Etruscan period. Etruscan civilization in central Italy. The cult of death and ideas about the underworld among the Etruscans

The Etruscans are rightfully considered one of the most amazing mysteries in history. Scientists don't know exactly where they came from or what language they spoke. The question of a possible connection between the Etruscans and Russians has still not been clarified.

Under the Veil of Secrets

In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. On the territory of Italy, between the Tiber and Arno rivers, stretched the legendary state of Etruria, which became the cradle of Roman civilization. The Romans eagerly learned from the Etruscans, borrowing from them systems of government and gods, engineering and mosaics, gladiator fights and chariot races, funeral rites and clothing.

Despite their fame, the Etruscans are one complete mystery for us. Much evidence has been preserved about the Etruscans, but they do not give us a convincing and reliable picture of the life of this people. Scientists do not know for certain how the Etruscans appeared and where they disappeared. The exact boundaries of Etruria have not yet been established and the Etruscan language has not been deciphered.

The Roman Emperor Claudius I, who ruled in the 1st century AD, left to his descendants the 20-volume History of the Etruscans, as well as a dictionary of the Etruscan language. But fate would have it that these manuscripts were completely destroyed in the fire of the Library of Alexandria, depriving us of the opportunity to lift the veil of secrets of the Etruscan civilization.

People from the East

Today there are three versions of the origin of the Etruscans. Titus Livius reports that the Etruscans penetrated the Apennine Peninsula from the north along with the Alpine Rhets, with whom they were related. According to the hypothesis of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the Etruscans were natives of Italy who adopted the achievements of the previous Villanova culture.

However, the “Alpine version” does not find any material evidence, and modern scientists increasingly associate the Villanova culture not with the Etruscans, but with the Italics.

Historians have long noticed how the Etruscans stood out from their less developed neighbors. This served as a prerequisite for the third version, according to which the Etruscans settled the Apennines from Asia Minor. This view was held by Herodotus, who argued that the ancestors of the Etruscans came from Lydia in the 8th century BC.

There is a lot of evidence of the Asia Minor origin of the Etruscans. For example, the way of creating sculptures. The Etruscans, unlike the Greeks, preferred not to carve an image from stone, but to sculpt it from clay, which was typical for the art of the peoples of Asia Minor.

There is also more important evidence of the eastern origin of the Etruscans. At the end of the 19th century, on the island of Lemnos, located near the coast of Asia Minor, archaeologists discovered a tombstone.

The inscription on it was made in Greek letters, but in a completely unusual combination. Imagine the surprise of the scientists when, after comparing this inscription with Etruscan texts, they discovered striking similarities!

Bulgarian historian Vladimir Georgiev offers an interesting development of the “eastern version”. In his opinion, the Etruscans are none other than the legendary Trojans. The scientist bases his assumptions on the legend according to which the Trojans, led by Aeneas, fled from war-torn Troy to the Apennine Peninsula.

Georgiev also supports his theory with linguistic considerations, finding a relationship between the words “Etruria” and “Troy”. One might be skeptical about this version if in 1972 Italian archaeologists had not excavated an Etruscan tomb-monument dedicated to Aeneas.

Genetic map

Not long ago, scientists from the University of Turin, using genetic analysis, decided to test Herodotus’ hypothesis about the Asia Minor origin of the Etruscans. The study compared the Y chromosomes (transmitted through the male line) of the population of Tuscany and residents of other regions of Italy, as well as the island of Lemnos, the Balkan Peninsula and Turkey.

It turned out that the genetic samples of residents of the Tuscan cities of Volterra and Murlo are more similar to those of residents of the Eastern Mediterranean than to neighboring Italian regions.

Moreover, some genetic characteristics of the inhabitants of Murlo absolutely coincide with the genetic data of the inhabitants of Turkey.

Researchers from Stanford University decided to use computer modeling to reconstruct the demographic processes that affected the population of Tuscany over the past 2,500 years. This method initially involved data from anthropological and genetic examination.

The results were unexpected. Scientists have been able to rule out a genetic connection between the Etruscans, the ancient inhabitants of central Italy, and the modern inhabitants of Tuscany. The data obtained suggest that the Etruscans were wiped off the face of the earth by some kind of catastrophe, or that they represented a social elite that had little in common with the ancestors of modern Italians.

The leader of the Stanford project, anthropologist Joanna Mountain, notes that “the Etruscans were different from the Italians in every way and even spoke a language that was not an Indo-European group.” “Cultural and linguistic characteristics have made the Etruscans a real mystery to numerous researchers,” Mountain sums up.

“Etruscan is Russian”

The phonetic proximity of the two ethnonyms – “Etruscans” and “Russians” – gives rise to hypotheses among researchers about the direct connection of the two peoples. Philosopher Alexander Dugin understands this connection literally: “Etruscan is Russian.” The plausibility of this version is also given by the self-name of the Etruscans - Rasenna or Raśna.

However, if the word “Etruscan” is compared with the Roman name of this people – “tusci”, and the self-name “Rasena” is associated with the Greek name of the Etruscans – “Tyrseni”, then the closeness of the Etruscans and Russians no longer looks so obvious.

There is enough evidence that the Etruscans could leave the territory of Italy.

One of the reasons for the exodus may have been climate change, accompanied by drought. It coincided with the disappearance of this people in the 1st century BC.

Presumably, the Etruscan migration routes should have extended to the north, which was more favorable for farming. Evidence of this, for example, are urns discovered in Upper Germany for storing the ashes of the deceased, which are similar to Etruscan artifacts.

It is likely that some of the Etruscans reached the territory of the present Baltic states, where they could assimilate with the Slavic peoples. However, the version that the Etruscans laid the foundations of the Russian ethnic group is not supported by anything.

The main problem is the absence of the sounds “b”, “d” and “g” in the Etruscan language - the structure of the larynx did not allow the Etruscans to pronounce them. This feature of the vocal apparatus is more reminiscent not of Russians, but of Finns or Estonians.

One of the recognized apologists of Etruscology, the French scientist Zachary Mayani, turns the vector of Etruscan settlement immediately to the east. In his opinion, the descendants of the Etruscans are modern Albanians. Among the justifications for his hypothesis, the scientist cites the fact that the capital of Albania, Tirana, bears one of the names of the Etruscans - “Tyrrenians”.

The overwhelming majority of scientists believe that the Etruscans simply disappeared into the ethnic group of the peoples who inhabited the Roman Empire. The speed of assimilation of the Etruscans may well be a consequence of their small numbers. According to archaeologists, the population of Etruria, even at the time of its heyday, did not exceed 25 thousand people.

Lost in translation

The study of Etruscan writing has been carried out since the 16th century. What languages were used as a basis to decipher Etruscan inscriptions: Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, Celtic, Finnish, even the languages of the American Indians. But all attempts were unsuccessful. “Etruscan is unreadable,” said skeptical linguists.

However, scientists still achieved certain results.

They established that the Etruscan alphabet originates from Greek and consists of 26 letters.

