China - Ming Dynasty era. Chinese Ming Dynasty: founder, years of reign, fall

Having ascended the throne, Zhu Yuan-chang did a lot to strengthen the central government. The essence of his agrarian policy, in particular, boiled down to increasing the share of peasant households in the wedge of ming-tian lands and strengthening strict control over the distribution of state-owned lands guantian. Distribution of land to the landless and land-poor, resettlement of peasants to empty lands, creation of various kinds of specialized, i.e., treasury-sponsored settlements, both military and civilian, and finally, the creation of all-Chinese tax and land registries, Yellow and Fishscale - all this meant that the entire system of agrarian relations in the empire was again brought under the strict control of the central administration.

A fixed taxation with relatively low taxes was introduced, and some categories of households were sometimes exempt from taxes altogether, as had happened before. The service system was universal, but was implemented one by one, as needed, according to allocation. The functions of elders, who were responsible to the authorities for maintaining order and implementing state decrees, were also performed alternately. As for private holdings, that is, those cases when lands of the Ming-Tian category in relatively large quantities accumulated in the hands of the rich and were sold in the form of leasing them, then at the beginning of the Ming there were apparently few such lands, and even rent the payment should have been moderate, if only because any tenant had an alternative: the state actively offered all landless and land-poor plots on very unburdensome conditions.

Zhu Yuan-chang's agricultural policies were successful and contributed to the creation of a strong, centralized empire. True, the endowment of the emperor's relatives with inheritances in which they felt almost independent rulers - a tribute to the traditional norm, the last of its kind in the history of China - led to turmoil after the death of the founder of the empire, but it was relatively quickly eliminated by one of the sons of Zhu Yuan ‑Zhang, Zhu Di, who ruled under the motto Yongle (1403–1424). Zhu Di restored the central government apparatus, which had fallen into some decline, built by his father according to the classical Confucian-Tang model (supreme chambers; six central departments in the executive system; provincial departments with the division of power into civil and military; examination system, etc.), after This system operated quite effectively for about a century, which affected, in particular, the sphere of foreign policy.

Having successfully expelled the Mongols from the territory of the empire (they were pushed back to the north, where they then began to actively develop the steppes of modern Mongolia), the Ming army carried out several successful military operations in the south, in the region of Vietnam. In addition, the Chinese fleet, led by Zheng He, from 1405 to 1433 made several prestigious naval expeditions to the countries of Southeast Asia, to India, and even to the east coast of Africa. The expeditions were quite impressive: they consisted of several dozen multi-deck frigates with a crew of hundreds of people on each of them. However, these magnificent and expensive voyages placed a very heavy burden on the treasury and did not bring any economic benefit to the country, as a result of which they were ultimately discontinued (the ships were dismantled). For comparison, it is worth recalling the almost simultaneous expeditions of Columbus, Vasco da Gama or Magellan, which were much more modestly equipped, but laid the foundation for the Great Geographical Discoveries that marked the beginning of a new era for all mankind. Impressive difference. It demonstrates better than many theoretical arguments the fundamental structural differences between the European market-private ownership method of economy with its individual personal interest, energy, enterprise, etc., and the Asian state command-administrative system, for which prestige and demonstration of greatness were important first of all and the omnipotence of power.

The situation was similar in land external relations, especially trade. Since ancient times, these connections in imperial China were organized in the form of the so-called tributary trade and were officially perceived in China as the arrival of barbarians with gifts to bring tribute to the Chinese emperors. Official gifts 31 were accepted solemnly and, according to the ancient norms of reciprocal-prestigious exchange, required reciprocal gifts from the emperor, and the volume and value of imperial awards and grants had to be as many times greater than the “tribute”, in which the prestige of the Chinese emperor was valued by the Chinese themselves above the prestige of any of the those rulers who sent the mentioned tribute. Hence the results: trade was extremely profitable for foreigners, who were faced with the easily solvable task of presenting the caravan as an official mission. This led to the fact that the Chinese authorities were forced to introduce official limits on such caravans for each country. However, tributary ties of this type did not stop, because they contributed to the self-assertion of the Chinese in their ideas that the whole world consists of potential tributaries and vassals of the Emperor of the Celestial Empire.

