language, in English phraseological units are a very important and valuable component. There is also a classification of phraseological units.They are divided into three types:

1. phraseological adjunctions,
2. phraseological unities,
3. phraseological combinations.

Let us consider these types of phraseological units in relation to modern English.

1. Phraseological adhesions

Phraseological units, or idioms, are absolutely indivisible, indecomposable stable combinations, the general meaning of which does not depend on the meaning of their constituent words:

Kick the bucket (colloquial) - to bend over, die; = stretch your legs; send smb. to Coventry - boycott someone, stop communicating with someone; at bay – driven, in a hopeless situation; be at smb.’s beck and call – to be always ready for services; = to be at your beck and call; to rain cats and dogs – pour like buckets (about rain); be all thumbs - to be awkward, clumsy; Kilkenny cats are mortal enemies.

Phraseological adhesions arose on the basis of figurative meanings of their components, but subsequently these figurative meanings became incomprehensible from the point of view of modern language.
The imagery of phraseological fusions is revealed only historically. For example, the words “bay”, meaning “dead end”, and “beck” - “wave of the hand” are archaisms and are not used anywhere except the phraseological unit given above. Or, for example, the expression to be all thumbs historically developed from the expression one’s fingers are all thumbs. We see something similar in the phraseological units Kilkenny cats (which, apparently, goes back to the legend of a fierce struggle between the cities of Kilkenny and Irishtown in the 17th century, which led to their ruin).
Thus, in phraseological fusions the connection between direct and figurative meanings has been lost; the figurative has become the main one for them. That is why phraseological fusions are difficult to translate into other languages.
Phraseological fusions have a number of characteristic features:

They may include so-called necrotisms - words that are not used anywhere except for this fusion and are therefore incomprehensible from the point of view of modern language;

The composition of adhesions may include archaisms;
- they are syntactically indecomposable;
- in most cases, it is impossible to rearrange the components;
- they are characterized by impenetrability - they do not allow additional words into their composition.

Losing their independent lexical meaning, “...words included in the structure of a phraseological fusion turn into components of a complex lexical unit, which approaches the meaning of a separate word” (No. 32 p. 73). Therefore, many phraseological combinations are synonymous with the words: kick the bucket - to die; ; send smb. to Coventry – to ignore, etc.

1. Phraseological unities

Phraseological unities are such stable combinations of words in which, despite the presence of a common figurative meaning, the signs of semantic separation of components are clearly preserved:

to spill the beans - give away a secret; to burn bridges - burn bridges; to have other fish to fry – to have more important things to do; to throw dust into smb.’s eyes – to speak one’s teeth; to burn one’s fingers – to get burned on something; to throw mud at smb. – throw mud; to be narrow in the shoulders - not to understand jokes; to paint the devil blacker than he is – to thicken the paint; to put a spoke in smb.’s wheel - insert spokes into the wheels; to hold one’s cards close to one’s chest – to keep something secret, not to disclose something, to keep quiet, ~ keep one’s mouth shut; to gild refined gold - to gild pure gold, try to improve, decorate something that is already quite good; to paint the lily - tint the color of a lily, try to improve or decorate something that does not need improvement.
Unlike phraseological fusions, portability is understood from the point of view of modern language.

Characteristic features of phraseological units:
1). vivid imagery and the resulting possibility of coincidence with parallel existing phrases (to throw dust into smb.’s eyes, to be narrow in the shoulders, to burn one’s fingers, to burn bridges);
2). preserving the semantics of individual components (to put a spoke in smb.’s wheel);
3). the impossibility of replacing some components with others (to hold one’s cards close to one’s chest);
4). emotional and expressive coloring plays a decisive role (to throw dust into smb.’s eyes, to paint the devil blacker than he is);
5). the ability to enter into synonymous relationships with individual words or other phraseological units (to gild refined gold = to paint the lily).

1. Phraseological combinations

Phraseological combinations are stable phrases that include words with both free and phraseologically related meanings:

A bosom friend - a bosom friend, a pitched battle - a fierce fight, (to have) a narrow escape - to be saved by a miracle, to frown one's eyebrows - to furrow one's eyebrows, Adam's apple - an Adam's apple, a Sisyfean labor - Sisyphean labor, rack one's brains - rack your brain (think hard, remember), to pay attention to smb. – pay attention to someone, etc.
Unlike phraseological adhesions and phraseological unities, which have a holistic, indecomposable meaning, phraseological combinations are characterized by semantic decomposability. In this respect, they come close to free phrases.
Characteristic features of phraseological combinations:
1). in them, variation of one of the components is allowed (a bosom friend - a bosom friend, a bosom buddy - a bosom buddy);
2). a synonymous replacement of the core word is possible (a pitched battle - a fierce fight, a fierce battle - a fierce fight);
3). it is possible to include definitions (he frowned his thick eyebrows, he frowned thick eyebrows);
4). permissible rearrangement of components (a Sisyfean labor - Sisyphus's work, a labor of Sisyphus - the work of Sisyphus);
5). the free use of one of the components and the associated use of the other is mandatory (a bosom friend - a bosom friend: a bosom friend cannot be an enemy or anyone else).

2.3. Translation of phraseological units into Russian.

Transmitting phraseological units into English is a very difficult task. Imagery, conciseness, and integrity determine their significant role in language. Phraseologisms add originality and expressiveness to speech, which is why they are widely used in artistic and oral speech. Translating phraseological units from English into Russian is very difficult, because it is necessary to convey the meaning and display the imagery of the phraseological unit.

Phraseological equivalents can be complete or partial.
Full phraseological equivalents are those ready-made English equivalents that coincide with Russian ones in meaning, lexical composition, imagery, stylistic coloring and grammatical structure; for example: rest on one's laurels - rest on one's laurels, the salt of the earth, play with fire - to play with fire, the hour has come (struck) - one's hour has struck, there is no smoke without fire - there is no smoke without fire, hardworking like a bee - busy as a bee. With such a translation, the meanings of phraseological units in different languages ​​may diverge slightly.

Partial phraseological equivalents can be divided into three groups.
The first group includes phraseological units that coincide in meaning, stylistic coloring and are similar in imagery, but diverge in lexical composition: promise mountains of gold - to promise wonders, to promise the moon; visiting is good, but home is better – East or West, home is the best; buy a pig in a poke – to buy pig in a poke; the first swallow – the first portent (sign); the game is not worth the candle. Some of these phrases are translated using antonymic translation, i.e. the negative meaning is conveyed by the translator using an affirmative construction or, vice versa (chickens are counted in the fall - don’t count your chickens before they are hatched).

The second group includes phraseological units that match in meaning, imagery, lexical composition and stylistic coloring; but they differ in such formal characteristics as the number and order of words, for example: to play into someone’s hands - to play into smb.’s hands (here there is a discrepancy in number); all is not gold that glitters (divergence in word order); not to see the forest for the trees - not to see the wood for the trees (divergence in word order).

The third group includes phraseological units that coincide in all respects, with the exception of imagery. In Russian we say - go to the side, while the English equivalent is the usual - to go to bed. In Russian there is a phrase - to be in full view, and in English in such cases it is customary to say - to spread before the eyes, to be an open book.

When translating, first of all it is necessary to establish what kind of phraseological unit it is: complete or partial. We should also not forget that phraseological units are also characterized by homonymy and polysemy. For example, the phrase to burn one’s fingers has the meaning 1. to burn one’s fingers and 2. to get burned on something, to make a mistake. “Don’t mention it” can mean: “Don’t remind me of this” and “No thanks, please.”

Particularly difficult for translation are the author’s transformations, which may include:

1. introduction of new components into phraseological circulation. For example, to put the cart before the horse (do the opposite) - “Let’s not put the cart too far ahead of the horse” (E.S. Gardner).

2. updating the lexical and grammatical composition of a phraseological unit as a result of replacing its individual components with other words. For example, to have a millstone about one’s neck (wear a heavy stone on your heart) - have an albatross about one’s neck (literally – wear an albatross on your neck)

3. splitting a phraseological unit and using its component (or components) as part of a variable phrase.

1. bringing the phraseological unit incompletely, retaining only part of the components.

2.4 Biblicalisms

The Bible is the main literary source of phraseological units. This greatest work has enriched not only the English language with phraseological units, but also many other languages ​​of the world. It had a significant influence on the formation of the worldview and linguistic consciousness of different peoples of the world. The “Book of Books” became the source of an endless number of quotations and allusions, many lexical units and set expressions, as well as symbolic designations.

Recently, researchers have begun to show more interest and attention to biblicalisms. Dictionaries-reference books appear, which explain the origin of many biblical words, as well as works devoted to them, both in individual languages ​​and in several languages. However, a holistic multidimensional description of these phraseological units, as well as a comparative analysis of biblical units in such related but diverse languages ​​as English, Spanish and Russian, has not yet been undertaken.
The study of phraseological units of biblical origin in several languages ​​is of particular interest due to their specificity: on the one hand, biblical units have all the properties of phraseological units, and on the other, they represent a phraseological microsystem, the basis for unification into which is a common source - the Bible. For centuries, the Bible was the most widely read and quoted book in England. The number of biblical phrases and expressions that have entered the English language is so large that collecting and listing them would be a very difficult task. To expressions used in modern English speech and whose biblical origin is firmly established are the following:

The apple of Sodom is a beautiful but rotten fruit; deceptive success;

The beam (the mote) in one’s eye - “log” in one’s own eye; own big flaw;

The blind leading the blind - the blind leads the blind;

By the sweat of one’s brow - by the sweat of one’s brow;

The camel and the needle’s eye is an allusion to the Gospel saying, translated from Latin: It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of heaven.

Can the leopard change his spots? - leopard change his spots;

A crown of glory - crown of glory;

Daily bread - daily bread, livelihood;

A drop in the bucket - a drop in the ocean;

A fly in the ointment is a fly in the ointment;

Loaves and fishes - earthly goods (loaves and fishes with which Christ, according to the Gospel tradition, fed hundreds of people who gathered to listen to him);

No man can serve two masters - two masters are not served;

The prodigal son - the prodigal son;

The promised land - the promised land;

A prophet is not without honor, save in his own country - there is no prophet in his own country.

Phraseologisms of biblical origin often differ in meaning from their biblical prototypes. This could happen due to the fact that over time the biblical prototypes are reinterpreted, some words are replaced by others. For example, to kill the fatted calf in the parable of the prodigal son is used in the literal meaning of “slaying a fatted calf.” Later, this turn took on a new meaning of treating the best that is available at home.

2.5. Phraseologisms borrowed from the fiction of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome

In addition to phraseological units taken from the Bible, in the English language, as well as in the languages ​​of other European nations that are heirs of ancient culture, there are many proverbs, aphorisms and figurative expressions that arose from the ancient Greeks and Romans. For example:

the golden age - golden age;

the apple of discord - apple of discord;

Pandora's box - Pandora's box;

Achilles' heel - Achilles heel;

the thread of Ariadne – Ariadne’s thread, a guiding thread, a way to help get out of a difficult situation;

a labor of Sisyphus - Sisyphus’s labor;

Homeric laughter - Homeric laughter (the turnover is associated with Homer’s description of the laughter of the gods);

to blow hot and cold - hesitate, do mutually exclusive things, take an ambivalent position.

Phraseological units that came into the English language from the literature of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome are endowed with extraordinary colorfulness and expressiveness, which explains their prevalence not only in English, but also in other languages ​​of the world.

2.6. Phraseologisms borrowed from the works of Shakespeare.

In modern English there are many phraseological units, the main function of which is to enhance the aesthetic aspect of the language. Many phraseological units originated in connection with customs, realities, and historical facts, but most of the English phraseological fund one way or another arose thanks to artistic literary works.
The works of the famous English classic W. Shakespeare are one of the most important literary sources in terms of the number of phraseological units that have enriched the English language. Their number is over a hundred. Examples of some of the most common Shakespeareanisms:

"Macbeth"
To make assurance double sure - that which fills life, everything in life;

The milk of human kindness - “balm of good nature” (ironically), compassion, humanity;

To win golden opinions - to earn a favorable, flattering opinion about yourself;

"Hamlet"
To be or not to be? - To be or not to be?;

To cudgel one’s brains - to puzzle over (something);

To be hoist with one’s own petard - fall into your own trap;

From whose bourne no traveler returns - where no one has ever returned from (i.e. in the kingdom of death);

"Othello"
The green-eyed monster - “monster with green eyes”, jealousy;

To chronicle small beer - to note little things, insignificant events, to deal with trifles;

The seamy side - the unsightly side, the wrong side of something;

Curled darlings - rich suitors, “golden youth”, rich slackers;

"King Henry IV"

To eat one out of house and home - to ruin a person by living at his expense;

The wish is father to the thought - desire gives rise to thought; people willingly believe what they themselves desire;

The better part of value is discretion - one of the adornments of courage is modesty;

Midsummer madness - insanity;

"Romeo and Juliet"

A fool’s paradise - a fantasy world; illusory happiness;

Neither rhyme nor reason - neither in tune nor in harmony, without any meaning;

In modern English, Shakespearean words can be used with some modifications. For example, the expression to wear one’s heart upon one’s sleeve for days to peck at (“Othello”) - to flaunt one’s feelings (This phraseological unit is associated with the medieval knightly tradition of wearing the colors of one’s lady on the sleeve). In modern English it is usually used in abbreviated form: to wear one’s heart upon one’s sleeve. Also, instead of the preposition upon, another preposition can be used - on. Many Shakespearean expressions acquire lexical variants over time. In modern English speech, Shakespeareanisms are also used, which include obsolete words, i.e. archaisms that are not used anywhere other than this phraseological unit. For example, from whose bourne no traveler returns - where no one has ever returned from (i.e. in the kingdom of death). The word bourne is an archaism and means a boundary or limit; it is used in modern English only within the framework of this phraseological unit.
A large number of phraseological units created by Shakespeare have come into general use, which testifies to both the linguistic genius of Shakespeare and his colossal popularity.

2.7. The meaning of phraseological units and their regional value

The regional value of English phraseological units is very great, because by getting acquainted with a foreign language, assimilating, studying it, a person simultaneously penetrates into a new national culture and receives enormous spiritual wealth stored in the language being studied. In particular, a Russian schoolchild, student, or ordinary person, by mastering a foreign language, in this case English, receives a highly effective opportunity to become familiar with the national culture and history of the people of Great Britain. Phraseology, as an integral part and a kind of treasury of any language in the world, can especially strongly contribute to this familiarization. Phraseologisms and phraseological combinations reflect the centuries-old history of the English people, the originality of their culture, way of life, and traditions. Therefore, phraseological units are highly informative units of the English language. Most idiomatic expressions were created by the people, so they are closely related to the interests and daily activities of ordinary people. Many phraseological units are associated with beliefs and legends. However, most English phraseological units arose in professional speech. All nations, all people should protect and will preserve phraseological units in their integrity, because they are a real treasure that helps to comprehend all the secrets and mysteries of language.

III.Conclusion

As a result of this work, I expanded my knowledge of the English language. I also answered all my questions about phraseology. I found out that in Russian there are equivalents of English phraseological units. Translating English phraseological units into Russian is a very complex process, since it is necessary to take into account the stylistic features of the phraseological unit and preserve its lexical meaning. English is a rich and beautiful language, which is filled with various phraseological units. They give the language figurativeness and expressiveness.

Bibliography:

1. Amosova N.N. Basics of English phraseology. - L., 1989.
2. Zakharova M.A. Strategy of speech use of figurative phraseological units of the English language. – M., 1999.
3. Komissarov V.N. Modern translation studies. – M., 2001.
4. Kunin A.V. English-Russian phraseological dictionary. 3rd ed., stereotype. – M.: Russian language, 2001.
5. Litvinov P.P. English-Russian phraseological dictionary with thematic classification. – M.: Yakhont, 2000.
   

   Slide captions:

   Phraseologisms of the English language The work was completed by a student of class 10A of Municipal Educational Institution Secondary School No. 52 Toropova Ekaterina Supervisor: Klestova Irina Leonidovna

   What is phraseology and phraseological units Phraseology (gr. phrasis - “expression”, logos - “science”) is a linguistic discipline that studies stable combinations of words with a completely or partially rethought meaning - phraseological units (or phraseological units). A phraseological unit, or phraseological unit, is a phrase that is stable in composition and structure, lexically indivisible and integral in meaning, performing the function of a separate lexical unit.

   Phraseologisms include: idioms (burn the candle at both ends); collocations (heavy rain, make a decision); proverbs (if you drive more quietly, you will drive further); sayings (here’s St. George’s day for you, grandma); grammatical phraseological units (almost; almost; whatever it may be); phrase schemes (Y he and in Africa Y).

   Classification of phraseological units of the English language Phraseological conjunctions; Phraseological unities; Phraseological combinations.

   Translation of phraseological units into Russian Translating phraseological units from English into Russian is very difficult, because it is necessary to convey the meaning and display the imagery of the phraseological unit. When translating, first of all it is necessary to establish what kind of phraseological unit it is: complete or partial. We should also not forget that phraseological units are also characterized by homonymy and polysemy.

   Biblicalisms The Bible is the main literary source of phraseological units. This greatest work has enriched not only the English language with phraseological units, but also many other languages ​​of the world. Phraseologisms of biblical origin often differ in meaning from their biblical prototypes. The blind leading the blind - the blind leads the blind; By the sweat of one’s brow - by the sweat of one’s brow;

   Phraseological units borrowed from the fiction of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome Phraseological units that came into English from the literature of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome are endowed with extraordinary colorfulness and expressiveness, which explains their prevalence. the golden age - golden age; the apple of discord - apple of discord;

   Phraseologisms borrowed from the works of Shakespeare. The works of the famous English classic W. Shakespeare are one of the most important literary sources in terms of the number of phraseological units that have enriched the English language. Their number is over a hundred.