Moreover, the alphabet borrowed from the Greeks did not correspond well to the peculiarities of the phonetics of the Etruscan language - some sounds, depending on the context, had to be denoted by different letters. Moreover, late Etruscan texts were guilty of omitting vowel sounds, which created an almost impossible task of deciphering them.

And yet, some linguists, in their words, managed to read part of the Etruscan inscriptions. Three 19th-century scientists at once - the Pole Tadeusz Wolanski, the Italian Sebastiano Ciampi and the Russian Alexander Chertkov - declared that the key to deciphering Etruscan texts lies in the Slavic languages.

Russian linguist Valery Chudinov followed in Volansky’s footsteps, proposing that the Etruscan language be considered the successor to the “Slavic runic writing.” Official science is skeptical about both Chudinov’s attempts to “antiquate” Slavic writing and his ability to read inscriptions where an inexperienced person sees a “play of nature.”

Modern researcher Vladimir Shcherbakov tries to simplify the problem of translating Etruscan inscriptions, explaining that the Etruscans wrote as they heard. With this method of decoding, many Etruscan words in Shcherbakov sound completely “Russian”: “ita” - “this”, “ama” - “pit”, “tes” - “forest”.

Linguist Peter Zolin notes in this regard that any attempt to read texts of such antiquity using modern words is absurd.

Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences Andrei Zaliznik adds: “An amateur linguist willingly immerses himself in the discussion of written monuments of the past, completely forgetting (or simply not knowing anything) that in the past the language he knew looked completely different from what it does now.”

Today, most historians are convinced that the Etruscan inscriptions will never be deciphered.

Introduction

This work is dedicated to one of the most mysterious civilizations of ancient Europe - the Etruscans. The uniqueness of this people attracts many scientists and history buffs. I am one of these fans.

Object of study Etruscan civilization

Subject of research: Etruscan culture

The purpose of the work is to study the influence of ancient Greek culture on the development of Etruscan culture.

Job Objectives

1. Give a general description of the Etruscan civilization.

2. Describe the achievements of ancient Greek culture.

3. Identify the areas of Etruscan culture on which ancient Greek culture had the greatest influence.

Hypothesis: the ancient Greeks influenced Etruscan culture during the Great Colonization.

Relevance of the work

Today there are quite a lot of works that are dedicated to the Etruscans, for example, the work of Nemirovsky A.I. “Etruscans. From myth to history” But the topic of the influence of ancient Greek culture on the Etruscan culture is mainly described only indirectly. There is no separate work on this topic yet. So my work has some potential. It will be quite informative for those who are just beginning to be interested in the history and culture of this people.

General characteristics of Etruscan civilization

This people went down in history under different names. The Greeks called them Tyrseni or Tyrrhenians, and the Romans called them Tusci or Etruscans. As you already understand, the Etruscans are quite mysterious people. Their main mystery lies in their origin. The written monuments of the Etruscans themselves cannot help us in solving this mystery, since their language is practically not deciphered. Therefore, scientists have to build various hypotheses, which are based on some archaeological finds, as well as on evidence from the Greeks and Romans. All theories about the origin of the Etruscans (except the most implausible) can be reduced to four hypotheses.

1) The Eastern hypothesis is the most ancient of all hypotheses. It is based on the works of Herodotus and some other ancient authors. In their opinion, the Etruscans came from Asia Minor. The reasons why they had to leave their original homeland are called the Trojan War and the campaigns of the “Sea Peoples”. This theory is also supported by some features of the political structure (“federation” of 12 cities, division into 3 or 30 tribes) and other features that make the Etruscans related to the peoples of the Hittite-Luwian group. Opponents of this theory doubt that an entire people could have moved from Asia Minor to Italy precisely during the period of the Trojan War and the campaigns of the “Sea Peoples.” In addition, the Etruscan language is not similar to Hittite or other related languages.

2) “Theory of formation” According to this theory, the Etruscans as an ethnic group were formed in Italy (or before direct migration to it) from representatives of several different peoples. Nowadays it is the most common. It is adhered to, in particular, by A.I. Nemirovsky, A.I. Kharchenko and other Russian scientists.

3) Northern hypothesis According to it, the Etruscans came to Italy from across the Alps. Based on the message of Titus Livy about the similarity of the language of the Etruscans and Rhets (the people who lived between the Alps and the Danube), as well as the similarity of Germanic runes with the letters of the Etruscan alphabet. Nowadays it has no adherents, since it has been established that both the Germanic runes and the language of the Rhets originate from Etruria, and not vice versa.

4) Autochthonous hypothesis: the Etruscans are the indigenous (pre-Indo-European) inhabitants of Italy. This theory is most popular among Italian scientists.

One way or another, the Etruscans became one of the peoples of Italy. The first archaeological sites associated with the Etruscans (dating back to the end of the 8th century BC) appeared in one region of Italy, which was called Etruria (by the way, the modern name of this region is Tuscany, comes from one of the names of the Etruscans - Tusci)

Etruria is a swampy plain, which without reclamation simply becomes unsuitable for agriculture, and a coast with shallow harbors that are easily covered with sand without the necessary care. So, in order to make these lands suitable for life, the Etruscans had to make enormous efforts. And they applied them. Even at the dawn of their history, the Etruscans, with the help of the labor of conquered peoples, were able to carry out enormous drainage work. And Etruria became an extremely fertile region.

Agriculture among the Etruscans was dominated by agriculture: growing grain crops and flax. A fairly important source of the country's wealth was the mining of metals - copper and iron. The Etruscans made a huge fortune on it, since everyone needed the metals. The Etruscans also achieved quite great success in pottery. In the 8th-7th centuries BC, Etruscan craftsmen produced very original bucchero ceramics, which were in great demand throughout Middle-earth.

The trade relations of the Etruscans were very great. They traded with almost all of Europe. Objects of Etruscan origin are found not only in Italy, but also in Spain, France, Greece, Turkey and on the coast of North Africa. To the countries of Middle-earth (especially Greece), the Etruscans exported metals in ingots, metal products (metal mirrors with carved designs on the back were especially in demand), ceramics, and they imported mainly luxury items - elegant Greek ceramics, glass from Egypt, purple fabric from Phenicia. The Etruscans, the peoples who lived beyond the Alps, sold wine, weapons and household utensils, purchasing furs and slaves in return.

The main power in Etruscan society was the nobility. All power in the Etruscan cities was concentrated in her hands, and most of the lands also belonged to them. Only members of the nobility could bear a surname. The priests have no less power. They were the main keepers of knowledge. She also turned to them when it was necessary to carry out fortune-telling (fortune-telling was usually done on the entrails of animals). The priests also interpreted the results of fortune-telling. And given the fact that the Etruscans were a very superstitious people and the results of fortune-telling were very important for them, the priests could easily interpret the results of fortune-telling in a way that was beneficial to them. So the priests, to some extent, had even more power than the nobility.