In Ming times, when trade flourished, these kinds of considerations dominated and at one time almost led China to dramatic events. At the turn of the XIV–XV centuries. An official message was sent to the greatest conqueror Tamerlane himself, inviting him to pay his respects to the Chinese emperor. Having received such a proposal and indignant at the impudence of its authors, the ruler of half the world began to prepare for a punitive campaign against China, and only the unexpected death of Timur in 1405 saved the empire, which had just recovered from the rebellion of the appanage princes, from the planned invasion.

In general, throughout the first century of its existence, the Ming dynasty pursued successful policies, both internal and external. There were, of course, some hiccups. Thus, in 1449, one of the Mongol khans, the leader of the Oirat tribe Esen, managed to make a successful expedition deep into China right up to the walls of Beijing. But this was only an episode; practically nothing threatened the capital of Ming China, as did the empire as a whole. However, from the end of the 15th century. The country's situation became much worse: China, as was typical for the second half of the dynastic cycle, began to slowly but surely enter a period of protracted crisis. The crisis was general and comprehensive, and it began, as usual, with changes in the economy and social structure of the country, although it manifested itself most clearly in the field of domestic politics.

It all started, as has happened more than once, with the complication of agrarian problems. The population grew, the number of peasants who did not have land or had it in insufficient quantities increased. In parallel with this, the usual process of absorption of the Ming-Tian peasant lands was going on: the rich little by little bought up or took away the lands of the ruined peasants for debts, who after that either left their homes or remained on them in a new social capacity as tenants. Those who changed their place of residence often came to the same conclusion. All this led to a decrease in treasury revenues for the reason already mentioned: it was almost impossible to take an equal tax from the rich, because a considerable part of the rich had benefits, sometimes tax immunity, while others were often among the shenshi, who played an important role in local government, had influence in the office of the district chief and achieved virtuosity in reducing their taxes. True, in this case, the tax burden was formally shifted onto the shoulders of others, but this solution was also unprofitable for the treasury, because it worsened the situation of farmers and gradually brought the country's economy to a critical state. The shortfall in taxes, which was a consequence of the described process, forced the treasury to resort to various additional small, local, emergency and other levies and duties, which together again placed a heavy burden on taxpayers and also led to a crisis.

A kind of vicious circle was created. During the years of previous dynasties (Tang, Song), this circle was broken through decisive reforms. The Ming Dynasty was unable to do this, because the demand for reform met with stiff opposition from the court. This, in fact, was the essence of the protracted crisis that dominated Ming China for almost a century and a half and ultimately led to the death of the dynasty.

The Ming emperors after Zhu Di, with rare exceptions such as Wan Li, who restored the Great Wall, were mostly weak rulers. Affairs at their courts were usually run by temporary workers from among the relatives of the empresses and eunuchs - a picture very similar to the one that was one and a half millennia earlier at the end of the Han. It is not surprising that at the turn of the 15th–16th centuries. A powerful opposition movement was formed in the country, led by the most influential Confucians, among whom perhaps the most prominent place was occupied by members of the House of Censors-Prosecutors, who in their reports to the emperor denounced the arbitrariness of temporary workers and administrative omissions in the country, and also demanded reforms. Messages of this kind met with severe rebuff, accompanied by repression, but the opposition did not stop its denunciations, rather even increased its efforts in this direction. At the end of the 16th century. it was officially organized around the Donglin Academy in Wuxi, which arose on the basis of a local school that trained experts in Confucianism and future officials. By this time, the reform movement and advocacy of virtuous government had already gained universal recognition in the country. And such prominent officials as the famous Hai Rui, not only defiantly, within the limits of their power, went to aggravate relations with the proteges of the court, with the protégés of temporary workers, not stopping at severe punishments for embezzlers and other offenders, but were also ready, having gained popularity among the people , literally demand reforms from the emperor.

From the beginning of the 17th century. supporters of reforms significantly strengthened their positions. At certain moments they even managed to gain the upper hand, gaining influence over one or another emperor. True, this emperor, prone to reforms, was soon quickly eliminated by the palace clique, and persecution fell on the Donglin people. To their credit, it should be noted that persecution did not frighten them and did not force them to betray their beliefs. More than once or twice, another influential official submitted a report to the emperor with denunciations and demands for reforms and at the same time prepared for death, expecting an order from the emperor to hang himself (the symbol of this was usually sending a silk cord to the culprit). The power of eunuchs and temporary workers was overthrown only in 1628. But it was too late. The country at this time was engulfed in the flames of another powerful peasant uprising, led by the peasant Li Tzu-cheng.