   Examples of some of the most common Shakespearean sayings: To make assurance double sure - that which fills life, everything in life; To be or not to be? - to be or not to be?; The seamy side - the unsightly side, the wrong side of something; To eat one out of house and home - to ruin a person by living at his expense; A fool’s paradise - a fantasy world; illusory happiness.

   The significance of phraseological units and their regional value The regional value of English phraseological units is very great, because by getting acquainted with a foreign language, assimilating, studying it, a person simultaneously penetrates into a new national culture and receives enormous spiritual wealth stored in the language being studied. All nations, all people should protect and will preserve phraseological units in their integrity, because they are a real treasure that helps to comprehend all the secrets and mysteries of language.

   Thank you for your attention

Friends, we have mentioned more than once how important the role English plays in modern world and how necessary it is for a person, how important not only “dry” knowledge of grammar is, but also “living” speaking practice . What is the most important thing in communication? Passion, emotions, gestures. This, of course, is in addition to the very essence that needs to be conveyed to the interlocutor. Plus – perception of the information provided and understanding of sometimes incomprehensible expressions that native speakers often use.

Once upon a question “Krista, where are you going?” the unperturbed Krista replied: “I’m going to see a man about a horse”. You can't even imagine our surprise! It turned out that this is a stable expression that is used as a way to report one’s absence without specifying the reason.

In order not to blush in front of your interlocutor, betraying ignorance or incorrectly interpreting his words, get an idea of ​​what phraseological units mean at the English intensive course in Kyiv

Speech is the main way people interact. To convey the meaning of the topic of conversation, mood, attitude to certain circumstances, quotes that are appropriate in a particular situation, proverbs and sayings, and phraseological units are used. The use of figurative expressions highlights widely thinking man who thinks outside the box and has a certain amount of knowledge.

If you follow publications on our blog, you probably remember interesting articles TOP 20 catchphrases in English And 25 proverbs in English that are worth knowing. In them we only partially touched on the topic of set expressions. Today we will look in more detail at what English phraseological units are and how they are translated into Russian.

Phraseologisms in English: what is it?

Phraseologism is a special speech turn, an unchanging phrase that is not taken literally and is not always translated literally. For example:

• Around the clock(literal translation “around the clock”) - used in the meaning of “24 hours”, “day”.
• It is not my cup of tea(“this is not my cup of tea”) – has the meaning “this is not for me” (something inappropriate or unacceptable for a person).

Phraseologisms are divided into several categories:

1. Phraseological units (idioms) are speech patterns whose meaning does not correspond to the meaning of the words used: a bull in a china shop- a bull in a china shop. By itself, this expression does not mean anything, but in context it can describe a clumsy person.
2. Phraseological combinations are expressions in which one word is used freely, and the second is associated with the first: a bosom friend- bosom friend. The word "friend" is widely used, and only in combination with it is the word "bosom" used.
3. Phraseological expressions are ready-made speech patterns that consist of words with a free meaning; they practically do not resemble phraseological units. At the same time, like the previous categories of phraseological units, they are always used precisely and without the use of any synonyms: live and learn- Live and learn.

Interesting phraseological units (idioms) in English with translation

Many English set expressions have analogues in Russian, that is, the direct translation of English phraseological units is simple and understandable. For example:

• Bite your tongue– Bite your tongue (meaning to ask/order someone to be silent).
• It takes two to tango– It takes two to tango (meaning: two are responsible for a particular event).

Some phraseological units of the English language are used in Russian not just with a slightly different translation, they are modified, although they have the same meaning. For example:

• Buy a pig in a poke(buy a pig in a poke) - in Russian we use the expression “buy a pig in a poke” to mean buying something without knowing anything about the product.
• Аs cool as a cucumber(cold as a cucumber) - in Russian we use the expression “calm as a boa constrictor” in relation to a calm, one might even say, imperturbable, cold-blooded person.

Well, in order to better understand the material, we offer a selection of phraseological units in English with translation and explanation. Please use it!

A piece of cake– A piece of pie (have you heard the expression “It’s like eating a piece of pie”? So this means some very easy and simple thing).

A heart-to-heart talk– Heart-to-heart conversation (confidential conversation, discussion of something personal, disclosure of secrets).

When hell freezes– When hell freezes over (that is, never).

Neither here nor there- Neither there nor here (as they say about something inappropriate).

To promise the moon– Promise the moon (which means promising something impossible).

Just what the doctor ordered– What the doctor ordered (that is, what is needed).

It's still all up in the air– It’s still up in the air (an unresolved matter).

Butter the boss up– To butter up the boss (well, you get it, right? To suck up).

Have a frog in the throat– To have a frog in the throat (the meaning of the phraseological unit is the inability to speak due to strong excitement).

A flight of fancy– Flight of fancy (imagination, coming up with something new).

Make a flying visit– Make a passing visit (drop in for a minute).

Smell a rat– Smell something wrong (feel something wrong in something).

Turn over a new leaf– Turn the sheet over (start all over again).

A penny for your thoughts– Penny for your thoughts (this is a way to find out what a person is thinking about).

Cry over spilled milk– Crying over spilled milk (means complaining about something long lost).

Elvis has left the building– Elvis leaves the building (this means the end)

Make a long story short– Make a long story short (cut a long story short and talk to the point).

Come to the point– Get to the point (do not spend time on details, but speak specifically.

Miss the boat– Miss the ship (miss any chance).

A crying shame- Blatant injustice (this is how they are indignant against something dishonest).

Having imbued with simple expressions, you will make your speech more expressive, you will be able to surprise your friends and acquaintances with interesting phrases, easily communicate with native speakers and read between the lines if necessary!

Come to Native English School and demonstrate your new knowledge. Surprise us with interesting phraseological units that are not used in the article. After all, the English language is so diverse... We look forward to taking the express course in spoken English!

The world of phraseology of modern English is large and diverse, and every aspect of its study certainly deserves due attention.

The purpose of this work is to study the ways of formation of phraseological units in the English language.

During the work, the following tasks were set:

1. understand the subject and tasks of phraseology;

2. analyze the equivalence of a phraseological unit to a word;

3. consider the types of phraseological units and the concept of a phraseological system;

4. show the ways in which phraseological units appear in the English language.

For students of English as a foreign language, this layer of the language is difficult to master, but after mastering phraseological units, you can begin to speak like the English and understand them perfectly, as speech readiness increases sharply. You can briefly and very accurately express your thought, being confident in the correctness of its expression. In many cases, knowledge of English phraseology helps to avoid Russianisms, that is, literal translations of sentences from Russian into English.

Thus, from all of the above we can conclude that the relevance of the topic is undeniable.

Chapter 1 Phraseology

1.1 Subject and tasks of phraseology

Phraseology is a branch of linguistics that studies stable combinations in language. Phraseology is also called a set of stable combinations in the language as a whole, in the language of a particular writer, in the language of a separate work of art, etc.

Phraseology emerged relatively recently as an independent linguistic discipline. The subject and tasks, scope and methods of studying phraseology are not yet clearly defined, and therefore have not received full coverage. Less developed than others are questions about the main features of phraseological units in comparison with free phrases, about the classification of phraseological units and their correlation with parts of speech, etc. Linguists have not formed a consensus on what a phraseological unit is; therefore, there is no unity of views on the composition of these units in the language. Some researchers (L.P. Smith, V.P. Zhukov, V.N. Telia, N.M. Shansky, etc.) include stable combinations in phraseology, others (N.N. Amosova, A.M. Babkin , A.I. Smirnitsky, etc.) – only certain groups. Thus, some linguists (including academician V.V. Vinogradov) do not include proverbs, sayings and winged words, considering that they differ in their semantics and syntactic structure from phraseological units. V.V. Vinogradov argued: “Proverbs and sayings have a sentence structure and are not semantic equivalents of words.”

The tasks of phraseology as a linguistic discipline include a comprehensive study of the phraseological fund of a particular language. Important aspects of the study of this science are: the stability of phraseological units, the systematic nature of phraseology and the semantic structure of phraseological units, their origin and main functions. A particularly complex branch of phraseology is the translation of phraseological units, which requires considerable experience in the field of research in this discipline.

Phraseology develops the principles of identifying phraseological units, methods of studying them, classification and phraseography - descriptions in dictionaries.

Phraseology uses various research methods, for example, component analysis of meaning. On the basis of existing research methods in linguistics, “proper phraseological techniques of analysis and description” are being developed:

1. identification method - establishing the identities of words and syntactic structures that form phraseological units with their free analogues;

2. application method, which is a type of identification method, a method limited in the choice of variables, establishing different structural and semantic organizations of phraseological units from combinations formed in accordance with regular patterns of choice and combination, etc. Phraseology offers various types of classifications of the phraseological composition of a language, depending on the properties of phraseological units and methods of their study.

The subject of the history of phraseology is the study of the primary, original forms and meanings of phraseological units, determining their sources from all available monuments, identifying the areas of their use in different eras of the existence of the language, as well as establishing the volume of phraseological composition and its systemic ordering in a particular historical era of language development.

Unfortunately, in the English and American linguistic literature there are few works specifically devoted to the theory of phraseology, but even the most significant works available do not raise such fundamental questions as scientifically based criteria for identifying phraseological units, the relationship between phraseological units and words, the systematic nature of phraseology, phraseological variability, and the method of study phraseology, etc.

Also, English and American scientists do not raise the question of phraseology as a linguistic science. This explains the lack of a name for this discipline in English.

1.2 Types of phraseological units

As you know, phraseological units arise from a free combination of words, which are used in a figurative meaning. Gradually, the portability is forgotten, erased, and the combination becomes stable.

In the English language there are the following typologies of phraseological units *:

1. Typology based on the grammatical similarity of the component composition of phraseological units.

a) a combination of an adjective and a noun:

Vicious circle - vicious circle

The Indian summer - Indian summer

b) when translated into Russian, a combination of a noun in the nominative case with a noun in the genitive case:

Point of view - point of view

c) combination of the prepositional case form of a noun with an adjective:

Be on a good footing - to be on short terms with someone

d) a combination of a verb and a noun (with and without a preposition):

Come to one’s senses - come to your senses

Cock one’s nose - turn up your nose

e) combination of a verb and an adverb:

To see through somebody - to see through

Fly high - to be very ambitious

Get down to earth - go down from the clouds to the ground

f) combination of a participle with a noun:

One’s heart is bleeding - the heart is bleeding

2. Typology based on the correspondence of the syntactic functions of phraseological units and the parts of speech with which they can be replaced.

a) nominal phraseological units:

Swan-song - swan song

(in a sentence they perform the functions of a subject, predicate, object; by the nature of connections with other words, in combination they can control any member and be controlled);

b) verbal phraseological units

Hold one’s ground - hold on very firmly, do not give up your positions

(in a sentence they act as a predicate; in combination with other words they can agree, control and be controlled);

c) adjectival phraseological units

In blooming health - blood with milk

(they have the meaning of a qualitative characteristic and, like adjectives, appear in a sentence as a definition or a nominal part of the predicate);

d) adverbial or adverbial phraseological units:

(like adverbs, they characterize the quality of an action and play the role of circumstances in a sentence);

e) interjection phraseological units:

Good luck! - Good morning!

(like interjections, such phraseological units express will, feelings, acting as separate, undivided sentences).

You can also systematize phraseological units according to other criteria. For example, from the point of view of sound organization, all phraseological units are divided into those ordered by their phonics and neutral.

The former combine phraseological units with a pronounced rhythmic organization, with rhyming elements, and with sound repetitions.

An interesting classification of phraseological units according to their origin.

In this case, we can distinguish native British phraseological units (Fleet Street - a street in London, where the editorial offices of the most popular newspapers were previously located) and phraseological units borrowed from other languages ​​(Tête-à-tête - from French face to face).

A special group includes phraseological units borrowed from the Latin language.

Their source was Christian books (the Bible), subsequently translated into English.

Apple of discord - apple of discord

A significant part of phraseological units are what came into the English language from ancient mythology.

Augean stables - Augean stables

Some phraseological units are calques - a literal translation from the source language.

Phraseologisms are widely used in literature of all styles. And a competent translator should not allow inaccuracies in the translation of this or that phraseological unit. Without knowledge of phraseology, it is impossible to appreciate the brightness and expressiveness of speech, to understand a joke, a play on words, and sometimes simply the meaning of the entire statement.

1.3 The concept of phraseological system

The phraseology of the English language, like vocabulary, is a coherent system.

It has autonomy, since phraseological units are fundamentally different, on the one hand, from individual words, on the other, from free phrases, and at the same time it is part of a more complex system of the national language, being in certain relationships with its different levels.

For example, like words, phraseological units consist of phonemes that perform a meaningful function; this determines the systemic connections of phraseology with the phonemic level of the language.

Phraseologisms relate differently to different parts of speech, which characterizes their systemic connections at the morphological level.

Performing certain syntactic functions in a sentence, phraseological units are in systemic relationships with other linguistic units at the syntactic level.

As part of the phraseological system of the English language, various paradigms (groups) of phraseological units are distinguished, united according to their characteristic features.

In addition to the already mentioned groups of phraseological units, we can consider a number of others, based on their own linguistic characteristics: phraseological units are single-valued and polysemantic, homonymous, synonymous, antonymous and some others.

Also, based on stylistic features, it is necessary to distinguish between stylistically marked and neutral phraseological units, and the former allow us to identify various layers in their composition that differ significantly in stylistic coloring and style affiliation.

Syntagmatic relations of phraseological units are characterized by the possibilities of their compatibility with a certain range of lexical units.

Some phraseological units have very limited compatibility, for example, the phraseological unit into the public eyes, which is combined with the verb to come, to be, but not combined with the verbs to take, to become, etc.

Other phraseological units are characterized by a single, closed combinability; they can be used only with one single word.

However, among phraseological units there are many that have a variety of syntagmatic connections.

Let us dwell in more detail on the systemic connections of phraseological units determined by linguistic features.

Most phraseological units are characterized by unambiguity: they have only one meaning, their semantic structure is quite monolithic and indecomposable:

From the first look - according to first impression

To daydream - indulge in ethereal dreams

But there are phraseological units that have several meanings:

1. do nothing

2. behave frivolously, fool around

3. do stupid things.

Polysemy usually arises in phraseological units that have retained partially motivated meanings in the language.

Moreover, polysemy is easier to develop in phraseological units that have a holistic meaning in their structure, and which can be correlated with phrases.

Modern English is characterized by the development of figurative, phraseological meaning of terminological combinations: specific gravity, center of gravity, fulcrum, lead to common denominator and the like.

Chapter 2 Varieties of phraseological units in English

2.1 Biblicalisms

The Bible is the main literary source of phraseological units. This greatest work has enriched not only the English language with phraseological units, but also many other languages ​​of the world. Much has been said and written about the enormous impact that Bible translations have had on the English language. For centuries, the Bible was the most widely read and quoted book in England: “... not only individual words, but entire idiomatic expressions entered the English language from the pages of the Bible.” The number of biblical phrases and expressions that have entered the English language is so large that collecting and listing them would be a very difficult task. Expressions used in modern English speech, the biblical origin of which is firmly established, include the following:

In addition to the above expressions, which include entire sentences-sayings and various nominal (with the main word noun), attributive and adverbial phrases, many more verb phrases have entered the English language from the Bible:

Phraseologisms of biblical origin often diverge in many ways from their biblical prototypes. This is due in some cases to the fact that the biblical prototype was rethought over time; the order of words in it could also be changed or archaic forms of words were discarded. For example, the phrase to kill the fatted calf in the parable of the prodigal son is used in the literal meaning of “kill the fatted calf.” Later, this turn took on a new meaning of treating the best that is available at home. In the phraseological unit gall and wormwood - something hateful, disgusting, the word order has been changed compared to the biblical prototype and the articles (the wormwood and the gall) have been discarded. In the expression whatever a man sows, that shall he reap - ~ what goes around comes around, the archaic form of the verb to sow is discarded (cf. whatever a man soweth, that shall he reap). There are cases when the biblical phrase is used in a positive sense, and in modern language it is rethought and is a phraseological unit with a negative assessment, for example:

Not to let one’s left hand know what one’s right hand does - the left hand does not know what the right hand is doing (modern version).

When thou doest alms let not thy left hand know what thy right hand does – for you, when you do alms, let your left hand not know what your right hand is doing (biblical prototype).

Some phraseological units go back to the biblical story. Thus, biblical images and concepts can be found in such phraseological units as forbidden fruit, Job’s comforter, Juda’s kiss, a prodigal son, a dead letter; a law or slogan that has lost its meaning.

2.2 Shakespeareisms

In modern English there are many phraseological units, the main function of which is to enhance the aesthetic aspect of the language. Many phraseological units originated in connection with customs, realities, and historical facts, but most of the English phraseological fund, one way or another, arose thanks to artistic and literary works.

The works of the famous English classic W. Shakespeare are one of the most important literary sources in terms of the number of phraseological units that have enriched the English language. Their number is over a hundred. Examples of some of the most common Shakespeareanisms can be given.