We know practically nothing about the “middle class” of Etruscan society. What its composition was, and whether representatives of this class owned land is also unknown to us.

Dependent people in Etruscan society were divided into 3 categories: lautni and ethera and slaves. The attitude towards slaves in Etruscan society was practically no different from how slaves were treated in Greece and the East. They were the property of their master, and often they were perceived not as people, but as cattle. However, unlike the Greeks, the Etruscans did not limit the ability of a slave to redeem himself from his master. The Lautni category, in its position, was a bit like the Spartan helots. They were connected to their patron by patriarchal ancestral ties, since they were part of their patron's family. Basically, this category was made up of freedmen and those free people who fell into debt bondage. The position of the Lautni was hereditary: their children and grandchildren remained in this class. Etera, unlike the Lautni, were connected to their patrons not by patriarchal family ties, but by a voluntary oath of allegiance. They received from their patron a small plot of land (part of the harvest from which went to the patron) or acted as artisans, doing for their patron what he needed.

The main political unit of the Etruscans was the city-state. Each such city, as a rule, had several subordinate cities that enjoyed a certain autonomy. At the head of the city-state was either a king (lukumon) or magistrates who were chosen from the nobility.

It is not yet known whether Lukumon had real power or whether it was limited to the council of elders. It is known that Lucumon led troops during wars and that he was the high priest in his city. His personality was considered sacred, he was seen as the embodiment of the patron god of a given city. Perhaps the position of the king was selective (although it is not known whether they were elected for life or for a certain period).

Starting from the 6th century BC, in many Etruscan cities, the power of the Lucumoni was eliminated, and they were replaced by selective magistrates. More often than others, zilk or zylat is mentioned. It is known that this position could be occupied by young people under the age of 25, so the powers of this magistrate were not great. The names of some other magistrates (marnux, purth) are known, but nothing is known about their functions.

The Etruscan city-states united into unions - the twelve cities (the number 12 was sacred). There were 3 such unions in total - in Etruria itself (this was the main union) in the valley of the Pad (Po) river in Northern Italy and in Campania in Southern Italy. In the event of the departure of one of the members of the union, another city-state was immediately chosen in its place (as a rule, it was chosen from those cities that were subordinate to the city that left the union). Every spring, the heads of all the cities of the union gathered in the religious capital of Etruria - Volsinia, where they elected the head of the union. The chosen head of the union apparently had no real power. In general, the Etruscan twelve-city was only a religious union. Members of the union rarely achieved unity in their actions. Basically, they fought, made peace and concluded their treaties independently of each other.

This is what ruined the Etruscans. Their cities could not give a united rebuff to their enemies. And a sad fate awaited them. In the 4th century BC, the union of Etruscan cities in the Pad Valley was destroyed by the Celts, and the union of cities in Campania submitted to the Greeks. The Etruscan civilization was finally destroyed by the Romans around the middle of the 3rd century BC.

The Etruscans are considered the creators of the first developed civilization on the Apennine Peninsula, whose achievements, long before the Roman Republic, included large cities with remarkable architecture, beautiful metalwork, ceramics, painting and sculpture, extensive drainage and irrigation systems, the alphabet, and later minting of coins.

Perhaps the Etruscans were newcomers from across the sea; their first settlements in Italy were prosperous communities located in the central part of its western coast, in an area called Etruria (roughly the territory of modern Tuscany and Lazio).

The ancient Greeks knew the Etruscans under the name Tyrrhenians (or Tyrseni), and the part of the Mediterranean Sea between the Apennine Peninsula and the islands of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica was (and is now called) the Tyrrhenian Sea, since Etruscan sailors dominated here for several centuries. The Romans called the Etruscans Tuscans (hence modern Tuscany) or Etruscans, while the Etruscans themselves called themselves Rasna or Rasenna.

The Etruscans are ancient tribes that inhabited in the first millennium BC. north-west of the Apennine Peninsula (region - ancient Etruria, modern Tuscany) between the Arno and Tiber rivers, and created a developed civilization that preceded the Roman one and had a great influence on it.

The Etruscans gave the world their art of engineering, the ability to build cities and roads, arched vaults of buildings and gladiator fights, chariot racing and funeral customs.

In the 7th century BC. the peoples who inhabited Etruria mastered writing. Since they wrote in the Etruscan language, it is legitimate to call the region and people by the names mentioned above. However, there is no exact evidence proving one of the theories about the origin of the Etruscans.

The most common are two versions: according to one of them, the Etruscans came from Italy, according to the other, this people migrated from the Eastern Mediterranean. To the ancient theories we can add the modern assumption that the Etruscans migrated from the north.

The second theory is supported by the works of Herodotus, which appeared in the 5th century BC. As Herodotus argued, the Etruscans were people from Lydia, a region in Asia Minor, the Tyrrhenians or Tyrsenians, who were forced to leave their homeland due to terrible famine and crop failure. According to Herodotus, this happened almost simultaneously with the Trojan War. Etruscanwent to Smyrna, built ships there and, passing through many port cities of the Mediterranean, eventually settled among the Ombrics in Italy. There the Lydians changed their name, calling themselves Tyrrhenians in honor of their leader Tyrrhenus, the son of the king.

Hellanicus from the island of Lesbos mentioned the legend of the Pelasgians who arrived in Italy and became known as the Tyrrhenians. At that time, the Mycenaean civilization collapsed and the Hittite empire fell, that is, the appearance of the Tyrrhenians should be dated to the 13th century BC, or a little later. Perhaps the myth about the flight to the west of the Trojan hero Aeneas and the founding of the Roman state, which was of great importance for the Etruscans, is connected with this legend.

Supporters of the autochthonous version of the origin of the Etruscans identified them with the earlier Villanova culture discovered in Italy. A similar theory was outlined in the 1st century BC. Dionysius of Halicarnassus,rhetorician of the Augustan era, disputes Herodotus, arguing that the Etruscans were not settlers, but a local and most ancient people, different from all their neighbors on the Apennine Peninsula both in language and customs. NBut the arguments he gave raise doubts. Archaeological excavations indicate a continuity running from the Villanova I culture through the Villanova II culture with the import of goods from the eastern Mediterranean and Greece until the Orientalizing period, when the first evidence of Etruscan manifestations in Etruria appears. Currently, the Villanova culture is associated not with the Etruscans, but with the Italics.

The third theory, formulated by N. Frere in the 18th century, but still has supporters, defends the northern origin of the Etruscans. According to it, the Etruscans, along with other Italic tribes, penetrated into Italian territory through the Alpine passes. Archaeological data apparently speaks in favor of the first version of the origin of the Etruscans. However, Herodotus's story should be approached with caution. Of course, the Lydian pirate aliens did not populate the Tyrrhenian coast all at once, but rather moved here in several waves.

Until the middle of the 20th century. The “Lydian version” was subject to serious criticism, especially after the decipherment of the Lydian inscriptions - their language had nothing in common with Etruscan. However, according to modern ideas, the Etruscans should be identified not with the Lydians, but with the more ancient, pre-Indo-European population of the west of Asia Minor, known as the “Proto-Luvians” or “Sea Peoples”.