As a result of a long struggle in the middle of the 14th century, the Mongols were expelled from China. One of the leaders of the uprising, the son of a peasant Zhu Yuanzhang, came to power and founded the Ming state. China became an independent state again. The Ming Empire subjugated part of the Jurchen tribes, the state of Nanzhao (modern provinces of Yunnan and Guizhou), and part of the modern provinces of Qinghai and Sichuan.

Zhu Yuanzhang was an educated man, knowledgeable in Chinese history and philosophical traditions. He had his own ideas about the ideal social order, which he drew from Chinese traditions. His ideas were based on the idea of ​​the need for powerful imperial power, based on a community freed from the oppression of property inequality. Having become ruler, Zhu Yuanzhang made an unsuccessful attempt to implement these plans.

During Zhu's reign, the allotment system was restored. A state fund was created. lands from the state lands of the Song and Yuan eras and from the possessions of adherents of the Yuan dynasty and those who were repressed (and given the emperor’s tendency to see conspiracies among officials, there were up to 40 thousand repressed). As a result of these measures, rental relations were eliminated in the Yangtze basin and in the northern provinces of China, and the independent peasant landowner became the main figure in the village. A record of land and subjects was carried out. Thus, the next year after the founding of the dynasty, an imperial decree was issued, ordering all subjects to register when compiling new poll registers.

In 1370, the first population census was carried out, the purpose of which was not only to take into account all subjects, but also to determine the size of the property of each household. Depending on the property status, households were subject to land tax and labor duties so that their size depended on the amount of land, workers, and property in a separate household.

In 1381, changes were made to this system, which made it possible to streamline the procedure for collecting taxes and serving duties. Courtyards were united into groups of 10 units (jia), and every 10 jia constituted a Li. These households were bound by mutual responsibility for the payment of taxes and public duties. Thus, Li consisted of 110 households: 100 peasant households and 10 elders.

The ruler placed special hopes on the institution of village elders. They had to be selected from persons who had reached 50 years of age and had impeccable moral behavior. The elders were required to report to the supreme ruler all cases of reprehensible behavior by Lijia elders and local officials, who were forbidden, on pain of death, to appear in the village to collect taxes. After Zhu's death, the institution of village elders gradually fell into decline, but mutual responsibility remained.

Information about the economic situation of individual households was collected from Li, then from the volost (Xiang) and about the quarter (Fan) and folded, they had to be wrapped in yellow paper (“yellow registers”), and information about all provinces - in blue paper (“blue registers”). registers"). This information served to determine the land tax. In addition to him, every subject of the empire was obliged to bear labor service in favor of the state.

Zhu then began to create fiefs (go). Estates were distributed to members of the imperial clan, primarily to sons. The purpose of their creation was to strengthen the power of the emperor through control by the owners of the appanages over the official administration, that is, local officials. However, as history has shown, such an innovation did not bring anything good: his grandson, thanks to the appanage Vanir, lost his throne.

Zhu Yuanzhang also carried out military reform. Previously, the army was formed by convening a national militia. From the middle of the 8th century, China switched to a mercenary system. Zhu Yuanzhang divided the population into "people" (min) and "army" (jun). This meant that some part of the Chinese population was included in the permanent territorial troops, had plots assigned to them, which they cultivated.

The dominant religion in the country was recognized as somewhat reformed Confucianism - Zhuxianism, the basis of which was the doctrine of unquestioning submission to the monarch. However, the population was also allowed to practice Buddhist, Taoist and Muslim religions.

According to the decrees on succession to the throne, the throne was supposed to pass to the eldest son from the eldest wife, and in the event of his death, to the grandson of the ruler. The 16-year-old grandson of the emperor, who ascended the throne after the death of Zhu Yuanzhang, was able to retain power only for 3 years, clashing with the owners of the estates from among the sons of the late ruler. In 1402 he was dethroned by his uncle Zhu Di (Chengtzu, 1403-1424), whose inheritance was located in Northern China. According to some sources, the young emperor died during a fire that engulfed the palace; according to others, he cut his hair, put on a cassock and went wandering around China.