"Macbeth"

"Hamlet"

"Othello"

"King Henry IV"

"Twelfth Night"

"As You Like It"

"Midsummer Night's Dream"

"King"

"Much Ado About Nothing"

"Romeo and Juliet"

In modern English, Shakespearean words can be used with some modifications. For example, the expression to wear one’s heart upon one’s sleeve for days to peck at (“Othello”) - flaunt one’s feelings; (~ soul wide open). This phraseological unit is associated with the medieval knightly tradition of wearing the colors of his lady on his sleeve. In modern English it is usually used in abbreviated form: to wear one’s heart upon one’s sleeve. Also, instead of the preposition upon Another preposition may be used – on. For example: “It’s lovely to be able to tell the world what she means to me.” Howard … adds: “I never back off from showing my emotions whatever they are.” I think if we all wore our hearts on our sleeves a bit more we’d all get on a lot better” (The times)

Shakespeareanism the better part of valour is discretion (“King Henry IV”) – one of the adornments of courage – modesty exists in modern English with a changed word order: discretion is the better part of valour.

In Shakespeareanism, buy golden opinions - to earn a favorable, flattering opinion about oneself, to evoke admiration in modern language, instead of the verb buy, the verb win is used.

The expression at one fell swoop (“Macbeth”) - with one blow, in one fell swoop, at one moment, immediately began to be used in the abbreviated form at one swoop. For example: “They go quick, one after another – five of them vanished already at one swoop.”

In modern English speech, Shakespeareanisms are also used, which include obsolete words, i.e. archaisms that are not used anywhere other than this phraseological unit. For example, from whose bourne no traveler returns - where no one has ever returned, that is, in the kingdom of death. The word bourne is an archaism and means a boundary or limit; it is used in modern English only within the framework of this phraseological unit.

A large number of phraseological units created by Shakespeare have come into general use, which testifies to both the linguistic genius of Shakespeare and his colossal popularity.

2.3 Statements of English writers that became phraseological units

In addition to Shakespeare, many other writers have enriched the English phraseological fund. Chief among them are Alexander Pope, Walter Scott, Geoffrey Chaucer, John Milton and Charles Dickens.

Alexander Pop:

Walter Scott:

Geoffrey Chaucer:

John Milton:

Charles Dickens:

The statements of other English writers usually remain quotations and only in rare cases replenish the phraseological fund of the English language, entering colloquial speech. Here are some examples of such statements (the phraseological units listed below are classified according to the time of creation of the work in which this phraseological unit is used).

J. Arbuthnot: John Bull - “John Bull” (a mocking nickname for the British). The phrase was first used by the court physician J. Arbuthnot in the satirical pamphlet “Law is a Bottomless Pit” (1712), later republished under the title “The History of John Bull.”

J. Gay: (as) cool as a cucumber - completely unperturbed, calm; ~ does not blow his mustache, and does not blink an eye (“Poems on Several Occasions”).

D. Defoe: man Friday - Friday; faithful faithful servant (named after the faithful servant in the novel Robinson Crusoe); a gentleman’s gentleman – “a gentleman serving a gentleman”, a servant (“Everybody’s Business”).

S. T. Coleridge: an albatross about one’s neck - a constant reminder of someone’s guilt; a sad circumstance (Coleridge’s poem “The Ancient Mariner” talks about a sailor who, by killing an albatross, brought disaster on his ship and was forced to wear the dead albatross around his neck as punishment).

K. Marlowe: to clip smb.’s wings - to clip someone’s wings.

L. Chesterfield: small talk - chatter, talk about trifles, about the weather (“Letters to his Son”).

J. G. Byron: (as) merry as a marriage-bell - very cheerful, cheerful, full of life(Child Harold's Pilgrimage).

W. Wordsworth: the child is father of the man - the traits of an adult are already embedded in the child.

J. Poole: Paul Pry is a person who sticks his nose into other people’s affairs, an overly curious person (the main character in the comedy “Paul Pry”).

A. Tennyson: a little rift within the lute – the beginning of discord or madness; wormhole, “crack” (“Idylls of the King, Merlin and Vivien”).

A. O. Shaughnessy: mover and shaker - an influential person, a leader of public opinion, making politics.

R. Kipling: the tail wags the dog - “the tail wags the dog”, the subordinate commands the superior (“The Conundrum of the Workshops”).

Ch. Snow: corridors of power - corridors of power (book title).

Many phraseological units were not created by the writers themselves, but only thanks to the latter they became widespread in modern English. Here are examples. The saying to be on the side of the angels (literally: to be on the side of the angels), to insist on the traditional (anti-scientific) point of view, gained popularity thanks to B. Disraeli. The phraseological unit vanity fair, which is the title of the famous novel by W. Thackeray, is found in the book by J. Bunyan “Pilgrim’s Progress” (1678 – 1684). Phraseological unit a skeleton in the closet – a family secret, hidden from outsiders, introduced into literature by W. Thackeray, was also known before him. Comparisons green like a Cheshire cat – grin, smile from ear to ear; (as) mad as a hatter and (as) mad as a March hare - out of my mind, crazy, completely out of my mind - popularized by L. Carroll in the book “Alice in Wonderland”.

2.4 Phraseologisms borrowed from literary works of other languages ​​and countries

Many phraseological units came to England from USA. They belong to intralingual borrowings. Some of these phraseological units were once created by American writers and became widespread in modern English speech.

The creators of many revolutions are known.

V. Irving: the almighty dollar - “almighty dollar” (usually used ironically); a Rip Van Winkle - “Rip Van Winkle,” a retarded man (named after the hero of the story of the same name who slept for twenty years).

E. O’Connor: the last hurrah - “last hurray”; ~ swan song (usually about the last election campaign, or about a politician ending his stormy political career. Based on the title of the novel).

F. Cooper: the last of the Mohicans - the last of the Mohicans (based on the title of the novel). The Mohicans are an extinct tribe of North American Indians. The popularity of Cooper's works contributed to the introduction into the English language of phraseological units related to the life of the Indians: bury the hatchet - make peace, make peace, stop hostility (the Indians buried a tomahawk in the ground when making peace); dig up the hatchet - start a war (the Indians had a custom before starting hostilities to pull out a tomahawk buried in the ground); go on the war-path - to take the path of war, to be in a warlike mood.

G. Longfellow: ships that pass in the night - fleeting, chance encounters (“Tales of Wayside Inn”) (comparison: they separated like ships at sea). The popularity of the expression is also associated with its use as the title of one of the novels of the writer Beatrice Harraden (1893).

J. London: the call of the wild - “call of the ancestors”, “call of nature” (after the title of the novel); the iron heel, imperialism (based on the title of the novel).

M. Mitchell: gone with the wind – disappeared without a trace, sunk into the past (the expression became popular after the publication of M. Mitchell’s novel “Gone With the Wind”) and the film based on this novel was created by the English poet E. . Dawson (1867 – 1900).

J. Howe: the grapes of wrath (the phrase first appears in the work of J. Howe “Battle Hymn of the Republic” (1862), owes its popularity to J. Steinbeck’s novel of the same name).

The number of phraseological units borrowed from American fiction is not as large as the number of phraseological units created by English writers. But it should be noted that the Americanisms given above have the most vivid imagery and increased expressiveness compared to the statements of English writers.

French fiction made a significant contribution to the phraseological fund of modern English. Many works of French writers have been translated into English and are still widely popular in England. In this regard, it is worth highlighting such French writers as: Francois Rabelais, Jean Baptiste Moliere, Jerome d'Angers, La Fontaine and others.

We can give examples of phraseological units created by French writers and most used in modern English (all of the following phraseological units, borrowed from French fiction, are translations and are presented in English - in their original form these phraseological units are not used in modern English speech):

Appetite comes with eating - appetite comes while eating (the expression first appears in the essay “On Causes” (1515) by Jerome d’Angers, bishop of Le Mans; popularized by Francois Rabelais in “Gargantua and Pantagruel”);

Buridan's ass - Buridan's donkey (about a person who does not dare to make a choice between two equivalent objects, equivalent decisions, etc.) (The 14th century French philosopher Buridan is credited with a story about a donkey who died of hunger, since he did not dare to make a choice between two identical armfuls of hay. This story was allegedly given by Buridan as an example in his discussions of free will. The phraseology an ass (or a donkey) between two bundles of hay goes back to this story. castles in Spain - castles in the air (an expression associated with the medieval heroic epic, the heroes of which, knights, received unconquered castles in Spain into personal possession);

For smb.’s fair eyes (or for the fair eyes of smb.) - for the sake of someone’s beautiful eyes, not for the sake of his merits, but according to personal disposition, for nothing, for nothing (an expression from J. B. Moliere’s comedy “Pimps”);

Let us return to our muttons - let’s return to the topic of our conversation (an expression from Blanchet’s medieval farce about the lawyer Patlen; later, by reverse formation, the infinitive arose to return to one’s muttons);

To pull smb.’s (or the) chestnuts out of the fire (for smb.) - to pull chestnuts out of the fire for someone; it is pointless, at the risk of oneself, to work for the benefit of another (in La Fontaine’s fable “The Monkey and the Cat” - the monkey Bertrand forces the cat Raton to carry chestnuts from the fire for himself). The expression “to make a cat’s paw of smb” is associated with the same fable. - to make someone your obedient instrument - to rake in the heat with someone else’s hands).

It should be noted that the number of phraseological units borrowed from French fiction into the English language is not large, but despite this, they are often used by English writers to enhance imagery and are widespread in modern English speech.

Phraseological borrowings from German and Danish fiction few. Only a few writers from Germany and Denmark added “catchphrase” expressions to the English phraseological fund. Here are examples of these phraseological units:

Speech is silvern, silence is golden - “the word is silver, silence is gold”; the proverb first appears in German writer Thomas Carlyle: As the Swiss Inscription says: Sprechen ist silbern, schweigen ist golden (speech is silvern, silence is golden) (“Sartor Resartus”);

Storm and stress - “storm and stress” (a movement in German literature of the 70-80s of the 18th century); period of anxiety, excitement; tension (in public or personal life), rapid onslaught (German: Sturm und Drang - after the title of the play by F. Klinger);

Between hammer and anvil - between a hammer and an anvil (after the title of the novel (1868) by the German writer F. Spielhagen);

The emperor has (or wears) no clothes - the king is naked (an expression from the fairy tale by the Danish writer H.H. Andersen “The King’s New Clothes”, 1837);

An ugly duckling - “ugly duckling” (a person unfairly valued below his merits, which manifest themselves unexpectedly to others; according to the title of the fairy tale by H. H. Andersen about the ugly duckling who grew up and became a beautiful swan).

In modern English there are only a few phraseological units borrowed from spanish fiction. In this regard, one should highlight one of the most famous Spanish writers, Miguel De Cervantes Saavedra, who became famous throughout the world for his work “Don Quixote”. Miguel De Cervantes Saavedra is the author of the following phraseological units:

The knight of the Rueful Countenance - (book) knight of the Sad Image, Don Quixote (Spanish el Caballero de la triste figura. This is what Don Quixote called his squire Sancho Panza);

Tilt at windmills - fight with windmills, “quixotic” (Spanish: acometer molinos de viento. The battle with windmills is one of the episodes in the novel “Don Quixote”).

Currently, in the English language there are many phraseological units of Spanish origin, but only those phraseological units given above have literary roots.

Also in English there are phraseological units associated with Arabic artistic literature. Several expressions came into the English language from the tales of the Arabian Nights:

Aladdin’s lamp (book) – Aladdin’s magic lamp (a talisman that fulfills all the wishes of its owner). The phraseological unit to rub the lamp is associated with the same fairy tale. – it’s easy to fulfill your desire;

Alnascharn's dream (book) - empty dreams, fantasizing (one of the tales of the Arabian Nights talks about Alnascharn, who bought glassware with all his money and put them in a basket, but, dreaming about how he would become rich man, and angry at his future wife, hit the basket and broke all the glass);

The old man of the sea - a person from whom it is difficult to get rid of, an obsessive person (an allusion to an episode in one of the fairy tales, which tells how Sinbad the Sailor could not get rid of the old man who sat on his shoulders);

An open Sesame - “Open Sesame!” - a quick and easy way to achieve something (magic words with the help of which the door to the robbers’ cave was opened in the fairy tale “Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves”).

The fact that some expressions borrowed from Arabic folklore have become phraseological units of modern English testifies to the metaphorical and expressive nature of these phraseological units. Similar concepts exist in other languages ​​of the world, in this case we can talk about the internationality of phraseological units borrowed from Arabic literature.

Conclusion

The phraseological fund of the English language is so large that its complete study would not fit into the scope of this work. Nevertheless, using the example of the phraseological units considered, one can clearly imagine how diverse in their semantics and expressiveness the phraseological units of the modern English language are. Thanks to the literary works of writers and poets, both in Great Britain and around the world, the English language currently has a huge number of phraseological units. But we should not forget that a huge number of phraseological units also came into the English language from the history and culture of various countries of the world.

Unfortunately, in modern English speech there is no use of expressions taken from the literature of Asian countries. Only phraseological units borrowed from the literature of countries, one way or another, territorially close to Great Britain have become widespread. It should be noted that the number of biblicalisms in the English language is especially large; this may indicate the religiosity of the English.

An important fact is that all non-English literary borrowings presented in this work are complete tracings from one language or another. In modern English, these phraseological units are not used in a foreign language form. Therefore, we cannot talk here about the process of assimilation of phraseological units borrowed from the fiction of various countries.

The expression “enrich with phraseological units” is often used in the work. It must be said that this is not a simple pattern, because phraseology is a treasury of language, and phraseological units in a language are wealth. Phraseologisms not only reflect the culture and way of life of a particular language, but also help make speech more expressive and emotional.

Phraseology is an extremely complex phenomenon, the study of which requires its own research method, as well as the use of data from other sciences - lexicology, grammar, stylistics, phonetics, history of language, history, philosophy, logic and regional studies.

Bibliography

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Course work

English phraseological units as a reflection of English national culture.

"Linguistic support of intercultural communications (foreign economic relations)"

Introduction

Conclusion

Bibliography

Summary

Theme of the course work

"English phraseological units as a reflection of English national culture"

Coursework contains: 29 pages, 10 sources.

Keywords: phraseology, phraseological unit, idiom, idiomatic expression.

Targetwork - to identify the specifics of English phraseological units that reflect the English national character.

Tasks works:

• Consider phraseology as an independent discipline of the English language.
• Cover the subject and main tasks of phraseology.
• Consider the concept of idiom and idiomatic expression.
• Explore the specifics of English phraseological units that reflect the characteristics of English national culture.

Objectresearch is the study of the phraseology of the English language and its features.

Subjectresearch are English phraseological units reflecting national character, as one of the aspects of English culture.

Introduction

The course work is devoted to the study of phraseology and the reflection of English phraseological units in English culture. Phraseology is a branch of linguistics that studies the phraseological composition of a language in its current state and historical development.

A phraseological unit is a stable combination of words, which is characterized by a constant lexical composition, grammatical structure and a meaning known to native speakers of a given language (in most cases, figurative) that cannot be deduced from the meaning of the components that make up the phraseological unit. This meaning is reproduced in speech in accordance with historically established norms of use.

RelevanceThe topic of the study is determined by the importance of using phraseological units in our speech, because it is the properties of phraseological units, such as imagery, expressiveness and unity of meaning that make our speech brighter, more emotional, more figurative and expressive, regardless of what language we speak - Russian or English .

Targetwork - identifying English phraseological units and determining how English culture is reflected in them, finding their Russian equivalents.

Chapter I. Fundamentals of phraseology as a branch of linguistics

1.1 The main tasks of phraseology and the subject of its study

Phraseology is a branch of linguistics that studies stable combinations in language. Phraseology is also called a set of stable combinations in the language as a whole, in the language of a particular writer, in the language of a separate work of art, etc. The range of studies of phraseology includes only phraseological units (PU), which are called differently in different sources: “indecomposable combinations” (Shakhmatov), ​​“stable combinations” (Abakumov).

We can identify some tasks of phraseology. Firstly, phraseological units need clear systematization and classification. Secondly, without tracing her path historical development, it is impossible to fully understand the essence of phraseological units and, therefore, accurately determine their meaning and application in speech. Having considered the tasks of phraseology, we can confidently say that this relatively new science no longer fits into the framework of lexicology and stylistics, although it closely borders on them. The term phraseology was introduced by the Swiss scientist C. Bally in 1905 to mean a section of stylistics that studies related combinations. He is also considered the founder of the theory of phraseology, since, firstly, he included a chapter on phraseology in his textbook on stylistics, and, secondly, he systematized phrases in two of his books: “Essays on Stylistics” and “French Stylistics.” So, the tasks of phraseology as a linguistic discipline include a comprehensive study of the phraseological fund of a particular language.

English phraseology verbalization linguistics

1.2 Phraseologisms of modern English

1.2.1 Method of classification of phraseological units according to V.V. Vinogradov

As you know, phraseological units arise from a free combination of words, which are used in a figurative meaning. Gradually, the portability is forgotten, erased, and the combination becomes stable. Depending on how much the nominative meanings of the components of a phraseological unit are erased, how strong the figurative meaning is in them, Academician V.V. Vinogradov divides them into three types: “phraseological fusions, phraseological unities and phraseological combinations,” which was a huge contribution to the development of the theory of stable combinations from the point of view of the semantic unity of their components:

· Phraseological adhesionsnecessarily characterized by semantic indecomposability and, optionally, grammatical or syntactic indecomposability.

· The second group includes phraseological unities, which differ from the first group of combinations by greater independence of components and semantic decomposability.

· To the last group V.V. Vinogradov took phraseological combinations, which are closest to variable combinations, although they consist of words with limited compatibility.

Let us consider these types of phraseological units in relation to modern English.