The intermediate point of Etruscan migration from Asia Minor to Italy was Sardinia, where from the 15th century BC. There was a culture of Nuraghe builders, very similar to the Etruscans, but without a written language.

During the era of their greatest power, ca. 7th-5th centuries BC, the Etruscans spread their influence over a large part of the Apennine Peninsula, right up to the foot of the Alps in the north and the outskirts of Naples in the south. Rome also submitted to them. Everywhere their dominance brought with it material prosperity, large-scale engineering projects and achievements in the field of architecture. According to tradition, Etruria had a confederation of twelve major city-states, united in a religious and political union.

These almost certainly included Caere (modern Cerveteri), Tarquinia (modern Tarquinia), Vetulonia, Veii and Volaterr (modern Volterra) - all directly on or near the coast, as well as Perusia (modern Perugia), Cortona, Volsinia (modern Orvieto) and Arretium (modern Arezzo) in the interior of the country. Other important cities include Vulci, Clusium (modern Chiusi), Falerii, Populonia, Rusella and Fiesole.

Despite the fact that their origins remain unknown, the Etruscans declared their culture around the eighth century BC. After this, it gained momentum and by the seventh century could already be considered developed, reaching its peak and flowering in the sixth century BC.

The sharp cultural upsurge in Etruria, which began in the 8th-7th centuries BC, is associated with the influence of numerous migrants from more developed regions of the Mediterranean (possibly also from Sardinia, where the culture of Nuraghe builders existed) and the proximity to the Greek colonies.

From about the middle of the 8th century. BC. the Villanova culture (whose bearers were here earlier) underwent changes under clear Eastern influence. However, the local element was strong enough to have a significant impact on the process of formation of the new people. This allows us to reconcile the messages of Herodotus and Dionysius.

Arriving in Italy, the newcomers occupied the lands north of the Tiber River along the western coast of the peninsula and founded stone-walled settlements, each of which became an independent city-state. There were not many Etruscans themselves, but their superiority in weapons and military organization allowed them to conquer the local population.

The sharp cultural upsurge in Etruria, which began in the 8th-7th centuries BC, is associated with the influence of numerous migrants from the more developed regions of the Mediterranean and the proximity to the Greek colonies. (Bagby, Volodikhin)

At the beginning of the 7th century BC. The so-called Orientalizing period began. The starting point is the date of construction of the Boccoris tomb in Tarquinia in 675 BC. Villanova style objects and imported goods from Greece and the Eastern Mediterranean were found there.

In the 7th century BC. trade raised Etruria to a new level of prosperity. Villanovian settlements began to unite into cities, and the core of the polis was formed. Lush burials appeared.

From the beginning of the 7th century. BC. The Etruscans began to expand their political influence in a southern direction: the Etruscan kings ruled Rome, and their sphere of influence extended to the Greek colonies of Campania. The concerted actions of the Etruscans and Carthaginians at this time, in practice, significantly impeded Greek colonization in the western Mediterranean.

At the end of the 7th century BC. The Etruscans united into a union of 12 city-states and took possession of Campania around the middle of the 6th century.

However, after 500 BC. their influence began to wane.

Around 474 BC The Greeks inflicted a major defeat on the Etruscans, and a little later they began to feel the pressure of the Gauls on their northern borders.

In the V-III centuries BC. The Etruscans were conquered by Rome and gradually assimilated. A number of geographical names are associated with the Etruscans. The Tyrrhenian Sea was named so by the ancient Greeks because it was controlled by the "Tyrrhenians" (the Greek name for the Etruscans). The Adriatic Sea was named after the Etruscan port city of Adria, which controlled the northern part of this sea. (Bagby, Volodikhin)

At the very beginning of the 4th century. BC. wars with the Romans and a powerful Gallic invasion of the peninsula forever undermined the power of the Etruscans. Gradually they were absorbed by the expanding Roman state and disappeared into it.

Etruscan culture disappeared from the face of the earth in the fifth and fourth centuries BC.

Etruria did not have a centralized government, but there was a confederation of city-states. Among the important centers were Clusium (modern Chiusi), Tarquinia (modern Tarquinia), Caere (Cervereti), Veii (Veio), Voltaire, Vetulonia, Perusia (Perugia) and Volsinia (Orvieto).

Etruscan political dominance was at its height in the fifth century BC, at a time when they absorbed the Umbrian cities and occupied much of Latium. During this period, the Etruscans had enormous naval power, which resulted in colonies in Corsica, Elba, Sardinia, the coast of Spain and the Bolearic Islands.

At the end of the sixth century, Etruria and Carthage entered into a mutual agreement, according to which Etruria opposed Greece in 535, which significantly limited trade opportunities, and by the fifth century the naval power of the power had declined.

The Romans, whose culture was greatly influenced by the Etruscans (the Taruvinii in Rome were Etruscans), were suspicious of their rule.

The Etruscans themselves occupied Rome in 616 BC, but were driven out by the Romans in 510.

At the beginning of the 4th century, after Etruria was weakened by Gallic raids, the Romans wanted to subjugate this civilization.

Beginning with Veia (396 BC), one Etruscan city after another surrendered to the Romans, and the civil war significantly weakened the power.

During the fighting in the third century, when Rome defeated Carthage, the Etruscans turned their efforts against their former allies.

During the Public War (90-88 BC) in Sulla, the remaining Etruscan families swore allegiance to Marius and in 88 Sulla lost the last traces of Etruscan independence.

The main weakness of the Etruscan alliance was, as in the case of the Greek city-states, its lack of cohesion and inability to resist with a united front both Roman expansion in the south and Gallic invasion in the north.

During the period of Etruscan political dominance in Italy, their aristocracy owned many slaves who were used as servants and in agricultural work. The economic core of the state was the middle class of artisans and traders. Family ties were strong, with each clan proud of its traditions and jealously guarding them. The Roman custom, according to which all members of the clan received a common (family) name, most likely dates back to Etruscan society. Even during the period of decline of the state, the scions of Etruscan families were proud of their pedigrees.

In Etruscan society, women led a completely independent life. Sometimes even the pedigree was traced through the female line. In contrast to Greek practice and in keeping with later Roman customs, Etruscan matrons and young girls of the aristocracy were often seen at public gatherings and public spectacles. The emancipated position of Etruscan women gave rise to Greek moralists of subsequent centuries to condemn the morals of the Tyrrhenians.

Livy describes the Etruscans as “a people more devoted to their religious rites than any other”; Arnobius, Christian apologist of the 4th century. AD, brands Etruria as the “mother of superstitions.” The names of numerous gods, demigods, demons and heroes have been preserved, which are generally analogous to the Greek and Roman deities.

In addition to the production of grain, olives, wine and timber, the rural population was engaged in cattle breeding, sheep breeding, hunting and fishing. The Etruscans also made household utensils and personal items. The development of production was facilitated by the abundant supply of iron and copper from the island of Elba. Populonia was one of the main centers of metallurgy. Etruscan products penetrated into Greece and Northern Europe.