Emperor Yong Le (the reign of Zhu Di was called Yong Le (“Eternal Joy”) is the second and last strong ruler after the founder of the dynasty. Under him, China achieved prosperity - international relations expanded, and China’s international influence in Indochina and Southeast Asia grew.

Yong Le abandoned the appanage system, but its abolition did not happen immediately. Zhu Yuan Zhang's successor clan was still a privileged group. Their political influence was replaced by the transfer of large land property to them, i.e. it was a kind of ransom of the ruling house from relatives. It was the possessions of the aristocrats that became the target of the powerful popular movement that led to the fall of the Mings.

During the Ming period, agriculture in China flourished, thanks to irrigation methods borrowed from Vietnam; new agricultural crops appeared - sweet potatoes, peanuts. In the 15th century the division of lands into “state” (guantian) and “civilian” (mingtian) was established. State lands are the estates of emperors, members of the imperial family, titled nobility, officials, military settlers (up to 1/6 of the total area of ​​cultivated land). Officials who received government salaries did not bear tax obligations.

Cities developed. About 1 million people lived in Beijing, more than a million people lived in Nanjing. The urban population was subject to taxes and duties in favor of the treasury, and the artisans themselves could be involved in labor at state-owned enterprises. Silk weaving, cotton weaving, dyeing, the production of ceramics, porcelain, paper, book printing, shipbuilding, and construction flourished. The city of Jingdezhen (Jiangxi Province) became a major center for porcelain production. The economic growth lasted until the second half of the 15th century, after which the decline began. The reasons are population growth, which outpaced the introduction of new agricultural lands into circulation, high taxes (for the maintenance of the state apparatus and to finance military actions).

A feature of the political life of this period was the participation in it of eunuchs who served the imperial harem. The ruler believed that eunuchs were the most loyal group of those close to the imperial court. In 1420, a special school was created where eunuchs were trained in government administration. But there were too many eunuchs - in the 16th century. – 100,000, in the 14th century. – 10,000, they sought personal enrichment, not professionals, prone to corruption.

In the 16th century tax reform was carried out. The essence of the reform, called the “single whip,” was the unification of taxes and duties into a single tax, as well as the commutation of taxes and duties, which was based on silver. However, it was not possible to completely replace the tax in kind with a cash tax, but such a goal was not set. Where it was more convenient to continue collecting taxes in kind, the old system was retained (especially in the rice-producing provinces). This was carried out during the chancellorship of Zhang Juzheng. Under him, regular inspections of the activities of officials were also carried out. They strengthened the army and border guards, and began to select officers more carefully. After the death of Zhang Juzheng, opponents accused the chancellor of statehood. crime, and members of his family were killed.

At the end of the 16th century. Gu Xiancheng tried to continue the reforms, relying on the academicians of Dunlin, located in Qxi (Jiangnan Province). This group expressed the interests of trade and business circles, demanding the encouragement of crafts, trade and entrepreneurial activity, and the protection of the interests of the owners of factories that use hired labor; At the same time, she advocated limiting large feudal land ownership, demanded a reduction in taxes, the abolition of the monopoly on the development of mineral resources, etc. In 1620, the reformers brought to power a young emperor who supported their plans. But he was poisoned and the reforms ended. The Donglin people were defeated.

Foreign policy.

The first half of the Mings' reign is characterized by an active foreign policy. A foreign policy doctrine emerged - the entire surrounding world was viewed as a barbaric periphery, with which only vassal relations were possible. The objectives are the complete expulsion of the Mongols from the country and the strengthening of the country’s land and sea borders. By the end of the 14th century. Chinese troops inflicted new major defeats on the Mongols and annexed Liaodong. Military settlements were created and military garrisons were located near the northwestern borders of China. The Great Wall of China was being completed.