1.2.2 Phraseological adjunctions

Phraseological adhesions, or idioms, are absolutely indivisible, indecomposable stable combinations, the general meaning of which does not depend on the meaning of their constituent words: kick the bucket (colloquial) - bend over, die; = stretch your legs; send smb. to Coventry - boycott someone, stop communicating with someone; at bay - driven, in a hopeless situation; be at smb. s beck and call - to be always ready for services; = to be at your beck and call; to rain cats and dogs - pour like buckets (about rain); be all thumbs - to be awkward, clumsy; Kilkenny cats are mortal enemies. Phraseological adhesions arose on the basis of figurative meanings of their components, but subsequently these figurative meanings became incomprehensible from the point of view of modern language. “The imagery of phraseological fusions is revealed only historically.” For example, the words “bay” and “beck” are archaisms and are not used anywhere except the phraseological unit given above. Or, for example, the expression to be all thumbs was historically formed from the expression one s fingers are all thumbs. We see something similar in the phraseological units Kilkenny cats (which, apparently, goes back to the legend of a fierce struggle between the cities of Kilkenny and Irishtown in the 17th century, which led to their ruin and send smb. to Coventry (in Clarendon’s book “The History of the Great Rebellion and Civil Wars in England" tells that during the English Revolution in the city of Coventry there was a prison in which exiled royalists were kept.

Thus, in phraseological fusions the connection between direct and figurative meanings has been lost; the figurative has become the main one for them. That is why phraseological fusions are difficult to translate into other languages.

Phraseological fusions have a number of characteristic features:

They may include so-called necrotisms - words that are not used anywhere except for this fusion and are therefore incomprehensible from the point of view of modern language;

The composition of adhesions may include archaisms;

They are syntactically indecomposable;

In most cases, it is impossible to rearrange the components;

They are characterized by impenetrability - they do not allow additional words into their composition.

Losing their independent lexical meaning, “...words included in the structure of a phraseological fusion turn into components of a complex lexical unit, which approaches the meaning of a separate word.” Therefore, many phraseological combinations are synonymous with the words: kick the bucket - to die;; send smb. to Coventry - to ignore, etc.

1.2.3 Phraseological unities

Phraseological unities are such stable combinations of words in which, in the presence of a common figurative meaning, the signs of semantic separation of components are clearly preserved: to spill the beans to burn bridges to have other fish to fry, to throw dust into smb. s; to burn one s; to throw mud at smb.; to be narrow in the; to paint the devil blacker than he is - to thicken the paint; to put a spoke in smb. s wheel - to put spokes in the wheels; to hold one s cards close to one s chest - ; to gild refined gold - ; to paint the lily. Characteristic features of phraseological units:

Vivid imagery and the resulting possibility of coincidence with parallel existing phrases (cf.: to throw dust into smb. s eyes, to be narrow in the shoulders, to burn one's fingers, to bridge burns);

Preserving the semantics of individual components (to put a spoke in smb. s wheel);

Inability to replace some components with others (to hold one s cards close to ones chest);

Emotionally expressive coloring plays a decisive role (to throw dust into smb. s eyes, to paint the devil blacker than he is);

The ability to enter into synonymous relationships with individual words or other phraseological units (to gild refined gold = to paint the lily).

1.2.4 Phraseological combinations

Phraseological combinations are stable phrases that include words with both free and phraseologically related meanings: a bosom friend, a pitched battle, (to have) a narrow escape, to frown one s eyebrows, Adam s apple, a Sisyfean labor - , rack one s brains, to pay attention to smb. In contrast to phraseological adhesions and phraseological unities, which have a holistic, indecomposable meaning, “phraseological combinations are characterized by semantic decomposability.” In this respect, they come close to free phrases.

The promotion of reproducibility as the main feature of phraseological units allowed Professor N.M. Shansky to further develop the classification of Academician V.V. Vinogradov and identify the fourth type of phraseological units - the so-called “phraseological expressions”.

1.2.5 Phraseological expressions

Phraseological expressions include phraseological units that are stable in their composition and use, which consist entirely of words with “a free nominative meaning and are semantically divisible.” Their only feature is reproducibility: they are used as ready-made speech units with a constant lexical composition and certain semantics.

Phraseological expressions are only phrases with the literal meaning of the components. Phraseological expressions include numerous English proverbs and sayings that are used in their literal meaning and do not have a figurative allegorical meaning: live and learn; better untaught than ill taught; many men, many minds; easier said then done; nothing is impossible to a willing heart.

Good knowledge language is impossible without knowledge of its phraseology. Reasonable use of phraseological units makes speech more idiomatic. Unfortunately, in English and American linguistic literature there are few works specifically devoted to the theory of phraseology, but even the most significant works available (A. McKay, W. Weinreich, L.P. Smith) do not pose such fundamental questions as scientifically based criteria for identifying phraseological units , correlation of phraseological units and words, systematicity of phraseology, phraseological variability, phrase formation, method of studying phraseology, etc.

Chapter II. Verbalization of phraseological units reflecting the English mentality

Transmitting phraseological units into English is a very difficult task. “Due to its semantic richness, imagery, brevity and brightness, phraseology plays a very important role in the language.” It gives expressiveness and originality to speech. Phraseologisms are used especially widely in oral speech, fiction and political literature.

IN English character Anglo-Saxon practicality with Celtic dreaminess, the pirate courage of the Vikings with the discipline of the Normans were embodied.

The first and most obvious feature of this nation is the stability and constancy of character of its constituent individuals. They are less susceptible to the influence of time than others. The curiosity of the British allowed them to get acquainted with the best of what other peoples have, and yet they remained true to their traditions. While an Englishman admires French cuisine, he will not imitate it at home. Representing the embodiment of conformism, the British at the same time retain their individuality. It cannot be said that the British have never changed. Changes occur constantly, but these differences, so visible on the surface, do not affect nations. The British are slow-moving, tend to avoid sharp corners, and have an inherent desire to be away from prying eyes, which gives rise to a cult of privacy.

Modern Englishmen consider self-control to be the chief virtue of human character. In joy and sorrow, in success and failure, a person must remain unperturbed at least externally, and even better if internally. From childhood, an Englishman is taught to calmly endure cold and hunger, overcome pain and fear, curb attachments and aversions.

He loves good transport, a fresh suit, a rich library.

No noise or scream will confuse him. He won't stop for a minute. The English people of the common class are extremely friendly and helpful. An Englishman will take a foreigner with some question by the shoulder and begin to show him the way with various visual techniques, repeating the same thing several times, and then he will look after him for a long time, not believing that the questioner could understand everything so quickly.

No one knows how to manage their time and money as strictly as an Englishman. He works extremely hard, but always finds time to relax. During working hours, he works without straightening his back, straining all his mental and physical strength; in his free time, he willingly indulges in pleasure.

The Englishman is very vain. Therefore, he looks at the foreigner arrogantly, with pity and often with complete contempt. This deficiency among the English developed due to a lack of sociability and an exaggerated consciousness of their superiority over others.

The British travel a lot and always try to learn more facts, but they get very little close to the people of the countries they visit. Etiquette, pride, misunderstanding of foreign customs and contempt for them do not allow them to get close to foreigners in a foreign land.

The house serves as a fortress for the Englishman, where he is able to hide not only from uninvited visitors, but also from annoying worries. Outside the threshold of his home, he is completely freed from everyday affairs. The British know how to feel at home as if in another world and at the same time respect the home life of other people.

They like to live surrounded by familiar things. In home decoration, as in many other things, he primarily values ​​antiquity and good quality. Gardening is the national passion of the British, the key to understanding many aspects of their character and attitude to life. Thanks to the moderate, humid climate in England, the grass is green all year round and something is almost always in bloom, so the gardener can work in the fresh air for a long time and admire the fruits of his labor. Roses and chrysanthemums continue to bloom in the open ground almost until Christmas, and already in early March the buds of crocuses and daffodils remind of the arrival of spring.

Another passion in which the Englishman’s personal qualities are manifested is pets.

There are a surprising number of people here who raise dogs, cats, horses, cows, sheep or pigs. London parks can rightly be called a land of unafraid birds and animals.

Every living creature in England is accustomed to seeing a person as a friend and benefactor. Dogs and cats are surrounded by such care. For them, a dog or cat is the most beloved member of the family and often seems to be the most pleasant company.

The British believe that excessive displays of parental love and tenderness harm children's character. It is their tradition to treat children with restraint, even coolness.

This instructs parents to curb their feelings, and children - willy-nilly to get used to it. The disciplining influence of parents is exerted on children from a young age.

1. Strictness in education and discipline

One of the most important life principles of the British can be expressed by the following formula: “We did not come into this world to have fun.” It is on this that many distinctive features of their character and way of life are based. And it all begins with the birth and upbringing of a child. It is customary to keep children strictly, and the higher in society you are, the more strict there is.

English proverbRussian equivalentA sound mind in a sound body. In a healthy body healthy mind. After dinner sit (sleep) a while, after supper walk a mile. After lunch, sit (sleep) a little, after dinner, walk a mile. An apple a day keeps the doctor away. Eat an apple a day and you won't need a doctor. An early riser is sure to be in luck. Good luck awaits those who get up early. An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening. The morning is wiser than the evening. Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise. If you go to bed early and get up early, you will become healthy, rich and wise. Go to bed with the lamb and rise with the lark. Go to bed with the chickens, get up with the rooster. The early bird cleans its sock, and the late bird opens its eyes. Hasty climbers have sudden falls. The quieter you go, the further you'll get. Not that will thrive, must rise at five. Whoever gets up early, God bless him. If you get up early, you will work more. Rome was not built in a day. Moscow was not built in a day. The early bird catches the worm. Whoever gets up early, God gives him.

2. Restraint in words, emotions and actions

The result of strict upbringing is the famous English restraint, the desire to hide emotions and save face. “Silence is golden,” “empty oars make louder noise” are taught to English children from a very early age.

English proverbRussian equivalentA word spoken is past recalling. A word is stronger than an arrow. Anger and haste hinder good counsel. Be angry, but do not sin. Don't punish in anger. Be swift to hear, slow to speak. Listen more, talk less. Better the foot slip than the tongue. It's better to slip up than to make a mistake. The word is not a sparrow: if it flies out, you won’t catch it. First think, then speak. If you say it, you won’t turn it back. Think first, and then tell us. Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice. Listen more, talk less. Cannot speak well that cannot hold his tongue. He who does not know how to be silent cannot speak well. Doesn't know much who knows how to hold his tongue. A smart person doesn't waste words. Keep your mouth shut and your ears open. Talk less, listen more. Least said, soonest mended. The less said, the faster it is fixed. Silence is golden. The word is silver, silence is gold.

. Efficiency and prudence

The British also went down in history as shrewd entrepreneurs, energetic and tireless in inventing ways to do business and get rich.

English proverbRussian equivalentA bargain is a bargain. A bargain is a bargain. A civil denial is better than a rude grant. A bad peace is better than a good quarrel. A heavy purse makes a light heart. If you have something to clink, you can also grunt. A light purse is a heavy curse. The worst of all troubles is when there is no money. A penny saved is a penny gained. A penny saves the ruble. A penny soul never came to twopence. To feel sorry for an altyn is to lose half a dime. Better give a shilling than lend a half-crown. It is better to give a shilling than to lend half a crown. Debt is the worst poverty. Debt is a painful burden - it takes away sleep and time. Even reckoning makes long friends. The expense of friendship is not a hindrance. The friendship score does not spoil. Score more often - friendship is sweeter. Not that has no money needs no purse. He who doesn't have money doesn't need a wallet. Keep a thing seven years and you will find a use for it. Any rag will come in handy at three years old. No bees, no honey; no work, no money. If you want to eat rolls, don’t lie on the stove. Strike while the iron is hot. Strike while the iron is hot.

. Love of order and queues

Perhaps the strongest emotional indignation among the British is caused by a disdainful attitude towards queues, which are the subject of special worship. The British themselves, as they aptly put it, form a queue of even one person.

English proverbRussian equivalentAll in good time. Everything has its time. Cleanliness is next to godliness. Cleanliness is the best beauty. Custom is a second nature. Habit is second nature. The goat shakes his beard, he’s used to it from a young age. Failing to plan is planning to fail. He who does not plan his own victory is planning someone else's. First come, first served. Those who came late will have a gnawed corn. Late Guest gnaws even the bone. Came late, found the bones. Doesn't smells best that smells of nothing. The one that smells best is the one that doesn’t smell like anything.

. Gluttony

This trait is recognized as typical of the English and is condemned.

English proverbRussian equivalentGluttony is the sin of England. Gluttony is the sin of England. Gluttony kills more men than the sword. More people die from gluttony than from the sword. They don’t die of hunger, they only become plump, but they burst from gluttony. Greedy eaters dig their grades with their teeth. Disease enters through the mouth, and trouble comes out.

. Man is the master of his destiny

In a number of proverbs there is a theme about a person as the master of his destiny, that a person should not give up, but achieve his goal, hope for the best.

English proverbRussian equivalentCheek brings success. Cheek brings success. Success is inseparable from the brave. Every man for himself. Trust in God, and don’t make a mistake yourself. Every man is an architect of his own fortune. Everyone is a blacksmith to his own fortune. Happiness does not float in the air, but is achieved by hand. Faint heart never won fair lady. He who dared ate it. The city takes courage (prowess). God helps those who help themselves. Trust in God, and don’t make a mistake yourself. Not who hesitates is lost. Delay is like death. If at first you don t succeed, try, try, try again. Patience and a little effort. Nothing is impossible to a willing heart. If there was a hunt, there would be an opportunity. Where there s a will there s a way. If there was a hunt, any job would work out. Where there is will, there is ability. You never know what you can do till you try. The eyes are afraid, but the hands are doing.

. The value of time

The British value time and emphasize its transience and variability. This can be judged by the following proverbs:

8. Family

All in good time. Everything has its time. An hour in the morning is worth two in the evening. The morning is wiser than the evening. Never put off till tomorrow what you can do today. Never put off until tomorrow what you can do today. One cannot put back the clock. You can't undo the past. One today is worth two tomorrows. One "now" better than two tomorrows . The early bird catches the worm. Whoever gets up early, God gives him. What greater crime than loss of time? Money is lost - you can make money; time is lost - you will not get it back. The theme of family relationships, the relationship between parents and children, is very common in English proverbs.

English proverbRussian equivalentA good Jack makes a good Jill. A good husband and a good wife. A good wife makes a good husband. A good wife and an honest husband. A good wife and a bad husband will do well. A man s mother is his other God. Mother is the second God. A miserly father makes a prodigal son. It happens that the father saves, and the son wastes money. The father saved up, but the son became cowardly. The stingy die, and the children open the chests. Behind every great man there s a great woman. The husband is the head, and the wife is the neck. Husband and wife, one of Satan. Children are poor men s riches. What a treasure when the children get along well. Every mother thinks her own gosling a swan. Although the child is crooked, it is a wonder for the father and mother. Happy is he that is happy in his children. What a treasure, if the children get along well. Parents are patterns. You can't expect a good breed from a bad seed.

. House

The importance of home in a person's life is a special feature characteristic of the Englishman. The house is the center of one’s own space, opposed to someone else’s.

English proverbRussian equivalentEast or West - home is best. There is no place like home. Being a guest is good, but being at home is better. Every bird likes its own nest. There is nothing like leather. The bird that doesn't like its nest is stupid. Every dog ​​is a lion at home. Every sandpiper is great in its swamp.

. Favorites

The special attitude of the British towards domestic animals - cats and dogs - has become the talk of the town. They treat animals much better than their own children. And this is confirmed by the fact that in the English language there are a huge number of proverbs and sayings in which pets appear.

English proverbRussian equivalentA cat in gloves catches no mice. You can’t even pull a fish out of a pond without difficulty. A cat may look at a king. They don't charge money for a look. A dog in the manger. The dog is in the manger: it doesn’t eat itself and doesn’t give it to others. A good dog deserves a good bone. According to merit and honor. A shy cat makes a proud mouse. A timid cat has a mouse frolicking. All cats are gray in the dark (in the night). At night all the horses are black. At night all cats are gray. An old dog barks not in vain. An old dog won't bark at an empty tree. The old raven does not croak for nothing. Barking dogs rarely bite. A dog that barks rarely bites. Care killed the cat. Troubles and sorrows rolled off your feet. The bitterness will dry up even the splinter. Those of the sea are drowned by the sea, and those of the land are drowned by grief. It is not work that ages, but care. Cat and dog life. Lead a cat and dog life. Cat's concert. Some in the forest, some for firewood. Cheshire cat. Cheshire cat. Curiosity killed the cat. If you know a lot, you will soon grow old. Dog does not eat dog. The raven will not peck out the crow's eye. Dog eats dog. Man is a wolf to man . Dogs that put up many hares kill none. If you chase two hares, you won’t catch a single one. It will be a holiday on our street. Like a cat, there are 9 lives. to make a cat laugh. It rains cats and dogs. It’s a bold mouse that nestles in the cat’s ear. It’s no place to swing. a cat. There is no room for an apple to fall. Let sleeping dogs lie. Don't stir it up while it's quiet. Like a cat on hot bricks. Sit as if on pins and needles. Live under the cat s foot. Being under your wife's thumb. Love me, love my dog. If you love currants, endure and set your teeth on edge. You love warmth, tolerate smoke. One cannot run with the hare and hunt with the hounds. They don't serve two masters. You can't sit between two chairs. The cat shuts its eyes when it steals the cream. My uncle would gasp, looking at himself. The cat knows whose meat it ate. The cat would eat a fish and would not wet her feet. And I want and inject. The scalded cat fears cold water. The frightened crow is afraid of the bush. There is more than one way to kill a cat. The light did not converge like a wedge. To buy a cat in a poke. Buy a pig in a poke. Too much pudding will choke the dog. If you rake it well, you won’t be able to carry it home. Wait for the cat to jump. Keep your nose to the wind. Let's see which way the wind blows. Watch one as a cat watches a mouse. Watch for a mouse like a cat. When the cat is away, the mice will play. Without a cat, mice have freedom. You can have no more of a cat but her skin. You can't take seven skins from one ox.