The Etruscans can be considered the people who brought urban civilization to central and northern Italy, but little is known about their cities. Intensive human activity in these areas, which lasted for many centuries, destroyed or hid from view many Etruscan monuments. Nevertheless, quite a few mountain towns in Tuscany are still surrounded by walls built by the Etruscans (Orvieto, Cortona, Chiusi, Fiesole, Perugia and, probably, Cerveteri). In addition, impressive city walls can be seen at Veii, Falerii, Saturnia and Tarquinia, and later city gates dating from the 3rd and 2nd centuries. BC, - in Falerie and Perugia.

Etruscan mountain cities do not have a regular layout, as evidenced by sections of two streets in Vetulonia. The dominant element in the appearance of the city was the temple or temples, built on the most elevated places, as in Orvieto and Tarquinia. As a rule, the city had three gates dedicated to the intercessor gods: one to Tina (Jupiter), another to Uni (Juno), and the third to Menrva (Minerva). Extremely regular building with rectangular blocks was found only in Marzabotto (near modern Bologna), an Etruscan colony on the Reno River. Its streets were paved and water was drained through terracotta pipes.

In Veii and Vetulonia, simple dwellings such as log cabins with two rooms, as well as houses with an irregular layout with several rooms, were found. The noble Lucumoni who ruled Etruscan cities probably had more extensive urban and country residences. They are apparently reproduced by stone urns in the shape of houses and late Etruscan tombs. The urn, kept in the Florence Museum, depicts a palace-like two-story stone structure with an arched entrance, wide windows on the ground floor and galleries along the second floor. The Roman type of house with an atrium probably goes back to Etruscan prototypes.

The Etruscans built their temples from wood and mud brick with terracotta cladding. The temple of the simplest type, very similar to the early Greek one, had a square room for a cult statue and a portico supported by two columns. The complex temple, described by the Roman architect Vitruvius, was divided internally into three rooms (cellas) for the three main gods - Tin, Uni and Menrva.

The portico was the same depth as the interior, and had two rows of columns - four in each row. Since observation of the sky played an important role in the Etruscan religion, temples were built on high platforms. Temples with three cellae are reminiscent of the pre-Greek sanctuaries of Lemnos and Crete. Etruscan temples are a variety of Greek ones. The Etruscans also created a developed road network, bridges, sewers and irrigation canals.

Stone Etruscan sculpture reveals more local originality than metal sculpture. The first experiments in creating sculptures from stone are represented by pillar-shaped figures of men and women from the tomb of Pietrera in Vetulonia. They imitate Greek statues of the mid-7th century. BC.

Etruscan painting is especially valuable, since it makes it possible to judge Greek paintings and frescoes that have not reached us. With the exception of a few fragments of the picturesque decoration of the temples (Cerveteri and Faleria), Etruscan frescoes were preserved only in the tombs - in Cerveteri, Veii, Orvieto and Tarquinia.

In the oldest (c. 600 BC) tomb of the Lions at Cerveteri there is an image of a deity between two lions; in the tomb of Campana at Veii, the deceased is represented riding out on horseback to hunt. From the middle of the 6th century. BC. Scenes of dancing, libations, as well as athletic and gladiatorial competitions (Tarquinia) predominate, although there are also images of hunting and fishing.

This proximity may have been decisive in the development of the Ganges Valley civilization.

In addition to this civilization, there are 12 more ancient civilizations near tectonic faults:

1. Assyria.

2. Ganges - The valley of the Ganges River with its capital in the city of Hastinapura.

3. Greek (Corinth and Mycenae).

4. Ancient Rome.

5. Egyptian with its capital in Memphis.

6. Jerusalem - West Asian culture of the city-state of Jerusalem.

7. Indus - The Indus River Valley with its capital at Mohenjo-Daro.

8. Chinese.

9. Mesopotamia.

10. Minoan

11. Persian.

12. Tire - West Asian culture of the city-state of Tire.

Bagby classifies it as a peripheral, secondary civilization. Etruscans (Italian etruschi, Latin tusci, other Greek τυρσηνοί, τυρρηνοί, self-named rasna) are ancient tribes that inhabited in the first millennium BC. north-west of the Apennine Peninsula (region - ancient Etruria, modern Tuscany) and created a developed civilization that preceded the Roman one and had a great influence on it.

As Herodotus argued, the Etruscans came from Lydia, an area in Asia Minor - the Tyrrhenians or Tyrsenians. Etruscan inscriptions have not yet been deciphered, and therefore the origin of this people is unclear. The hypothesis that the Etruscans are Trojans of Hittite origin who arrived in Italy by sea is quite convincing, but there are other more or less solid assumptions. (Bagby, Volodikhin)

But after deciphering the Lydian inscriptions, it became clear that their language had nothing in common with Etruscan. However, according to modern ideas, the Etruscans should be identified with the more ancient, pre-Indo-European population of the west of Asia Minor, known as the “Proto-Luvians” or “Sea Peoples”. Hellanicus from Lesbos reported that the Pelasgians were expelled by the Greeks and, under the leadership of their king Nan, son of Teutamides, crossed to the mouth of the Po River, where they abandoned their ships. (Bagby, Volodikhin)

They then advanced into the interior of Italy and there they colonized a country called Tirrenia (Etruria in Latin). This happened long before the Trojan War. Dionysius himself considered the Etruscans to be an autochthonous people of Italy. However, archaeological and linguistic research is bringing more and more evidence in favor of the Asia Minor version of the origin of the Etruscans. (Bagby, Volodikhin)

Monuments of languages related to Etruscan were discovered in Asia Minor (Lemnos stele - Pelasgians) and in Cyprus (Eteocypriot language - Teucrians). The Tyrsenes, Pelasgians and Teucrians (one possible reading of the ancient Egyptian inscriptions) are first mentioned among the "peoples of the sea" who invaded in the 12th century BC. to Ancient Egypt from Asia Minor. Perhaps the ancient Roman myth about Aeneas, the leader of the Trojans who moved to Italy after the fall of Troy, is associated with the Etruscans.

In Rome, the Etruscans were called “Tusci,” which was later reflected in the name of the administrative region of Italy, Tuscany. The Etruscans inside Rome formed a tribe called the Luceri. The family ties of the Etruscan language are debatable. The compilation of a dictionary of the Etruscan language and the decipherment of texts are progressing slowly and are still far from complete. (Bagby, Volodikhin)

Some authors attribute thirteen known ancient civilizations to the civilizations of the eastern hemisphere, which are located near tectonic faults. This is: Assyria. Ganges - The valley of the Ganges River with its capital in the city of Hastinapura. Greek (Corinth and Mycenae). Ancient Rome. Egyptian with its capital in Memphis. Jerusalem - West Asian culture of the city-state of Jerusalem. Indus - The Indus River Valley with its capital at Mohenjo-daro. Chinese. Mesopotamia. Minoan. Persian. Tyre - West Asian culture of the city-state of Tyre. Etruscans.