In 1398, Korea's vassal dependence on China was confirmed, which largely remained nominal. Zhu Yuanzhang intensified diplomatic and trade ties with Southeast Asian countries by sending diplomatic missions. missions to Java, Cambodia, Japan and other countries. In the first decades of the 15th century. Offensive operations are underway against nomads; expeditions have been sent to the Hindustan Peninsula, to the Persian Gulf and to the shores of East Africa. At the beginning of the 15th century. China survived the threat of Timur's invasion. In the 15th century China made 7 expeditions (1405-1433) to the countries of Southeast and South Asia. These expeditions were led by Zheng He.

By the middle of the 15th century. China has reduced its foreign policy activity. Only campaigns in Northern Burma (1441-1446), which ended with the formal recognition of vassalage, date back to this time. But there were also failures. So, in 1449, the Chinese army was defeated, and the emperor fell into the hands of the leader of the Western Oirat Mongols, Essen.

By the first half of the 16th century. refers to the first attempt of Europeans to penetrate China (1516-1517), when Portuguese merchant ships with goods approached the Chinese shores near Canton. However, they were driven off the coast by the Chinese. An attempt by Portuguese merchants to settle near Ningbo (40s of the 16th century) also ended unsuccessfully. Only in 1557 was Macau captured. In the 20s of the 17th century. Dutch and English ships appeared. In 1624, southern Taiwan was captured. By the end of the 16th – beginning of the 17th centuries. refers to the appearance in Chinese cities of monks - Jesuits (Italians, Germans, Portuguese), who were not only missionaries, but also spies, collecting information about the country, and selling weapons. In the 17th century The Manchus appeared.

Fall of the Ming Dynasty

At the beginning of the 17th century. The situation in China is difficult. Increased taxes, corruption of officials, impoverishment of the bulk of small landowners and the growth of large landownership led to a popular uprising in 1628-1644. The rebels, united with the Manchus, captured Beijing. The Ming Dynasty ended.

As a result of the peasant uprising, the power of the Mongols was overthrown. The (foreign) one was replaced by the Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1644). From the end of the 14th century. China is thriving economically and culturally. Old cities begin to develop, and new ones appear, in which trade and crafts predominate. The process of the country's evolution is reinforced by the emergence of manufactories, where the division of labor is introduced. The best scientists, architects, and artists are attracted to the imperial court. The main emphasis is on urban construction.

Chinese Ming Dynasty: economic transformations

Almost immediately after the advent of this dynasty, measures began to be introduced to improve the existing situation of the peasants, since it was they who helped bring about the change of power. The Ming Dynasty revived the allotment system in the North, which eliminated the economic power of the landowning elite (North Chinese), which had previously allied with the Yuanyam. But in the South, everything was exactly the opposite - landownership was preserved. Modernization of the existing accounting and tax system, as well as special attention from the authorities to irrigation - all this contributed to rapid economic growth.

The growth of the urban economy was traced, the reason for which was regional specialization (porcelain production was located in Jiangxi, and mainly railway production was located in Guangdong), the emergence of new directions, a special place among which was occupied by the construction of 4-deck ships.

Commodity-money relationships are also gradually developing. Private manufactories appeared on the basis of merchant capital. Central and Southern China became the site of the emergence of craft gardens. Subsequently, the prerequisites for the creation of a pan-Chinese market were formed (the number of official fairs was already close to 38).

but on the other hand

Simultaneously with the above progressive phenomena, there were a number of obstacles hindering the development of entrepreneurship (this was typical for the entire East). These include state monopolies, state-owned manufactories in which more than 300 thousand artisans worked, state levies on trade and it was they who did not give the economy the opportunity to switch to a qualitatively different production.

Ming Dynasty

During the period of economic growth and strengthening of state power, a predominantly offensive policy was pursued (until 1450 it was called “facing the sea”, and after that it became “facing the barbarians”).

The most significant event of this time is the expansion of China, which affected the states of the South Seas.

The Ming Dynasty, due to the growing need to solve the problem of Japanese, Chinese, and Korean piracy, was forced to create a fleet that consisted of 3,500 ships. Further economic growth contributed to the commission of as many as seven expeditions of a separate fleet, led by the chief eunuch Zheng He, to East Africa. This naval commander had at his disposal 60 large 4-deck ships, the length of which reached 47 meters, they had such pretentious names as “Pure Harmony”, “Prosperity and Prosperity”. Each carried a crew of 600, including a group of diplomats.