. Work

The Englishman works extremely hard, but always finds time to relax. During working hours, he works without straightening his back, straining all his mental and physical strength; in his free time, he willingly indulges in pleasure.

English proverbRussian equivalentA busy bee has no time for sorrow. There is no such thing as boredom when your hands are busy. A lazy sheep thinks its heavy wool. A lazy horse's tail is a burden. All lay loads on a willing horse. Those who are lucky are driven. The eager horse carries all the luggage. As busy as a bee. Busy as a bee. Feather by feather a goose is plucked. Patience and a little effort. He that would eat the fruit must climb the tree. With your arms dangling, you cannot thresh the sheaf. Not who would eat the nut must first crack the shell If you don’t crack the nut, you won’t eat the kernel. He who would search for pearls must dive for them. You can’t even take a fish out of a pond without difficulty. If at first you don"t succeed, try, try, try again. Patience and labor will grind everything down. No bees, no honey; no work, no money. If you want to eat rolls, don’t lie on the stove. No sweet without sweat. You plow - you cry, you reap, you jump. Plow deeper - chew more bread. With time and patience the leaf of the mulberry becomes satin. Patience and labor will grind everything.

. Prudence, caution

Another typical feature of the British, which is reflected in proverbs and sayings, is caution.

English proverbRussian equivalentA danger foreseen is half avoided. Forewarned is forearmed. Caution is the parent of safety. God protects those who are protected. Discretion is the better part of value. Hurry up slowly. If you hurry, you will make people laugh. Don t trouble troubles till trouble troubles you. Don't stir it up while it's quiet. Give never the wolf the weather to keep. Don't let the goat into the garden. Let sleeping dogs lie. Don't stir it up while it's quiet. Put not your hand between the bark and the tree. Your own dogs squabble - don’t interfere with someone else’s. The scalded cat fears cold water. The frightened crow is afraid of the bush.

. Arrogance, pride

The Englishman is very vain. He looks at a foreigner arrogantly, with pity and often with complete contempt. This deficiency among the English developed due to a lack of sociability and an exaggerated consciousness of their superiority over others.

English proverbRussian equivalentA cock is valiant on his own dunghill. The rooster is brave on his dung heap. Better die standing than live kneeling. Better a glorious death than a shameful life. Better to reign in hell than serve in heaven. It's better to be the first in the village than the last in the city. The highest tree has the greatest fall. He who flies too high falls low.

Conclusion

A phraseological unit is a stable combination of words, which is characterized by a constant lexical composition, grammatical structure and a meaning known to native speakers of a given language (in most cases, figurative) that cannot be deduced from the meaning of the components that make up the phraseological unit. The term phraseology (from the French phraseologie) was introduced by the Swiss scientist C. Bally in 1905 in the meaning of “a branch of stylistics that studies related combinations.” As you know, phraseological units arise from a free combination of words, which are used in a figurative meaning. Gradually, the portability is forgotten, erased, and the combination becomes stable. types of phraseological units in relation to modern English. Phraseological expressions include those phraseological units that are stable in their composition and use, which consist entirely of words with “a free nominative meaning and are semantically divisible.”

When translating a phraseological unit, the translator needs to convey its meaning and reflect its imagery, finding a similar expression in the English language and without losing sight of the stylistic function of the phraseological unit. If there is no identical image in English, the translator is forced to resort to searching for an “approximate match.”

Actually, the British are the product of a mixture of many ethnic groups - the ancient Iberian population with peoples of Indo-European origin: Celtic tribes, Germanic tribes of the Angles, Saxons, Frisians, Jutes, to some extent Scandinavians, and later the Franco-Normans. So, the English character embodied Anglo-Saxon practicality with Celtic dreaminess, the pirate courage of the Vikings with the discipline of the Normans.

The first and most obvious feature of this nation is the stability and constancy of character of its constituent individuals.

The British are slow-moving, tend to avoid sharp corners, and have an inherent desire to be away from prying eyes, which gives rise to a cult of privacy.

Modern Englishmen consider self-control to be the chief virtue of human character. The words: “Be able to control yourself” perfectly express the motto of this nation. The better a person knows how to control himself, the more worthy he is. From childhood, an Englishman is taught to calmly endure cold and hunger, overcome pain and fear, curb attachments and aversions.

The English people of the common class are extremely friendly and helpful. An Englishman will take a foreigner with some question by the shoulder and begin to show him the way with various visual techniques, repeating the same thing several times, and then he will look after him for a long time, not believing that the questioner could understand everything so quickly.

No one knows how to manage their time and money as strictly as an Englishman. He works extremely hard, but always finds time to relax. During working hours, he works without straightening his back, straining all his mental and physical strength; in his free time, he willingly indulges in

Money is the idol of the British. No one holds wealth in such esteem. Whatever the social position of an Englishman - be it a scientist, a lawyer, a politician or a clergyman - he is first and foremost a businessman.

The British travel a lot and always try to learn more facts, but they get very little close to the people of the countries they visit. The house serves as a fortress for the Englishman, where he is able to hide not only from uninvited visitors, but also from annoying worries. Beyond the threshold of his home, he is completely freed not only from everyday affairs, but also from outside pressure. The British know how to feel at home as if in another world and at the same time respect the home life of other people.

Gardening is the national passion of the British, the key to understanding many aspects of their character and attitude to life. Thanks to the moderate, humid climate in England, the grass is green all year round and something is almost always in bloom, so the gardener can work in the fresh air for a long time and admire the fruits of his labor.

Another passion in which the Englishman’s personal qualities are manifested is pets. There are a surprising number of people here who raise dogs, cats, horses, cows, sheep or pigs. London parks can rightly be called a land of unafraid birds and animals.

It's paradoxical, but in English families pets clearly occupy a higher position than children. This manifests itself both materially and morally, since it is the dog or cat that serves as the center of everyone’s concerns.

Deep down, the British are convinced that it is better for parents to be too strict with their children than to be soft. There is also a proverb here: “To spare the rod is to spoil the child.”

Thus, in Great Britain, more than in any other European country, adherence to the traditions, way of life, and habits established since ancient times has been preserved.

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Prokolyeva, S.M., Mechanisms for creating phraseological imagery. - M., 2008.

Smith, L.P. Phraseology of the English language. - M., 1998.

Shansky, N.M., Phraseology of the modern Russian language.

9. Weinreich, U., Problems in the Analysis of Idioms: Substance and Structure of Language. - University of California Press, Berkley and Los Angeles, 1984.

Makkai, A. Idiom Structure in English, - The Hague, 2007.

11. EnglishProverbsAndSayings [electronic resource]. - Access mode: http://0s. onuxizlt. m5xw6z3mmuxgg33n. biglu.ru/site/englishproverbsandsayings/

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Introduction

The English language has a thousand-year history. During this time, it accumulated a large number of expressions that people found successful, apt and beautiful. This is how a special layer of language arose - phraseology, a set of stable expressions that have independent meaning.

Learning English is widespread in our country.
Good knowledge of a language, including English, is impossible without knowledge of its phraseology. Knowledge of phraseology greatly facilitates reading both journalistic and fiction literature. Reasonable use of phraseological units makes speech more idiomatic.

With the help of phraseological expressions, which are not translated literally, but are perceived re-interpreted, the aesthetic aspect of the language is enhanced. “With the help of idioms, as with the help of different shades of colors, the informational aspect of language is complemented by a sensory-intuitive description of our world, our life” (No. 3 p. 15).

The world of phraseology of modern English is large and diverse, and every aspect of its study certainly deserves due attention.

The purpose of this work is to study phraseological units of modern English, borrowed from artistic and literary sources. This aspect of the study of phraseology is of particular importance, because Most of the phraseological units are borrowed from the fiction of both English and other languages, and some phraseological units have retained their original foreign language form.
Borrowings are one of the main sources of replenishment of English phraseology. Borrowings from English literature are especially numerous. There are individual borrowings from the literature of Latin, Greek, French, Spanish, Italian and other languages.
“The etymological side of the study of phraseological units helps in many ways to understand the culture and life of the people from whom this or that phraseological expression was borrowed” (No. 26 p. 23).

For students of English as a foreign language, this layer of the language is difficult to master, but after mastering phraseological units, we begin to speak like the English, we understand them perfectly, our speech readiness increases sharply. We can express our thoughts briefly and very accurately, being confident in the correctness of its expression. In many cases, knowledge of English phraseology helps to avoid Russianisms, i.e. literal translations of sentences from Russian into English.

The work gives an attempt to present your view on borrowed phraseological units of the modern English language; examples are given for each type of borrowing studied. The material presented in this work is based on the study of etymological dictionaries, English-English and English-Russian phraseological dictionaries indicated in the bibliography.

1. Phraseology as an object of linguistic research

1. Subject and tasks of phraseology

Phraseology (Greek phrasis - “expression”, logos - “teaching”) is a branch of linguistics that studies stable combinations in language. Phraseology is also called a set of stable combinations in the language as a whole, in the language of a particular writer, in the language of a separate work of art, etc.

Phraseology emerged relatively recently as an independent linguistic discipline. “The subject and tasks, scope and methods of studying it are not yet clearly defined and have not received full coverage” (No. 19 p.
37). Less developed than others are questions about the main features of phraseological units in comparison with free phrases, about the classification of phraseological units and their correlation with parts of speech, etc. Linguists have not formed a consensus on what a phraseological unit is; therefore, there is no unity of views on the composition of these units in the language. Some researchers (L.P. Smith, V.P. Zhukov, V.N. Telia,
N.M. Shansky, etc.) include its stable combinations in phraseology, others (N.N. Amosova, A.M. Babkin, A.I. Smirnitsky, etc.) - only certain groups. Thus, some linguists (including Academician V.V. Vinogradov) do not include proverbs, sayings and catchwords in the category of phraseological units, believing that they differ in their semantics and syntactic structure from phraseological units. V.V.
Vinogradov argued: “Proverbs and sayings have a sentence structure and are not semantic equivalents of words.” (No. 7 p. 243)

The tasks of phraseology as a linguistic discipline include a comprehensive study of the phraseological fund of a particular language.
Important aspects of the study of this science are: the stability of phraseological units, the systematic nature of phraseology and the semantic structure of phraseological units, their origin and main functions.
A particularly complex branch of phraseology is the translation of phraseological units, which requires considerable experience in the field of research in this discipline.

Phraseology develops the principles of identifying phraseological units, methods of studying them, classification and phraseography - descriptions in dictionaries.
Phraseology uses various research methods, for example, component analysis of meaning. On the basis of research methods existing in linguistics, “the actual phraseological techniques of analysis and description” are being developed (No. 12 p. 49): 1. identification method - establishing the identities of words and syntactic structures that form phraseological units with their free analogues; 2. application method, which is a type of identification method, a method limited in the choice of variables, establishing different structural and semantic organizations of phraseological units from combinations formed in accordance with regular patterns of choice and combination, etc. Phraseology offers various types of classifications of the phraseological composition of a language, depending on the properties of phraseological units and methods of their study.

The subject of the history of phraseology is the study of the primary, original forms and meanings of phraseological units, determining their sources from all available monuments, identifying the areas of their use in different eras of the existence of the language, as well as establishing the volume of phraseological composition and its systemic ordering in a particular historical era of language development.

Unfortunately, in English and American linguistic literature there are few works specifically devoted to the theory of phraseology, but in the existing most significant works (A. McKay (No. 37), W. Weinreich (No. 38), L.P.
Smith (No. 24)) do not raise such fundamental questions as scientifically based criteria for identifying phraseological units, the relationship of phraseological units and words, the systematic nature of phraseology, phraseological variability, phrase formation, the method of studying phraseology, etc.

Also, English and American scientists do not raise the question of phraseology as a linguistic science. This explains the lack of a name for this discipline in English.

2. Theory of phraseology by S. Bally

Charles Bally (1865 - 1947) - a Swiss linguist of French origin, introduced the term “phraseologie” meaning “a branch of stylistics that studies related phrases” (No. 5 p. 58), but this term was not accepted by Western European and American linguists and was used in works in three other meanings: 1. choice of words, form of expression, formulation; 2. Language, style, style; 3. expressions, phrases.

S. Bally is considered the founder of the theory of phraseology, because first systematized combinations of words in his book “French Stylistics,” in which he included a chapter on phraseology. In his writings, he identified “four types of phrases” (No. 15 p. 8): 1. free phrases (les groupements libres), i.e. combinations lacking stability, disintegrating after their formation; 2. habitual combinations (les groupments usuels), i.e. phrases with a relatively loose connection of components, allowing some changes, for example, une grave maladie - serious illness(une dangereuse, serieuse maladie – dangerous, serious disease); 3. phraseological series (les series phraseologiques), i.e. groups of words in which two adjacent concepts merge almost into one.
The stability of these phrases is secured by the primary use of words, for example, remporter une victorie - to win, courir un danger - to be exposed to danger. These combinations allow for rearrangement of components; 4. Phraseological unities (les unites phraseologiques), i.e. combinations in which words have lost their meaning and express a single indecomposable concept. Such combinations do not allow rearrangement of components. Thus, “...the concept of Sh. Bally is based on the difference in word combinations according to the degree of stability: combinations in which there is freedom to group components, and combinations deprived of such freedom” (No. 2 p. 69).

Subsequently, the great linguist revised his concept, which we discussed above, and came to the conclusion that familiar combinations and phraseological series are only intermediate types of combinations.
Now S. Bally identified only two main groups of combinations: 1. free combinations and 2. phraseological unities, i.e. phrases whose components, constantly used in given combinations to express the same thought, have lost all independent meaning.
The whole combination as a whole acquires a new meaning that is not equal to the sum of the values components. S. Bally points out that “such a turnover can be compared with a chemical compound,” and emphasizes that “if unity is quite common, then, obviously, in this case the combination equals a simple word"(No. 5 p. 60). Sh. Bally spoke about the phraseology of a combination when there is a synonym for it - the so-called
“identifier words” (No. 5 p. 60). These thoughts of S. Bally later formed the basis for the identification of phraseological adhesions and the development of the theory of equivalence of a phraseological unit to a word. Since Bally's time, the study of phraseology has come a long way. But the work of the great scientist, written at the dawn of the study of phraseology, contributed to the further development of phraseological research.

1.3. Equivalence of a phraseological unit to a word

The development of phraseology as a linguistic science in recent years has posed a very difficult problem for researchers - the relationship of a phraseological unit with a word. In modern linguistics there are different points of view regarding the very formulation of this question. Some consider phraseological units to be equivalents of words, others point to their correlation with the word, replacing the theory of equivalence with the theory of correlation of phraseological combinations with the word.

The theory of equivalence of phraseological units to a word goes back to the concept of identification of expressive facts developed by S. Bally, who pointed out that the most general feature of a phraseological unit, replacing all others, is the possibility or impossibility of substituting one simple word instead of a given combination. Sh. Bally called this word
“an identifier word” (No. 5 p. 60). Bally considers the presence of such a synonym as an internal sign of the integrity of phraseological units.

With this concept, most linguists (N.N. Amosova (No. 2), N.M.
Babkin (No. 4), V.P. Zhukov (No. 9), A.V. Kunin (No. 15), A.I. Smirnitsky (No. 23),
N.M. Shansky (No. 32) and others) did not agree. “The semantic integrity of a phraseological unit cannot be established in this way,” wrote V.P. Zhukov in his work on phraseology (No. 9 p. 83), “since variable combinations of words can have synonymous words.” For example, look fixedly - to stare; sufferings of mind or body - pain, etc. (All examples of phraseological units
(the total number of which is 78), presented in the theoretical part of this work, are taken from the English-Russian Phraseological Dictionary by A.V. Kunina
(No. 16) and Longman Dictionary English idioms(No. 35)). Indeed, phraseological units are in many ways similar to words, however, as a rule, one cannot equate the meaning of phraseological units with the meaning of the words with which they are identified. An essential element of the semantics of a phraseological unit is the evaluative nature of the concept it expresses, its special modality, while the element of evaluation is characteristic of the semantic structure of a word to a lesser extent. In most cases, phraseological units and the words associated with them differ in stylistic coloring, and in relation to individual words, phraseological units act mainly as stylistic rather than ideographic synonyms.

It should also be borne in mind that proverbs and sayings, i.e. phraseological units with a sentence structure can only be identified using sentences, for example, birds of a feather flock together – people who have the same interests, ideas, etc. are attracted to each other and stay close together; the blind leading the blind – a situation in which the person who is leading or advising others knows a little as they do.(No. 35)

The semantic integrity of a phraseological unit can be established by comparing its meaning with the meaning of its components as individual words, as well as by identifying the features of its use in context.

In the problem of “phraseologism and the word,” there are mainly two directions: a narrow, lexicological understanding of phraseology as an integral part of lexicology, phraseology as an equivalent to the word, and a broad understanding of phraseology as an independent linguistic discipline.

Some supporters of the theory of complete equivalence (N.N. Amosova
(No. 2), N.M. Babkin (No. 4), A.I. Smirnitsky (No. 23) and others) consider phraseological units as lexical units that do not need a special, specific classification peculiar only to them, and which should be classified in the same way as words are classified. A.I. Smirnitsky, for example, in this regard includes phraseology as part of lexicology. (No. 23)
Thus, all the specificity of phraseological units is negated. A word, no matter how complex it is in its semantic structure, does not belong to the field of phraseology, it is an object of lexicography and lexicology.