The Etruscan civilization was the highest civilization in what is now Italy before the rise of Rome. The center of the Etruscan lands was known to the Latins under the name Etruria. It was located northwest of the Tiber River, modern Tuscany and part of Umbria. The Latins called those people Etruscans or Tusci, and the Greeks called them Tyrrhenoi (from the Tyrrhenian Sea). They called themselves Rasenna.

The language and culture of the Etruscans are significantly different from that of the ancient inhabitants of the Italian peninsula: the Villanovans, Umbrians and Picenians.

Most of the work in Etruria was done by the indigenous population, who were subordinate, but not slaves, to their conquerors - to be born an Etruscan meant to be born into a special caste. Compared to the ancient Greeks or Romans, the women here had a very high status. The prosperity and power of the Etruscans was based in part on their knowledge of metalworking and the use of iron deposits, which were abundant in Etruria. A significant share in the Etruscan culture is represented by clay and metal sculpture, frescoes for decorating tombs, and painted clay utensils. Some motifs were taken from Greek art and, after being slightly adjusted, were transferred to the Romans. Being lovers of music, games and racing, the Etruscans gave Italy horse-drawn chariots. Moreover, it was a deeply religious civilization. In the process of searching for truth and trying to understand the laws of nature, they clearly delineated the norms according to which they were supposed to interact with deities. They lacked the scientific rationalism of the Greeks, so they tried to prolong the life of the dead by furnishing the tomb like a real home. Despite the fact that religion became the main feature for which the Etruscans are remembered, it remains quite mysterious to this day.

The Etruscan language seems quite problematic to scientists. It is easy to read, since the alphabet came from Greece and the sound design of the signs is known, but with the exception of a few words, the dictionary is completely incomprehensible. And although elements of Indo-European and non-Indo-European languages can be found in this language, along with traces of Mediterranean dialects, it cannot be attributed to any language group. One of the mysteries of Etruscan civilization remains such a small number of written monuments, as well as the fact that the Romans wrote practically nothing about Etruscan writing and literature.

To date Etruscan question still has not found proper resolution in science. The origin of the Etruscans is unknown, their language has not been deciphered. But we know that it was a very developed civilization, formed in the territory north of Latium - in the region of Etruria. “The nature of Etruria throughout the Stone Age was beyond the power of man. Even in the Neolithic era, when powerful agricultural cultures arose in the Po Valley in the north and in Apulia in the south of the Apennine Peninsula, there was still almost no population in the future Etruria” 1. Only in the age of metals did several ethnic groups appear in Etruria, to which approximately in the 12th century. BC. a third, foreign one was added. As in the case of the Sumerians, the Etruscan culture was not initially unified, but was formed as a result of the difficult, but ultimately fruitful interaction of several ethnic groups.

Periodization Etruscan culture today is not well-established, but the following stages of development of this culture are usually distinguished:

X-IX centuries BC. - Villanova culture

IX – VII centuries BC – the most ancient period (formation of the Etruscan culture itself),

600-475 BC - the period of the highest flowering of Etruscan culture and art,

475-400 BC – the beginning of the crisis, the decline in cultural activity,

400-225 BC - Etruscan cities were conquered by the Romans, Hellenistic features became noticeable in art, and finally,

225-30 BC – the second period of flourishing of this culture.

Villanova culture (named after the place of the first finds) clearly manifests itself ca. 900 BC Judging by archaeological data, this is the first culture within which a synthesis of different ethnic traditions is planned; accordingly, it is within its framework that the contours of the future Etruscan civilization begin to be developed.

During this period, all those zones that in the future would become the capitals of the Etruscan states were developed. But the culture itself is still unconnected villages, each of which has its own necropolis. The dominant funeral rite of this time was cremation using urns of a characteristic biconical shape, reflecting the symmetry of the underground and above-ground worlds (later biconical urns would develop into canopic jars). Several types of pommels were used as covers, the most expressive of which is considered to be the helmet-shaped pommel.

The most ancient period. During the 9th-8th centuries BC. A kind of cultural revolution is taking place in Etruria. There is a sharp concentration and strengthening of power. The leader now stands out sharply from the rest of the community members, and is buried according to a new rite - the deposition of a corpse (although the old rite of cremation with the storage of the ashes of the deceased in canopic jars or more complex figured ash depositories in the form of a seated man or woman is also preserved).

There is also a transition from villages to proto-cities. The layout of these early cities already takes into account the orientation to the cardinal points, its center being the palace complex - the regium. Wide transit trade with the countries of Western Asia, (especially Phenicia), as well as with Greece, is developing everywhere. The largest cities of this period are those that are located on the trade route - Tarquinia, Caere, Veii, Vulci.

New types of vases and new ornaments appear.

kings-lucumons 2.

Heyday. During the 7th-6th centuries, the warlike Etruscans already controlled Northern, Central and Southern Italy, eventually spreading their influence over the entire Western Mediterranean.

At its peak (600-475 BC), Etruria was a federation of twelve independent cities, which was a religious union. The federation included a larger number of cities, but in Etruscan priestly symbolism the number 12 was sacred.

Etruscan ceramics and bronzes reach a high degree of perfection. Even the Greeks willingly buy them, and the entire Western Mediterranean is simply filled with products of Etruscan artisans. A special place is occupied by jewelry, primarily made using the granulation technique.

Ancient Rome was in semi-friendly - semi-militant relations with this federation; perhaps Rome experienced a certain dependence on the Etruscans. There is a point of view that both Romulus 3 and Numa were not Italians, but Etruscans; moreover, the establishment of a royal form of government is very likely also associated with the influence of Etruscan civilization. One way or another, the rise of royal power in Rome is really associated with the Etruscan dynasty (VI century BC), which led to a sharp expansion of the influence of Etruscan civilization on ancient Rome. The formation of the Roman polis and the intensive development of the architecture of Rome dates back to this period.

The culture of the Etruscans in the period under review was already at a very high level and, on the one hand, continued to be influenced by those cultures with which they traded (primarily Greek and Middle Eastern), and on the other hand, it was noticeably ahead of the contemporary Italian (Roman).

The Etruscans, earlier than other peoples, arose cities with a regular layout, the streets were oriented according to the cardinal points, and the city was divided into rectangular blocks of approximately 150 x 50 m (the cities of Marzabotto, Spina). However, in other cities, an archaic layout was still preserved, often terraced, following the features of the relief (the regular layout of Marzabotto was also preceded by a freer one and not reminiscent of Hippodamus). Koza, as a typical Etruscan city according to Vitruvius’ description, had three gates and three sacred areas.

The ritual of founding the city was archaic and close to both Greek and Roman: the border was outlined by a plowed furrow 4 . (in a reinterpreted version, this tradition has been preserved to this day within interstate borders).

We know much better the underground architecture of the Etruscans, i.e. burial complexes. The main materials in Etruscan architecture were stone of various types, laid without mortar (fortifications, foundations of temples and residential buildings), as well as wood and raw brick (walls).

Civilization arose in the 33rd century. back.
Civilization stopped in the 20th century. back.
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The Etruscans called themselves Rasna.

They were strangers from beyond the sea; their first settlements in Italy were prosperous communities..

The ancient Greeks knew the Etruscans under the name Tyrrhenians, Tyrsenians.

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Bagby classifies the Etruscan civilization as a peripheral, secondary civilization.

Civilization developed mainly in Central Italy, between the Arno River, the Tyrrhenian Sea and the Tiber. But it also spread north to the Padan plain, and south to Campania.

The ancient Greeks knew the Etruscans under the name Tyrrhenians, Tyrsenians, and the part of the Mediterranean Sea between the Apennine Peninsula and the islands of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica was (and is now called) the Tyrrhenian Sea, since Etruscan sailors dominated here for several centuries. The Romans called the Etruscans Tuscans (hence modern Tuscany) or Etruscans, while the Etruscans themselves called themselves Rasna or Rasenna.

In Rome, the Etruscans were called “Tusci,” which was later reflected in the name of the administrative region of Italy, Tuscany. The Etruscans inside Rome formed a tribe called the Luceri.

The Etruscans called themselves Rasna. These were ancient tribes that inhabited in the first millennium BC. north-west of the Apennine Peninsula (ancient Etruria, modern Tuscany) and created a developed civilization that preceded the Roman one and had a great influence on it.

Etruscan civilization is the modern English name given to the culture and way of life of a people of ancient Italy and Corsica whom the ancient Romans called Etrusci or Tusci.

The Attic Greek word for them wasΤυρρήνιοι from which Latin also drew the names Tyrrhēni (Etruscans), Tyrrhēnia (Etruria) and Tyrrhēnum mare (Tyrrhenian Sea). The Etruscans themselves used the term Rasenna, which was syncopated to Rasna or Raśna.

As distinguished by its own language, the civilization endured from an unknown prehistoric time prior to the foundation of Rome until its complete assimilation to Italic Rome in the Roman Republic. At its maximum extent during the foundation period of Rome and the Roman kingdom, it flourished in three confederacies: of Etruria, of the Po valley with the eastern Alps, and of Latium and Campania. Rome was sited in Etruscan territory. There is significant evidence that early Rome was dominated by Etruscans until the Romans sacked Veii in 396 BC.

Culture that is identifiably and certainly Etruscan developed in Italy after about 800 BC approximately over the range of the preceding Iron Age Villanovan culture. The latter gave way in the seventh century to a culture that was influenced by Greek traders and Greek neighbors in Magna Graecia, the Hellenic civilization of southern Italy.

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Origin

As Herodotus argued, the Etruscans were people from Lydia, a region in Asia Minor, the Tyrrhenians or Tyrsenians, who were forced to leave their homeland due to terrible famine and crop failure. According to Herodotus, this happened almost simultaneously with the Trojan War. The Etruscans went to Smyrna, built ships there and, passing through many port cities of the Mediterranean, eventually settled among the Ombrics in Italy. There the Lydians changed their name, calling themselves Tyrrhenians in honor of their leader Tyrrhenus, the son of the king.
Hellanicus from the island of Lesbos mentioned the legend of the Pelasgians who arrived in Italy and became known as the Tyrrhenians. At that time, the Mycenaean civilization collapsed and the Hittite empire fell; the appearance of the Tyrrhenians should be dated to the 13th century BC, or a little later. Perhaps the myth about the flight to the west of the Trojan hero Aeneas and the founding of the Roman state, which was of great importance for the Etruscans, is connected with this legend.
Herodotus's story should be approached with caution, since the Lydian pirate newcomers did not populate the Tyrrhenian coast all at once, but rather moved here in several waves.

Supporters of the autochthonous version of the origin of the Etruscans identified the Etruscans with the earlier Villanova culture discovered in Italy. They argued that the Etruscans were not settlers, but a local and most ancient people, different from all their neighbors on the Apennine Peninsula both in language and customs.
Archaeological excavations indicate a continuity running from the Villanova I culture through the Villanova II culture with the import of goods from the eastern Mediterranean and Greece until the Orientalizing period, when the first evidence of Etruscan manifestations in Etruria appears. Currently, the Villanova culture is associated not with the Etruscans, but with the Italics.

N. Frere in the 18th century. put forward an assumption about the northern origin of the Etruscans. The Etruscans, along with other Italic tribes, entered Italian territory through the Alpine passes.

According to modern ideas, the Etruscans should be identified not with the Lydians, but with the more ancient, pre-Indo-European population of the west of Asia Minor, known as the “Proto-Luvians” or “Sea Peoples”.

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Chronology

XV century BC. The intermediate point of Etruscan migration from Asia Minor to Italy was Sardinia, where from the 15th century. BC. There was a culture of Nuraghe builders, very similar to the Etruscans, but without a written language.

VIII-VII centuries BC, the sharp cultural upsurge in Etruria is associated with the influence of numerous migrants from more developed regions of the Mediterranean (possibly also from Sardinia, where the culture of Nuragic builders existed) and the proximity to the Greek colonies. The Etruscans established stone-walled settlements, each of which became an independent city-state. There were not many Etruscans themselves, but their superiority in weapons and military organization allowed them to conquer the local population.

700–450 BC. Golden Age of Etruscan Civilization.

675 BC At the beginning of the 7th century BC. the orientalizing period began. The starting point is the date of construction of the Boccoris tomb in Tarquinia in 675 BC. Villanova style objects and imported goods from Greece and the Eastern Mediterranean were found there.

VII century BC. Trade raised Etruria to a new level of prosperity. Villanovian settlements began to unite into cities, and the core of the polis was formed. Lush burials appeared.

VII century BC. From the beginning of the 7th century. BC. The Etruscans began to expand their political influence in a southern direction: the Etruscan kings ruled Rome, and their sphere of influence extended to the Greek colonies of Campania. The concerted actions of the Etruscans and Carthaginians at this time, in practice, significantly impeded Greek colonization in the western Mediterranean.

VII – V centuries. BC. The era of the highest power of the Etruscan civilization. At this time, the Etruscans extended their influence over a large part of the Apennine Peninsula, right up to the foot of the Alps in the north and the outskirts of Naples in the south. Rome also submitted to them. Everywhere their dominance brought with it material prosperity, large-scale engineering projects and achievements in the field of architecture.

VII century BC. The peoples who inhabited Etruria mastered writing.

VII century BC. Etruria did not have a centralized government, but there was a confederation of city-states. At the end of the 7th century BC. The Etruscans united into a union of 12 city-states. This is a bvl religious and political union. These included Caere (Cerveteri), Tarquinia (Tarquinia), Vetulonia, Veii and Volaterr (Volterra), Perusia (Perugia), Cortona, Volsinia (Orvieto), Arretium (Arezzo). Among other important cities of the 7th century BC. include Vulci, Clusium (Ciusi), Falerii, Populonia, Rusella and Fiesole. The main weakness of the Etruscan alliance was, as in the case of the Greek city-states, its lack of cohesion and inability to resist with a united front both Roman expansion in the south and Gallic invasion in the north.