Words and phraseological units are introduced into speech in ready-made form. This fact is given as one of the arguments in favor of the theory of complete equivalence.
Introducing into speech in finished form is a shaky basis for the equivalence of a phraseological unit to a word, since reproduction in finished form is a characteristic feature of all units of language, and, as A.I. wrote in her work on phraseology.
Alekhina: “...it is inappropriate to consider them as equivalents of words, it is only important to take into account the characteristic features of reproducibility in finished form, depending on the structural and semantic features of various units of language” (No. 1 p. 15). And from a structural and semantic point of view, a phraseological unit is a separately formed unit of language, much more complex than a word, and this affects its actualization in a written or oral context.

A phraseological unit is not identical to a word and is not completely equivalent to it.
“It represents a lexical unit of a more complex type, since the semantic meaning represented by a phraseological phrase is expressed not by one word, but by a combination of two or more words” (No. 15 p. 12). A phraseological unit differs from a word in its structure: a word consists of morphemes, and any phraseological unit is, first of all, a combination of words united according to the laws of the grammar of a particular language (separately formed phraseme and integrally formed word). The components of a phraseological phrase are not free in their connections; the circle of their compatibility with other words is closed.
Phraseologisms are characterized by lexical stability and generally retain a constant composition.

It seems that “...the equivalence of phraseological units to a word can be recognized only in terms of their relationship to language and speech: both phraseological units and words are units of language, normally used in speech as units of nomination” (No. 1 p. 8).

The problem of “phraseological unit and word” is a close and complex interweaving of various linguistic connections and relationships, and the aspects of their consideration in this work are not exhaustive and the only possible ones. At the same time, the disagreements that exist in theoretical and practical issues of phraseology should be eliminated by the development of general problems that connect phraseology with lexicology. As the analysis shows, the problem of “phraseological unit and word” is one of the general problems and is currently the most important and least developed, complicating the theoretical justification of the phraseological system of the language.

1.4. Types of phraseological units from the point of view of semantic stability
(fusion) of their components

The classification of phraseological units from the point of view of the semantic unity of their components belongs to academician V.V. Vinogradov (No. 7). As you know, phraseological units arise from a free combination of words, which are used in a figurative meaning. Gradually, the portability is forgotten, erased, and the combination becomes stable. Depending on how much the nominative meanings of the components of a phraseological unit are erased, how strong the figurative meaning is in them, V.V. Vinogradov divides them into three types: “phraseological adhesions, phraseological unities and phraseological combinations” (No. 7 p. 89) . Let us consider these types of phraseological units in relation to modern English.

1.4.1. Phraseological adhesions

Phraseological combinations, or idioms, are absolutely indivisible, indecomposable stable combinations, the general meaning of which does not depend on the meaning of their constituent words: kick the bucket (colloquial) - to bend, to die; = stretch your legs; send smb. to Coventry – boycott someone, stop communicating with someone; at bay – driven, in a hopeless situation; be at smb.’s beck and call – to be always ready for services; = to be at your beck and call; to rain cats and dogs – pour like buckets (about rain); be all thumbs - to be awkward, clumsy; Kilkenny cats are mortal enemies. Phraseological adhesions arose on the basis of figurative meanings of their components, but subsequently these figurative meanings became incomprehensible from the point of view of modern language. “The imagery of phraseological fusions is revealed only historically” (No. 21, p. 35). For example, the words “bay”, meaning “dead end”, and “beck” - “wave of the hand” are archaisms and are not used anywhere except the phraseological unit given above. Or, for example, the expression to be all thumbs historically developed from the expression one’s fingers are all thumbs. We see something similar in the phraseological units Kilkenny cats (which, apparently, goes back to the legend of a fierce struggle between the cities of Kilkenny and Irishtown in the 17th century, which led to their ruin (No. 16)) and send smb. to Coventry (Clarendon’s book “The History of the Great Rebellion and Civil Wars in England” says that during the English Revolution in the city of Coventry there was a prison in which exiled royalists were kept (No. 16)).

Thus, in phraseological fusions the connection between direct and figurative meanings has been lost; the figurative has become the main one for them. That is why phraseological fusions are difficult to translate into other languages.

Phraseological fusions have a number of characteristic features:
1. they may include so-called necrotisms - words that are not used anywhere except for this fusion and are therefore incomprehensible from the point of view of modern language;
2. adhesions may include archaisms;
3. they are syntactically indecomposable;
4. in most cases, it is impossible to rearrange the components;
5. they are characterized by impenetrability - they do not allow additional words into their composition.

Losing their independent lexical meaning, “...words included in the structure of a phraseological fusion turn into components of a complex lexical unit, which approaches the meaning of a separate word” (No. 32 p. 73). Therefore, many phraseological combinations are synonymous with the words: kick the bucket - to die; ; send smb. to
Coventry – to ignore, etc. But we should not forget that, as stated in the chapter on the equivalence of a phraseological unit to a word, from the point of view of stylistics
Phenomena and the word are far from each other.

1.4.2. Phraseological unities

Phraseological unities are such stable combinations of words in which, in the presence of a common figurative meaning, the signs of semantic separation of components are clearly preserved: to spill the beans - give away a secret; to burn bridges - burn bridges; to have other fish to fry
- have more important things to do; to throw dust into smb.’s eyes – to speak one’s teeth; to burn one’s fingers – to get burned on something; to throw mud at smb.
– throw mud; to be narrow in the shoulders - not to understand jokes; to paint the devil blacker than he is – to thicken the paint; to put a spoke in smb.’s wheel - insert spokes into the wheels; to hold one’s cards close to one’s chest – to keep something secret, not to disclose something, to keep quiet, ~ keep one’s mouth shut; to gild refined gold - to gild pure gold, try to improve, decorate something that is already quite good; to paint the lily - tint the color of a lily, try to improve or decorate something that does not need improvement.

“Phraseological unities are somewhat closer to phraseological adhesions in their imagery and metaphor” (No. 25, p. 50). But unlike phraseological fusions, where figurative content is revealed only diachronically, in phraseological unities, figurativeness and portability are realized from the point of view of modern language.
No wonder Academician V.V. Vinogradov considers imagery characteristic feature only phraseological unities.

“The connection between the components of phraseological unity is motivated, metaphorization is clearly felt” (No. 25, p. 51). To understand phraseological unity, it is necessary to perceive its components in a figurative meaning. For example, the meaning of the expression make a mountain out of a molehill is to make a mountain out of a mountain, i.e. to greatly exaggerate something
(literally, to make a mountain out of the mound of a mole hole), is revealed only if the word molehill is considered to mean “something insignificant, small,” and the word mountain is “something very large.” There are no words in the phraseological units that are not understandable from the point of view of modern language.

Characteristic features of phraseological units:
1. vivid imagery and the resulting possibility of coincidence with parallel existing phrases (cf.: to throw dust into smb.’s eyes, to be narrow in the shoulders, to burn one’s fingers, to burn bridges);
2. preserving the semantics of individual components (to put a spoke in smb.’s wheel);
3. the impossibility of replacing some components with others (to hold one’s cards close to one’s chest);
4. emotional and expressive coloring plays a decisive role (to throw dust into smb.’s eyes, to paint the devil blacker than he is);
5. the ability to enter into synonymous relationships with individual words or other phraseological units (to gild refined gold = to paint the lily).

1.4.3. Phraseological combinations

Phraseological combinations are stable phrases that include words with both free and phraseologically related meanings: a bosom friend - a bosom friend, a pitched battle - a fierce fight,
(to have) a narrow escape - to be saved by a miracle, to frown one's eyebrows - to frown, Adam's apple - Adam's apple, a Sisyfean labor - Sisyphean labor, rack one's brains - to rack your brains (think hard, remember), to pay attention to smb . – pay attention to someone, etc.

In contrast to phraseological adhesions and phraseological unities, which have a holistic, indecomposable meaning, “phraseological combinations are characterized by semantic decomposability” (No. 32, p. 75). In this respect, they come close to free phrases.

Characteristic features of phraseological combinations:
1. in them, variation of one of the components is allowed (a bosom friend - a bosom friend, a bosom buddy - a bosom buddy);
2. a synonymous replacement of the core word is possible (a pitched battle - a fierce fight, a fierce battle - a fierce fight);
3. it is possible to include definitions (he frowned his thick eyebrows, he frowned his thick eyebrows);
4. permutation of components is permissible (a Sisyfean labor - Sisyphus’s work, a labor of Sisyphus - the work of Sisyphus);
5. the free use of one of the components and the associated use of the other is mandatory (a bosom friend - a bosom friend: a bosom cannot be an enemy or anyone else).

The promotion of reproducibility as the main feature of phraseological units allowed Professor N.M. Shansky to further develop the classification of Academician V.V. Vinogradov and identify the fourth type of phraseological units - the so-called “phraseological expressions”
(No. 32 p. 76).

1.4.4. Phraseological expressions

Phraseological expressions include phraseological units that are stable in their composition and use, which consist entirely of words with “a free nominative meaning and are semantically divisible” (No. 32, p. 76). Their only feature is reproducibility: they are used as ready-made speech units with a constant lexical composition and certain semantics.

Phraseological expressions are only phrases with the literal meaning of the components. Phraseological expressions include numerous English proverbs and sayings that are used in their literal meaning and do not have a figurative allegorical meaning: live and learn - live forever, learn forever; better untaught than ill taught - it is better to be unlearned than to be incorrectly taught; many men, many minds - how many heads, so many minds; easier said then done - easier said than done; nothing is impossible to a willing heart – whoever wants will achieve it (No. 16).

1.5. Translation of phraseological units

Transmitting phraseological units into English is a very difficult task. “Due to its semantic richness, imagery, brevity and brightness, phraseology plays a very important role in the language” (No. 9 p. 19). It gives expressiveness and originality to speech. Phraseologisms are used especially widely in oral speech, fiction and political literature.

When translating a phraseological unit, the translator needs to convey its meaning and reflect its imagery, finding a similar expression in the English language and without losing sight of the stylistic function of the phraseological unit. In the absence of an identical image in English, the translator is forced to resort to searching for an “approximate match” (No. 11 p. 51).

Phraseological equivalents can be complete or partial.

Full phraseological equivalents are those ready-made English equivalents that coincide with Russian ones in meaning, lexical composition, imagery, stylistic coloring and grammatical structure; for example: rest on one's laurels - rest on one's laurels, the salt of the earth, play with fire - to play with fire, the hour has come (struck) - one's hour has struck, there is no smoke without fire - there is no smoke without fire, hardworking like a bee – busy as a bee.

Translation based on partial phraseological equivalents does not mean that the meaning and imagery of a phraseological unit is not fully conveyed in translation; By this term it should be borne in mind that the equivalent proposed in English may contain some discrepancies with the Russian one. In other words, for the translator “when translating a phraseological unit, it is important, first of all, to convey the image of the phraseological unit, and not its linguistic structure” (No. 21 p. 28). Partial phraseological equivalents can be divided into three groups.

The first group includes phraseological units that coincide in meaning, stylistic coloring and are similar in imagery, but diverge in lexical composition: promise mountains of gold - to promise wonders, to promise the moon, visiting is good, but home is better - East or West, home is the best, buy a pig in a poke - to buy pig in a poke, the first swallow - the first portent (sign), the game is not worth the candle, the talk of the town - the talk of the town.

Some of these phrases are translated using antonymic translation, i.e. a negative meaning is conveyed by the translator using an affirmative construction, or, conversely, a positive meaning is conveyed using a negative construction: chickens are counted in the fall - don’t count your chickens before they are hatched.

The second group includes phraseological units that match in meaning, imagery, lexical composition and stylistic coloring; but they differ in such formal characteristics as the number and order of words, for example: to play into someone’s hands - to play into smb.’s hands (here there is a discrepancy in number); all is not gold that glitters
(divergence in word order); not to see the forest for the trees - not to see the wood for the trees (divergence in word order).

The third group includes phraseological units that coincide in all respects, with the exception of imagery. In Russian we say - go to the side, while the English equivalent is the usual - to go to bed. In Russian there is a phrase - to be in full view, and in English in such cases it is customary to say - to spread before the eyes, to be an open book. In Russian we say - as old as the hills, and in English the same idea is conveyed by the phrase - as old as the hills.

Sometimes the distinctive feature of phraseological units is the frequency of use in speech of one or another idiomatic expression, if violated, the phraseology used can give the speaker’s speech an unusual or even old-fashioned character. The translator should always remember this.

When translating phraseological units, the translator must be able to determine whether he is dealing with a variable or fixed phrase. To do this, you need to have a large “receptive stock of phraseological units” (No. 31 p. 15). It should be borne in mind that phrases, like words, are characterized by polysemy and homonymy, and one of the meanings can be phraseological and one of the homonyms can be a phraseological unit. For example, the phrase to burn one’s fingers has the meaning 1. to burn one’s fingers and 2. to get burned on something, to make a mistake; to be narrow in the shoulders can have a direct meaning (to be narrow-shouldered) and a phraseological meaning (not to understand humor). “Don’t mention it” can mean: “Don’t remind me of this” and “No thanks, please.” Phraseologism “to throw the book at smb.” means “to sentence someone to the maximum term of imprisonment.” But it is theoretically possible to have a context in which this phrase is used as a variable. A phraseological unit can sometimes differ from a variable phrase only by the article, which in this case is a formal differentiating feature. For example: to go to the sea - go to the sea, to go to sea - become a sailor; to draw a line - to draw a line, to draw the line - to set the limit of what is permitted.

Good receptive knowledge of phraseology is necessary both in order to distinguish between usual and occasional phraseological units, as well as in order to be able to restore phraseological units that have undergone “the author’s transformation” (No. 8 pp. 74 – 78), and convey the effect achieved by it during translation. Among the author's transformations, as a result of which the associative meaning of phraseological units is emphasized (almost not perceived otherwise), include, in particular, the following stylistic devices:
1. Introduction to phraseological circulation of new components, semantically correlated with direct meaning, i.e. with the meaning of the original variable phrase. For example, the phraseological unit to put the cart before the horse - to do the opposite (literally - to harness the horse behind the cart), has undergone the following transformations: “Let’s not put the cart too far ahead of the horse” (E.S. Gardner).
2. Updating the lexical and grammatical composition of a phraseological unit as a result of replacing its individual components with other words. A peculiar deformation of phraseological units occurs, the text of which is easily restored. For example, the phraseology borrowed from the Bible to have a millstone about one’s neck (carry a heavy stone on the heart) was modified by S.T. Coleridge and looked like this: have an albatross about one’s neck (literally - wear an albatross on your neck); in the poem by S.T. Coleridge's "The
Ancient Mariner” is about a sailor who, by killing an albatross, brings disaster to his ship and is forced to wear the dead albatross around his neck as punishment.
3. Splitting a phraseological unit and using its component (or components) as part of a variable phrase. Single component
(or components) in this case are the bearer of the associative meaning of the entire phraseological unit, on which the entire meaning of the statement is built. The full form of the phraseological unit seems to pass in the background, but without restoration its understanding is impossible. For example:

— “I’ve got a cold.”

— “It’s in your feet.” (B. Manning)

In this dialogue, one of the speakers complains about illness, and the other interlocutor says that this is not an illness, but cowardice. The phraseological unit is represented here by only one component - to get cold feet - to be a coward, to show cowardice.
4. The phraseological unit may not be given in full, retaining only part of the components: “He complained to Fleur that the book dealt with nothing but birds in the bush.” (J. Galsworthy) Part of a proverb is used here:
“A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.” (A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush). A bird in the bush in this example means empty promises.

To achieve maximum adequacy when translating phraseological units from English into Russian, the translator must be able to use various “types of translation” (No. 8 p. 80):

1. Equivalent, i.e. an adequate phraseological expression available in the Russian language that coincides with the English turnover in meaning and figurative basis, for example: as cold as ice - cold as ice, Augean stable(s) - Augean stables, the salt of the earth - salt of the earth, swallow the pill – swallow a (bitter) pill.

2. Analogue, i.e. such a Russian stable phrase, which in meaning is adequate to English, but in its figurative basis differs from it completely or partially. For example: a drop in the bucket - a drop in the ocean, a fly in the ointment - a fly in the ointment, it is raining cats and dogs - it pours like a bucket.

3. Descriptive translation, i.e. translation by conveying the meaning of an English phrase in a free phrase. Descriptive translation is used when there are no equivalents and analogues in the Russian language, for example: to rob Peter to pay Paul - pay off some debts by making new ones (take from one to give to another), to burn the candle on both ends - work from early morning and until late evening.

4. Antonymic translation, i.e. conveying a negative meaning using an affirmative construction or vice versa, for example: to keep one’s head - don’t lose your head, to keep one’s head above water - don’t get into debt, to keep one’s pecker up - don’t lose heart.

5. Tracing. The tracing method is used in cases where the translator wants to highlight the figurative basis of a phraseological unit, or when the English phrase cannot be translated using other types of translation, for example: the moon is not seen when the sun shines (proverb)
– when the sun is shining, the moon is not visible.

6. Combined translation. In cases where the Russian analogue does not fully convey the meaning of the English phraseological unit or has a different specific flavor of place and time, a tracing translation is given, and then there is a descriptive translation and a Russian analogue for comparison, for example: carry coals to Newcastle - “carry coal to Newcastle ”, i.e. to carry something to a place where there is already enough of it (cf. to go to Tula with your samovar).

By allowing full or partial tracing in some cases, the translator excludes any possibility of using literalisms, i.e. unjustified literal translations that distort the meaning of English phraseological units or do not correspond to the norms of the modern Russian language.