VII century BC. The Etruscans occupied Rome in 616 BC. The Romans, whose culture was greatly influenced by the Etruscans (the Taruvinii in Rome were Etruscans), were suspicious of their rule. In 510 the Romans expelled them.

VI century BC. The Romans were suspicious of the rule of the Etruscans, who had ruled Rome since 616 BC. and in 510 the Romans expelled the Etruscans.

IV century BC. At the beginning of the 4th century, after Etruria was weakened by Gallic raids, the Romans wanted to subjugate this civilization.

VI century BC. Around the middle of the 6th century, the Etruscans took possession of Campania.

VI century BC. Under the last three Roman kings, who came from Etruria, many Etruscans moved to Rome. A special Etruscan quarter even arose here. Sources credit the Etruscan kings with drainage work, paving streets, building bridges, a circus where games were held in honor of the gods, and a temple of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva on the Capitol.

VI century BC. At the end of the sixth century, Etruria and Carthage entered into a mutual agreement, according to which Etruria opposed Greece in 535, which significantly limited trade opportunities, and by the fifth century the naval power of the power had declined.

V century BC. Etruscan political dominance was at its height in the fifth century BC, at a time when they absorbed the Umbrian cities and occupied much of Latium. During this period, the Etruscans had enormous naval power, which resulted in colonies in Corsica, Elba, Sardinia, the coast of Spain and the Bolearic Islands.

V century BC. After 500 BC Etruscan influence began to wane.

V century BC. Around 474 BC The Greeks inflicted a major defeat on the Etruscans, and a little later they began to feel the pressure of the Gauls on their northern borders.

V-III centuries BC. The Etruscans were conquered by Rome and gradually assimilated. Etruscan culture disappeared from the face of the earth in the fifth and fourth centuries BC.

IV century BC. At the very beginning of the 4th century. BC. wars with the Romans and a powerful Gallic invasion of the peninsula forever undermined the power of the Etruscans. Gradually they were absorbed by the expanding Roman state and disappeared into it.

IV century BC. Beginning with Veii in 396 BC, one Etruscan city after another surrendered to the Romans, and civil war significantly weakened the power.

III century BC. During the fighting in the third century, when Rome defeated Carthage, the Etruscans turned their efforts against their former allies.

I century BC. During the Public War (90–88 BC) in Sulla, the remaining Etruscan families swore allegiance to Marius and in 88 Sulla lost the last traces of Etruscan independence.

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Language

The language and origin of the Etruscans are considered an Etruscan mystery, still unsolved. Monuments of languages related to Etruscan were discovered in Asia Minor (Lemnos stele - Pelasgians) and in Cyprus (Eteocypriot language - Teucrians). The Tyrsenes, Pelasgians and Teucrians (one possible reading of the ancient Egyptian inscriptions) are first mentioned among the "peoples of the sea" who invaded in the 12th century BC. to Ancient Egypt from Asia Minor. Perhaps the ancient Roman myth about Aeneas, the leader of the Trojans who moved to Italy after the fall of Troy, is associated with the Etruscans. The family ties of the Etruscan language are debatable. The compilation of a dictionary of the Etruscan language and the decipherment of texts are progressing slowly and are still far from complete.

The language and culture of the Etruscans are significantly different from that of the ancient inhabitants of the Italian peninsula: the Villanovans, Umbrians and Picenians.

The alphabet came from Greece and the sound design of the signs is known, but with the exception of a few words, the dictionary is absolutely incomprehensible. And although elements of Indo-European and non-Indo-European languages can be found in this language, along with traces of Mediterranean dialects, it cannot be attributed to any language group. One of the mysteries of Etruscan civilization remains such a small number of written monuments, as well as the fact that the Romans wrote practically nothing about Etruscan writing and literature.

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Heritage

The Etruscans gave the world their art of engineering, the ability to build cities and roads, arched vaults of buildings and gladiator fights, chariot racing and funeral customs.

Skilled metallurgists, shipbuilders, traders and pirates, they sailed throughout the Mediterranean, absorbed the traditions of various peoples, while creating their own high and unique culture. It was from them that the Romans borrowed the architecture of temples with cladding, craft techniques, the practice of building cities, the secret sciences of the haruspex priests, who read fortunes by the livers of sacrificial animals, a flash of lightning and a clap of thunder, and even the custom of celebrating the victory of generals with a triumph. Young men from noble families were sent to Etruria to study; Greek cults and myths penetrated into Rome through Etruria.

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Society

Some motifs were taken from Greek art and, after being slightly adjusted, were transferred to the Romans. Being lovers of music, games and racing, the Etruscans gave Italy horse-drawn chariots. Moreover, it was a deeply religious civilization. In the process of searching for truth and trying to understand the laws of nature, they clearly delineated the norms according to which they were supposed to interact with deities. They lacked the scientific rationalism of the Greeks, so they tried to prolong the life of the dead by furnishing the tomb like a real home. Despite the fact that religion became the main feature for which the Etruscans are remembered, it remains quite mysterious to this day.

The Etruscans can be considered the people who brought urban civilization to central and northern Italy, but little is known about their cities. Etruscan mountain cities do not have a regular layout, as evidenced by sections of two streets in Vetulonia. The dominant element in the appearance of the city was the temple or temples, built on the most elevated places, as in Orvieto and Tarquinia. As a rule, the city had three gates dedicated to the intercessor gods: one to Tina (Jupiter), another to Uni (Juno), and the third to Menrva (Minerva). Extremely regular building with rectangular blocks was found only in Marzabotto (near modern Bologna), an Etruscan colony on the Reno River. Its streets were paved and water was drained through terracotta pipes.

Strabo, who lived about two thousand years ago, wrote that Spina was once a famous city and, according to the Greeks, it was the inhabitants of Spina who “conquered the sea.” In 1956, Italian archaeologist Nereo Alfieri found Spina - it turned out that the city was swallowed up by the waters and silt of the Po Delta. Many thousands of vases and pots, colorfully painted by ancient masters, were recovered from water and mud, and the necropolis of Spina was studied.

In addition to this civilization, there are 12 more ancient civilizations near tectonic faults:
1. Assyria.
2. Ganges - The valley of the Ganges River with its capital in the city of Hastinapura.
3. Greek (Corinth and Mycenae).
4. Ancient Rome.
5. Egyptian with its capital in Memphis.
6. Jerusalem - West Asian culture of the city-state of Jerusalem.
7. Indus - Indus River Valley with its capital at Mohenjo-Daro.
8. Chinese.
9. Mesopotamia.
10. Minoan
11. Persian.
12. Tire - West Asian culture of the city-state of Tire.