Phraseological units are widely used in literature of all styles. And a competent translator should not allow inaccuracies in the translation of this or that phraseological unit. Without knowledge of phraseology, it is impossible to appreciate the brightness and expressiveness of speech, to understand a joke, a play on words, and sometimes simply the meaning of the entire statement.

2. Phraseological units borrowed from artistic and literary sources

2.1.Biblicalisms

The Bible is the main literary source of phraseological units. This greatest work has enriched not only the English language with phraseological units, but also many other languages ​​of the world. “Much has been said and written about the colossal influence that Bible translations have had on the English language” (No. 24 p. 110). For centuries, the Bible was the most widely read and quoted book in England; “...not only individual words, but also entire idiomatic expressions (...) entered the English language from the pages of the Bible” (No. 24 p. 111). The number of biblical phrases and expressions that have entered the English language is so large that collecting and listing them would be a very difficult task. Among the expressions used in modern English speech and whose biblical origin is firmly established are the following ( full list Biblicalisms are presented in the appendix):

|The apple of Sodom | - a beautiful but rotten fruit; |
| |deceptive success |
|The beam (the mote) in one’s eye |- “log” in one’s own eye; |
| | own big drawback |
|The blind leading the blind |- The blind leads the blind. |
|By the sweat of one’s brow | |
|The camel and the needle’s eye |- by the sweat of your brow |
| |- Allusion to the Gospel |
| | a saying that has received this form |
| |translated from Latin: Easier |
| |let the dish pass through the needle|
| |ear, than God to enter |
| | kingdom of heaven. |
|Can the leopard change his spots? |- (lit. Can a leopard |
| |repaint your spots?) |
| |~The grave will correct the hunchback. |
|A crown of glory |
|Daily bread | - daily bread, means to |
| |existence |
|A drop in the bucket |- (literally a drop in a bucket); ~ Drop|
| |in the sea. |
|A fly in the ointment |- (lit. fly in ointment); ~ Spoon |
| | fly in the ointment. |
| | - earthly goods (bread and fish, |
|Loaves and fishes |with which Christ, by |
| | Gospel tradition, |
| | fed hundreds of people, |
| | gathered to listen to him) |
| |- One cannot serve two masters. |
| |- prodigal son |
|No man can serve two masters |- Promised Land |
|The prodigal son |- There is no prophet in his own country |
|The promised land | |
|A prophet is not without honor, | |
|save in his own country | |

In addition to the above expressions, which include entire sentences-sayings and various nominal (with the main word noun), attributive and adverbial phrases, many more verb phrases have entered the English language from the Bible:

|To bear one’s cross |- carry your cross |
|To condemn oneself out of one’s |- condemn yourself (involuntarily)|
|mouth | |
|To escape by the skin of one’s |- barely escape, barely |
|teeth |avoid danger |
|To kill the fatted calf |- slaughter a well-fed calf (for|
| | treats for the prodigal son (i.e. |
| | welcome, treat |
| |the best there is at home) |
| | - contemptuously ridicule |
| | - sit under your vine and |
|To laugh to scorn |fig tree (i.e. calmly and |
|To sit under one’s vine and |stay safely at home) |
|fig-tree | - sow the wind and reap the storm; |
| |pay cruelly |
| |- worship the golden calf |
|To sow the wind and reap the |(i.e. value above all |
|whirlwind |wealth, money) |
|To worship the golden calf | |

“Phraseological units of biblical origin often diverge in many ways from their biblical prototypes” (No. 28 p. 49). This is due in some cases to the fact that the biblical prototype was reinterpreted over time; the order of words could also be changed or archaic forms of words could be discarded.
For example, the phrase to kill the fatted calf in the parable of the prodigal son is used in the literal meaning of “slaying a fatted calf.” Later, this turn took on a new meaning of treating the best that is available at home. In the phraseological unit gall and wormwood - something hateful, disgusting, the word order has been changed compared to the biblical prototype and the articles (the wormwood and the gall) have been dropped. In the expression whatever a man sows, that shall he reap - ~ what goes around comes around, the archaic form of the verb to sow is discarded (cf. whatever a man soweth, that shall he reap). There are cases when a biblical phrase is used in a positive sense, but in modern language it is reinterpreted and is a phraseology with a negative assessment, for example:

Not to let one’s left hand know what one’s right hand does - the left hand does not know what the right hand is doing (modern version).

When thou doest alms let not thy left hand know what thy right hand does – “When you do alms, do not let your left hand know what your right hand is doing” (biblical prototype).

Some phraseological units go back to the biblical story. So we find biblical images and concepts in such phraseological units as forbidden fruit - forbidden fruit, Job's comforter - grief-comforter, Juda's kiss - kiss
Judas, a prodigal son - a prodigal son, a dead letter - a dead letter; a law or slogan that has lost its meaning.

2.2. Phraseologisms borrowed from ancient fiction

Greece and Ancient Rome

In addition to phraseological units taken from the Bible, in the English language, as well as in the languages ​​of other European nations that are heirs of ancient culture, there are many proverbs, aphorisms and figurative expressions that arose from the ancient Greeks and Romans.

Phraseologisms the golden age - the golden age, the apple of discord - the apple of discord, Pandora's box - Pandora's box, Achilles' heel - Achilles' heel, Augean stable(s) - Augean stables, a labor of Hercules - Herculean labor, a labor of Sisyphus – Sisyphean work, Lares and Penates
(book) – lares and penates, that which creates comfort, a home (lares and penates in ancient Roman mythology are the patron gods of the hearth), the thread of Ariadne (book) – Ariadne’s thread, a guiding thread, a method that helps to get out of a difficult situation (the daughter of the Cretan king Ariadne, giving the Greek hero Theseus a ball of thread, helped him get out of the labyrinth) are taken from ancient mythology.

The following expressions are associated with Homer’s poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey”: Homeric laughter - Homeric laughter (the phrase is associated with Homer’s description of the laughter of the gods); an Iliad of woes - a story of countless misfortunes; a sardonic laugh - sardonic, sarcastic laughter; Penelope's web – weaving
Penelope, delaying tactics; winged words - winged words; between
Scylla and Charybdis – between Scylla and Charybdis, in a hopeless situation; on the knees of the Gods – only God knows; on the razor’s edge - in a dangerous position, on the edge of an abyss, like a Trojan - courageously, valiantly, heroically (Virgil in the Aeneid also glorifies the courage of the defenders of Troy); the Trojan Horse - Trojan horse, hidden danger.

The following expressions come from Aesop's fables and other ancient Greek tales and fables: to blow hot and cold - to hesitate, to do mutually exclusive things, to take an ambivalent position (in one of the fables
Aesop, the traveler simultaneously blew on his fingers to warm them, and on the soup to cool it), to add insult to injury - to aggravate insults; to kill the goose that laid the golden eggs - kill the hen that lays the golden eggs; to cry wolf too often – raise a false alarm; the lion’s share - the lion’s share; the last straw (that broke the camel’s back) – the last drop that overflowed the cup, the limit of patience; sour grapes
– the grapes are green (about something unattainable and therefore condemned); to nourish a viper in one’s bosom – warm the snake on your chest; an ass in a lion’s skin - an ass in a lion’s skin; a fly on the wheel - a person who exaggerates his participation in any matter.

From one of Phaedrus’s fables comes the saying to take time by the forelock - take advantage of the opportunity, do not yawn. Expressions the small of the lamp - the smell of a lamp (i.e. oil in the lamp, by the light of which the writer reworked his work); forcedness, artificiality and to know where the shoe pinches - to know what the problem is, what the need is - became known thanks to the writings of Plutarch. This is where the phraseological unit “the skeleton at the feast” comes from – a person who darkens, spoils someone else’s fun; the expression to call a spade a spade - to call a spade a spade originates from an inaccurate, but successful rendering by Erasmus of Rotterdam of a proverb quoted by Plutarch (Plutarch says “to call a trough a trough” (No. 16)).

Some phraseological units go back to the works of ancient Roman writers: a snake in the grass - an underwater snake, an insidious, hidden enemy (Virgil); the golden mean - the golden mean (Horace); the sinews of war (book) – money, material resources (necessary for waging war) (Cicero); anger is a short madness – “anger is a short madness” (Horace).

Phraseological units that came into English from literature
Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome are endowed with extraordinary colorfulness and expressiveness, which explains their prevalence not only in English, but also in other languages ​​of the world.

2.3. Phraseologisms borrowed from English fiction

XVI – XX centuries

2.3.1. Shakespeareisms

In modern English there are many phraseological units, the main function of which is to enhance the aesthetic aspect of the language. Many phraseological units originated in connection with customs, realities, and historical facts, but most of the English phraseological fund one way or another arose thanks to artistic and literary works.

The works of the famous English classic W. Shakespeare are one of the most important literary sources in terms of the number of phraseological units that have enriched the English language. Their number is over a hundred. Here are examples of some of the most common Shakespearean expressions. (All the following examples of phraseological units are taken from the English-Russian phraseological dictionary of A.V. Kunin
(No. 16) (in total, 350 phraseological units are presented in the practical part).

|To make assurance double sure |- for greater fidelity. |
|The be-all and end-all | |
| | - what fills life, everything is in |
|The milk of human kindness |life. |
| |-“balm of good nature” (ironically), |
| |compassion, humanity |
|To screw one’s courage to the |- gain courage, dare|
|sticking place | |
|To win golden opinions |- to deserve favorable things, |
| | flattering opinion about yourself |
| | - with one blow, in one fell swoop, in |
|At one fell swoop |one moment |
| | - advancing old age, decrepitude |
|The sere and yellow leaf | |
| | - high position, rapture |
|Pride of place |own position, |
| |arrogance |
|Full of sound and fury | - loud, menacing speeches that |
| |mean nothing |

|To be or not to be? |- To be or not to be? |
|To cudgel one’s brains |- puzzle over (something) |
| | - the center of everyone's attention |
|The observed of all observers |- fall into your own trap |
|To be hoist with one’s own petard |- provide timely assistance |
|To do yeoman service |- blasphemy, the accusation does not affect us|
|Our withers are unwrung |- leave this mortal world, |
| |commit (suicide) |
|To shuffle off (this mortal coil) |- confuse |
| | - surpass Herod himself in |
|To give pause to (smb.) |cruelty |
| |- be not deprived of elementary |
|To out-Herod Herod |insight; (~be able to |
| | distinguish a cuckoo from a hawk) |
|To know a hawk from a handsaw |- too delicate a dish for |
| | coarse taste (the word general |
| |here means the general public) |
| |- closer to the point |
|Caviar to the general |- fury, rage |
| | - the path of pleasure |
| |- That's the rub, ~ That's where |
|Germane to the matter |the dog is buried |
|A towering passion |- where no one else has come from |
|The primrose path of dalliance |returned (i.e. in the kingdom |
|There's the rub |death) |
| | - in the imagination, mentally |
|From whose bourne no traveler |- accustomed from the cradle |
|returns |- shreds and shreds |
| |- beautiful – beautiful |
|In the mind’s eye |(courtesy when |
| |giving a gift) |
|To the manner born |- completely, completely; to your heart's content |
|Shreds and patches |as much as you like |
|Sweets to the sweet | |
| | |
|To the top of one’s bent | |

|The green-eyed monster |-(book) “monster with green |
| |eyes”, jealousy |
| | - celebrate little things, |
|To chronicle small beer |insignificant events, |
| |doing trifles |
| | - unsightly side, wrong side |
|The seamy side |something |
| | - flaunt your |
|To wear one’s heart upon one’s |feelings; (~soul wide open) |
|sleeve |- insignificant trifles |
| | - rich suitors, “golden |
|Trifles light as air |youth”, rich slackers |
|Curled darlings |- exciting events |
| | - visible evidence |
| | - a foregone conclusion; biased |
|Moving accident(s) |opinion, conclusion |
|Ocular proof |- limit, top; most importantly, |
|A foregone conclusion |important, essential |
| |- What a pity! |
|The head and front of | |
| | |
|The pity of it! | |

"King Henry IV"

|To eat one out of house and home | - ruin a person by living for him |
|The wish is father to the thought |account |
| |- desire gives rise to thought; people |
| | willingly believe what they themselves |
|The better part of value is |wish |
|discretion |- one of the adornments of courage – |
| |modesty |

"King Henry V"

|To give the devil his due |- give due to the bad |
| |person |

|To gild refined gold |- (lit. gild pure gold);|
| | try to improve, decorate |
| |anything is enough |
| |good; wasting time. |
| |- “tint the color of the lily”, i.e. |
| |try to improve or decorate |
| | anything that does not need |
|To paint the lily |improvement and decoration |

"Twelfth Night"

|Midsummer madness |- insanity |
|The whirligig of time |- vicissitudes of fate; "carousel |
| |time" |
|Cakes and ale | - carefree fun, |
| |enjoyment of life, “pies and |
| |beer" |

“Merchant of Venice”

|To have (smb.) on the hip |- take advantage of (someone's) |
| |disadvantageous position, “press” |
| |anyone. |
| |- plenty, plenty |
|To one’s heart’s content |- honest, insightful judge |
|A Daniel come to judgment |- exact quantity, |
| | due by law, “pound |
|A pound of flesh |meat» |
| |- holding my breath |
|With bated breath | |

“As You Like It”

|How the world wags? |- How are things going? |
|In good set terms |- with all determination, |
| | severity |
|Lay it on with a trowel |- exaggerate; flatter |
| | - serious thoughts, |
|Sermons in stones |inspired natural phenomena |

"Midsummer Night's Dream"

|Fancy free |- not in love with anyone; with |
| |unoccupied, free heart |
| |- the beginning of the end |
|The beginning of the end | |

|Every inch a king |- from head to toe, entirely, |
| |real in every way |
| |(king) |
| |- (person) undeservedly |
|More sinned against than sinning |offended, before whom others |
| | more to blame than he is before |
| |by them |

“Much Ado About Nothing”

|Comparisons are odorous |- ~ comparisons are not always appropriate|
|Good men and true | - honest, decent, faithful |
| |people |

"Troilus and Creseide"

|Hit or miss | - randomly, haphazardly, |
| |at random |

"Romeo and Juliet"

|A fool’s paradise |- fantasy world; ghostly |
| |happiness |

"Comedy of Errors"

|Neither rhyme nor reason |- ~ neither fit nor harmony, without |
| | of any meaning |

“Antonius and Cleopatra”

|Salad days | - time of youthful inexperience; ~ |
| |young - green |

"Julius Caesar"

|An itching palm | - tendency to take bribes; |
| |greed for money, profit. |
| | “La-don is itching.” |

|A sea-change |- transformation (not death) |

"Coriolanus"

|A triton among the minnows |- a giant among the pygmies |

"Love's Labor Lost"

|That’s flat | - finally and irrevocably |

In modern English, Shakespearean words can be used with some modifications. For example, the expression to wear one’s heart upon one’s sleeve for days to peck at (“Othello”) – flaunt one’s feelings; (~soul wide open). (This phraseological unit is associated with the medieval knightly tradition of wearing the colors of his lady on his sleeve). In modern English it is usually used in abbreviated form: to wear one’s heart upon one’s sleeve. Also, instead of the preposition upon, another preposition can be used - on. For example: “It’s lovely to be able to tell the world what she means to me.” Howard … adds: “I never back off from showing my emotions whatever they are.” I think if we all wore our hearts on our sleeves a bit more we’d all get on a lot better.” (The times)

Shakespeareanism the better part of value is discretion (“King Henry IV”)
– one of the adornments of courage – modesty exists in modern English with a changed word order: discretion is the better part of valour.

Many Shakespearean expressions acquire lexical variants over time: for example, applaud (or cheer) to the echo - noisily, enthusiastically applaud, give an ovation (applaud to the echo - Shakespeareanism;
"Macbeth"); cram (ram or thrust) smth. down smb.’s throat – to impose on someone (one’s opinion, one’s views, etc.) (thrust smth. down smb.’s throat – Shakespeareanism; “Titus Andronicus”).

In Shakespeareanism, buy golden opinions - to deserve a favorable, flattering opinion about oneself, to evoke admiration; in modern language, instead of the verb buy, the verb win is used.

The expression at one fell swoop (“Macbeth”) - with one blow, in one fell swoop, at one moment immediately began to be used in the abbreviated form at one swoop.
For example: “They go quick, one after another – five of them vanished already at one swoop.” (S. O'Casey)

In modern English speech, Shakespeareanisms are also used, which include obsolete words, i.e. archaisms that are not used anywhere except this phrase. For example, from whose bourne no traveler returns - where no one has ever returned from (i.e. in the kingdom of death). The word bourne is an archaism and means a boundary or limit; it is used in modern English only within the framework of this phraseological unit.

A large number of phraseological units created by Shakespeare have come into general use, which testifies to both the linguistic genius of Shakespeare and his colossal popularity.

2.3.2. Statements of English writers of the 17th – 20th centuries, which have become phraseological units of the modern language

In addition to Shakespeare, many other writers have enriched the English phraseological fund. Among them, it is mainly worth noting
Alexander Pope, Walter Scott, Geoffrey Chaucer, John Milton,
Jonathan Swift and Charles Dickens.

Alexander Pop:

|Fools rush in where angels fear to |- fools rush to where |
|tread(“An Essay on Criticism”) |angels are afraid to tread, |
| |(~for cancer the law is not written) |
|Damn with faint praise (“Epistle to|- condemn, pretending that |
|Dr. Arbuth-not”) |praise |
|Break a butterfly on the wheel | |
|(“Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot”) |- (~ shoot cannons at |
|Who shall decide when doctors |sparrows) |
|disagree? (“Moral Essays”) | |
| | - what should a mortal do, |
| | when the opinions of experts |
| |diverge |

Walter Scott:

|To catch smb. red-handed | - catch someone in the act |
|(“Ivanhoe”) |crime, capture |
| |someone red-handed |
| | - attack a dangerous enemy in |
|Beard the lion in his den |his own home |
|(“Marmion”) |- to become depressed after fun, |
| | go from laughter to tears |
|Laugh on the wrong side of one’s |- on our native land, on our |
|mouth (“Rob Roy”) |homeland |
| | - worthy opponent, rival |
|On one’s native path (“Rob Roy”) | |
|A foeman worthy of smb.’s steel | |
|(“The Lady of the Lake”) | |

Geoffrey Chaucer:

|Through thick and thin (“The | - decisively, steadfastly, despite |
|Canterbury Tales") |no obstacles |
| | - everything secret becomes clear |
|Murder will out (“The Canterbury |- “when you sit down at the table with |
|Tales”) |damn, stock up on a spoon |
|He needs a long spoon that sups |longer,” ~ contacted |
|with the devil. (also: He who sups | damn, blame yourself |
|with the devil should have a long | |
|spoon) (“The Canterbury Tales”) | |

John Milton:

|Fall on evil days (“Paradise Lost”)| - fall into poverty, be in poverty; |
| |eve out a miserable existence; ~ |
| | dark days have come |
| | - heaven on earth |
|Heaven on Earth (aka Paradise on | |
|Earth) (“Paradise Lost”) | |
|Confusion worse confounded |-confusion, complete chaos |
|(“Paradise Lost”) | |
|The light fantastic toe |- dance |
|("L'Allegro") | |
|More than meets the ear (“Paradise | - more than it seems at first |
|Lost”) |look; not as easy as |
| |it seems |

Jonathan Swift:

|The land of Nod (“Polite | - “land of dreams”, kingdom |
|Conversation”) |sleep |
|A sight for sore eyes (“Polite | - a pleasant sight for the heart |
|Conversation”) |joy (especially about the desired |
| |guest) |
|All the world and his wife (“Polite|-1. all without exception, a lot |
|Conversation”) |to the people; 2. everything secular |
| |society, the entire “high society” |
| | - quit an activity that gives |
|To quarrel with one’s bread and |livelihood |
|butter (“Polite Conversation”) |- in order |
|All in the day’s work (“Polite | |
|Conversation”) |- pouring like buckets (about rain) |
|To rain cats and dogs (“Polite |- something makes me shiver |
|Conversation”) | |
|Someone is walking over my grave | |
|(“Polite Conversation”) | |

Charles Dickens:

|King Charles’s head (“David | - obsession, subject |
|Copperfield”) |craziness (expression |
| |connected with the hobby of a crazy person |
| | Mr. Dick Karl I) |
| |- don't despair |
|Never say die (“David Copperfield”)| |
| |- “Barkis is not averse to it”, I really like |
|Barkis is willing (“David | wants (carrier Barkis |
|Copperfield”) |started with these |
| |in your words, your offer of hand and|
| |hearts to the maid Pegotti) |
| | - exhausted, exhausted |
| |man, (~skin and bones) |
| | - scoundrel, scoundrel (nickname |
|A bag of bones (“Oliver Twist”) |pickpocket John Dawkins) |
| |- “ministry of personalities” |
|An Artful Dodger (“Oliver Twist”) |(after the name of the bureaucratic |
| | institutions in the novel) |
|The Circumlocution Office (“Little | - cutesy manner of speaking, |
|Dorrit") | affectation mannerism |
| | - how our enemy moves - |
| |time?, what time is it? |
|Prunes and prism (“Little Dorrit”) |- in harmless meaning |
| | - to put it bluntly, simply |
|How goes the enemy? (“Nicholas | speaking, if you name things |
|Nickleby”) |by their own names |
|In a Pickwickian sense (“Pickwick | |
|Papers”) | |
|Not to put too fine a point on it | |
|(“Bleack House”) | |

The statements of other English writers usually remain quotations and only in rare cases replenish the phraseological fund of the English language, entering colloquial speech. Here are some examples of such statements:
(the following phraseological units are classified according to the time of creation of the work in which this phraseological unit is used).

J. Arbuthnot: John Bull - “John Bull” (a mocking nickname for the British). The phrase was first used by the court physician J. Arbuthnot in the satirical pamphlet “Law is a Bottomless Pit” (1712), later republished under the title “The History of John Bull.”

R. Burns: John Barleycorn – John Barleycorn (personification of whiskey, beer and other spirits), (“John Barleycorn”).

J. Gay: (as) cool as a cucumber – completely unperturbed, calm; ~ does not blow his mustache, and does not blink an eye (“Poems on Several
Occasions").

D. Defoe: man Friday - Friday; faithful devoted servant (named after the faithful servant in the novel “Robinson Crusoe”); a gentleman’s gentleman –
“a gentleman serving a gentleman”, servant (“Everybody’s Business”).

S. T. Coleridge: an albatross about one’s neck - a constant reminder of someone’s guilt; sad circumstance (in Coleridge's poem “The Ancient
Mariner” is about a sailor who, by killing an albatross, brought disaster on his ship and was forced to wear the dead albatross around his neck as punishment).

W. Cooper: a cup that cheers but not inebriates - “a cheerful drink, but not intoxicating”, tea (“The Task”).

K. Marlowe: to clip smb.’s wings - to clip someone’s wings.

T. Morton: what will Mrs. Grundy say? – “what will Mrs. Grundy say?”, i.e. what will people say? The expression is used in the comedy “Speed ​​the
Plough.” Mrs. Grundy is the embodiment of walking morality (cf. what will Princess Marya Alekseevna say?).

T. Smollett: fly off at a tangent - suddenly disconnect from the topic of conversation (“Humphrey Clinker”); fit like a glove – to be just right, to fit (“Humphrey Clinker”).

L. Chesterfield: small talk - chatter, talk about trifles, about the weather
(“Letters to his Son”).

J. G. Byron: (as) merry as a marriage-bell – very cheerful, cheerful, full of life (“Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage”).

W. Wordsworth: the child is father of the man - the traits of an adult are already embedded in the child.

T. Campbell: few and far between – rare, rarely encountered
(“Pleasures of Hope”).

J. Poole: Paul Pry is a person who sticks his nose into other people's affairs, an overly curious person (the main character in the comedy “Paul Pry”).

R. L. Stevenson: Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde – “Dr. Jekyll and Mr.
Hyde,” a person who embodies two principles – good and evil (named after the hero of the story “The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde”).

A. Tennyson: a little rift within the lute – the beginning of discord or madness; wormhole, “crack” (“Idylls of the King, Merlin and
Vivien").

A. O. Shaughnessy: mover and shaker - an influential person, a leader of public opinion, making politics.

J. Berry: little Mary (colloquial joke) - stomach, “tummy” (after the title of the play).

R. Kipling: the tail wags the dog - “the tail wags the dog”, the subordinate commands the superior (“The Conundrum of the Workshops”)

Ch. Snow: corridors of power - corridors of power (book title)

Many phraseological units were not created by the writers themselves, but only thanks to the latter they became widespread in modern English. Here are examples. The expression John Barleycorn has been known since the first half of the 17th century and gained particular popularity thanks to the ballad of R. Burns “John Barleycorn”. The saying to be on the side of the angels (lit. to be on the side of the angels), insist on traditional
(anti-scientific) point of view gained popularity thanks to B.
Disraeli. Phraseologism vanity fair - vanity fair, which is the name of the famous novel by W. Thackeray, is found in the book of J. Bunyan
"Pilgrim's Progress" (1678 - 1684). The phraseological phrase a skeleton in the closet is a family secret hidden from outsiders, introduced by W. Thackeray into literature, and was also known before him. Comparisons green like a Cheshire cat – grin, smile from ear to ear; (as) mad as a hatter and (as) mad as a March hare - out of my mind, crazy, completely out of my mind, popularized by L. Carroll in the book “Alice in Wonderland”.

2.4. Phraseologisms borrowed from American fiction

Many phraseological units came to England from the USA. They belong to intralingual borrowings. Some of these phraseological units were once created by American writers and became widespread in modern English speech.

The creators of many revolutions are known.

V. Irving: the almighty dollar - “almighty dollar” (usually used ironically); a Rip Van Winkle - “Rip Van Winkle”, a retarded man (named after the hero of the same story who slept for twenty years).

E. O'Connor: the last hurrah - “last hurrah”; ~ swan song
(usually about the last election campaign, or about a politician ending his turbulent political career. Based on the title of the novel)

F. Cooper: the last of the Mohicans - the last of the Mohicans (based on the title of the novel). The Mohicans are an extinct tribe of North American Indians.
The popularity of Cooper's works contributed to the introduction into the English language of phraseological units related to the life of the Indians: bury the hatchet - make peace, make peace, stop hostility (the Indians buried a tomahawk in the ground when making peace); dig up the hatchet - start a war (the Indians had a custom before starting hostilities to pull out a tomahawk buried in the ground); go on the war-path - to take the path of war, to be in a warlike mood.

G. Longfellow: ships that pass in the night - fleeting, chance encounters (“Tales of Wayside Inn”) (cf. separated like ships at sea).
The popularity of the expression is also associated with its use as the title of one of the novels of the writer Beatrice Harraden (1893).

J. London: the call of the wild - “call of the ancestors”, “call of nature”, the charm of virgin nature (based on the title of the novel); the iron heel, imperialism (based on the title of the novel).

M. Mitchell: gone with the wind - disappeared without a trace, sunk into the past (the expression became popular after the publication of the novel by M. Mitchell
“Gone With the Wind” and the film based on this novel were created by the English poet E. Dawson (1867 – 1900).

J. Howe: the grapes of wrath (the phrase first appears in the work of J. Howe “Battle Hymn of the Republic” (1862), owes its popularity to the novel by J. Steinbeck with the same name).

R.W. Emerson: hitch one’s wagon to a star - to get carried away in dreams
(“Society and Solitude”).

The number of phraseological units borrowed from American fiction is not as large as the number of phraseological units created by English writers.
But it should be noted that the Americanisms given above have the most vivid imagery and increased expressiveness compared to the statements of English writers.

2.5. Phraseologisms borrowed from French fiction

French fiction has made a significant contribution to the phraseological fund of the modern English language. Many works of French writers have been translated into English and are still widely popular in England. In this regard, it is worth highlighting such French writers as: Francois Rabelais, Jean Baptiste
Moliere, Jerome d'Angers, Lafontaine and others.

We give examples of phraseological units created by French writers and most used in modern English (all of the following phraseological units, borrowed from French fiction, are translations and are presented in English (in their original form, these phraseological units are not used in modern English speech)): appetite comes with eating - appetite comes while eating (the expression first appears in the essay “On Causes” (1515) by Jerome d’Angers, bishop of the city of Le Mans; popularized by Francois Rabelais in “Gargantua and
Pantagruel"); Buridan's ass - Buridan's donkey (about a person who does not dare to make a choice between two equivalent objects, equivalent decisions, etc.) (The 14th century French philosopher Buridan is credited with a story about a donkey who died of hunger, since he did not dare to make a choice between two identical armfuls of hay. This story was allegedly given.
Buridan as an example in discussions about free will. The phraseology an ass (or a donkey) between two bundles of hay goes back to this same story); castles in Spain - castles in the air (an expression associated with the medieval heroic epic, the heroes of which, knights, received unconquered castles in Spain into personal possession); for smb.’s fair eyes (or for the fair eyes of smb.) - for the sake of someone’s beautiful eyes, not for the sake of his merits, but according to personal disposition, for nothing, for nothing (an expression from the comedy of J.B.
Molière's "Prudence"); an ivory tower - “ivory tower”, isolation from life (an expression created by the French poet and critic
Sainte-Beuve and is a rethinking of biblicalism); let us return to our muttons - let’s return to the topic of our conversation (an expression from Blanchet’s medieval farce about the lawyer Patlen; later, by reverse formation, the infinitive arose to return to one’s muttons); to pull smb.’s (or the) chestnuts out of the fire (for smb.) - to pull chestnuts out of the fire for someone; it is pointless, at the risk of oneself, to work for the benefit of another (in La Fontaine’s fable “The Monkey and the Cat” - the monkey Bertrand forces the cat
Ratona to carry chestnuts from the fire for himself). The expression “to make a cat’s paw of smb” is associated with the same fable. - to make someone your obedient instrument - to rake in the heat with someone else’s hands).

It should be noted that the number of phraseological units borrowed from French fiction into the English language is not large, but despite this, they are often used by English writers to enhance imagery (for example: “You tried to use me as a cat's paw to pull chestnuts out of the fire for Stanley Rider.” (U. Sinclair) (No. 16)) and are widespread in modern English speech.

2.6. Phraseologisms borrowed from German and Danish fiction

Phraseological borrowings from German and Danish fiction are few. Only a few writers from Germany and Denmark added “catchphrase” expressions to the English phraseological fund.
Here are examples of these phraseological units: speech is silvern, silence is golden - “the word is silver, silence is gold”; The proverb was first found by the German writer Thomas
Carlyle: As the Swiss Inscription says: Sprechen ist silbern, schweigen ist golden (speech is silvern, silence is golden) (“Sartor Resartus”); storm and stress - “storm and stress” (a trend in German literature of the 70-80s of the 18th century); period of anxiety, excitement; tension (in public or personal life), rapid onslaught (German: Sturm und
Drang - after the name of the play by F. Klinger); between hammer and anvil - between a hammer and an anvil (after the title of the novel (1868) by a German writer
F. Spielhagen); the emperor has (or wears) no clothes - but the king is naked (an expression from the fairy tale by the Danish writer H.H. Andersen “The King’s New Clothes” (1837)); an ugly duckling - “ugly duckling” (a person unfairly assessed below his merits, which manifest themselves unexpectedly to others; according to the title of the fairy tale by H. H. Andersen about the ugly duckling who grew up and became a beautiful swan).

2.7. Phraseologisms that came into English from Spanish fiction

In modern English there are only a few phraseological units borrowed from Spanish fiction. In this regard, one should highlight one of the most famous Spanish writers, Miguel De Cervantes Saavedra, who became famous throughout the world for his work “Don Quixote”. Miguel De Cervantes Saavedra is the author of the following phraseological units: the knight of the Rueful Countenance - (book) knight of the Sad Image, Don Quixote (Spanish el Caballero de la triste figura. This is what Don Quixote was called by his squire Sancho Panza); tilt at windmills - fight with windmills, “quixotic” (Spanish: acometer molinos de viento. The battle with windmills is one of the episodes in the novel “Don Quixote”).

Currently, in the English language there are many phraseological units of Spanish origin, but only those phraseological units given above have literary roots.

2.8. Phraseologisms associated with Arabic fiction

Several expressions have come into the English language from the Arabian Nights fairy tales: Aladdin’s lamp (book) – Aladdin’s magic lamp (a talisman that fulfills all the wishes of its owner). The phrase “to rub the lamp” is associated with the same fairy tale – it’s easy to fulfill your desire; Alnascharn's dream
(book) - empty dreams, fantasies (one of the tales of the Arabian Nights talks about Alnashar, who bought glassware with all his money and put them in a basket, but, dreaming about how he would become a rich man, and, angry with his future wife, hit the basket and broke all the glass); the old man of the sea - a person from whom it is difficult to get rid of, an obsessive person (an allusion to an episode in one of the fairy tales, which tells how Sinbad the Sailor could not get rid of the old man who sat on his shoulders); an open Sesame - “Open Sesame!”, a quick and easy way to achieve something (magic words used to open the door to the robbers’ cave in a fairy tale
"Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves")

The fact that some expressions borrowed from Arabic folklore have become phraseological units of the modern English language testifies to the metaphorical and expressive nature of these phraseological units. Similar concepts exist in other languages ​​of the world, in this case we can talk about the internationality of phraseological units borrowed from Arabic literature.

Conclusion

The phraseological fund of the English language is so large that its complete study would not fit into the scope of this work. Nevertheless, using the example of the considered phraseological units, one can clearly imagine how diverse in their semantics and expressiveness the phraseological units of modern English are. Thanks to the literary works of writers and poets, both in Great Britain and around the world, the English language currently has a huge number of phraseological units. But we should not forget that a huge number of phraseological units also came into the English language from the history and culture of various countries of the world.

Unfortunately, in modern English speech there is no use of expressions taken from the literature of Asian countries. Only phraseological units borrowed from the literature of countries in one way or another geographically close to Great Britain have become widespread. It should be noted that the number of biblicalisms in the English language is especially large; this may indicate the religiosity of the English.

An important fact is that all non-English literary borrowings presented in this work are complete tracings from one language or another. In modern English, these phraseological units are not used in a foreign language form. Therefore, we cannot talk here about the process of assimilation of phraseological units borrowed from the fiction of various countries.

The expression “enrich with phraseological units” is often used in the work.
It must be said that this is not a simple pattern, because as A.V. said.
Kunin “Phraseology is the treasury of language” (No. 15), and phraseological units in language are wealth. Phrases not only reflect the culture and way of life of a particular language, but also help make speech more expressive and emotional.

Phraseology is an extremely complex phenomenon, the study of which requires its own research method, as well as the use of data from other sciences - lexicology, grammar, stylistics, phonetics, history of language, history, philosophy, logic and regional studies.

The opinions of linguists on a number of problems of phraseology differ, and this is quite natural. Nevertheless, an important task for linguists working in the field of phraseology is to combine efforts and find common ground in the interests of both the theory of phraseology and the practice of teaching foreign languages.

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