Extract from logbooks

According to them, during the journey to the coast, Zheng, speaking in modern language, acted calmly and humbly at sea. However, occasionally small foreigners did not obey the good intentions of the emperor.

Reign of the Ming Dynasty: History

The main emphasis of Zhu Yuanzhang (the first in the period 70-80) was on the final expulsion of the Mongols from his country, suppressing attempts at social protest among Chinese peasants through the procedure of improving the economy and strengthening personal power. Such tasks were solved by increasing the army, strengthening centralization, the use of the harshest methods, which caused discontent among all segments of the population.

At the same time as limiting the powers of local authorities, the emperor relied on numerous relatives who later became rulers - vans (title) of appanage principalities due to the fact that, in his opinion, the most reliable were children and grandchildren.

There were kingdoms throughout the country: near the periphery they performed a defensive function against threats from the outside, and in the center they acted as a counterweight to separatism and rebellion.

In 1398, Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang died, after which the court camarilla, bypassing his direct heirs, elevated Zhu Yongwen, one of his grandsons, to the throne.

Reign of Zhu Yunwen

He first of all had his eye on the system of inheritances created by his grandfather. This caused the war with Jingnan (1398 - 1402). The confrontation ended with the capture of the capital of the empire, Nanjing, by the ruler of Beijing - the eldest son of Zhu Yuanzhang, Zhu Di. She burned down in a fire along with his opponent.

Third Emperor of the Ming Dynasty

Zhu Di continued his father's policy of centralizing the state, while abandoning the existing system of the Vans (in 1426, the rebellion of the dissatisfied Vans was suppressed). He laid siege to the titular nobility and increased the importance of the palace secret services in the process of governing the state.

Under him, the question of what significantly influenced the political weight of the South and the North was finally resolved. Thus, the latter, acting as the cradle of Chinese civilization, loses its weight in the 3rd - 5th centuries. in favor of the first due to the constant threat of nomads. These parts of the country are carriers of fundamentally different traditions and mentalities: southerners are complacent, carefree, and northerners are decisive, tough, having a higher social status - “han-zhen”. All this was reinforced by existing linguistic (dialectical) differences.

The Yuan and Song chose the North as their political base, but the Ming Dynasty, on the contrary, chose the South. This is what gave them the opportunity to win.

In 1403, the new emperor renamed the existing Beiping (translated as “Pacified North”) to Beijing (“Northern Capital”). So, until 1421, there were two capitals in China - the imperial one in the north and the government-bureaucratic one in the south. Zhu Di thereby got rid of the influence and tutelage of the southerners, while simultaneously depriving the southern bureaucracy (Nanjing) of excessive independence.

In 1421, the capital was finally consolidated in the North. In connection with the Ming, she secured the support of the North Chinese population and strengthened the country's defense capabilities.

Ming Emperors

As mentioned earlier, this dynasty ruled China from 1368 to 1644. The Ming replaced the Mongol Yuan in a popular uprising. In total, sixteen emperors of this dynasty reigned for 276 years. For ease of reference, the emperors of the Ming Dynasty are listed in the table below.

Outcome of the Peasants' War

It was she who caused the fall of the Ming Dynasty. It is known that, unlike an uprising, it is not only numerous, but also affects different segments of the population. It is larger-scale, long-lasting, well-organized, disciplined due to the presence of a leadership center and the presence of ideology.

It is worth examining this event in more detail to understand how the fall of the Ming Dynasty occurred.

The first stage of the peasant movement began in 1628 and lasted for 11 years. Over 100 outbreaks failed to unite and were suppressed. The second stage occurred in 1641 and lasted only 3 years. The united forces of the rebels were led by the capable commander-in-chief Li Zichen. He managed to form a peasant army from the existing numerous chaotic detachments, which was distinguished by discipline and had clear tactics and strategy.

Li advanced rapidly under slogans popular among the masses regarding the overthrow of the Ming Dynasty. He promoted universal equality and promised no taxes at the end of the war.

As it became known, in the early morning of April 26, 1644, absolutely no one came to the ringing of the bell, which called the ministers to come to Emperor Chong Zhen for an audience. Then he said that this was the end, his associates began to cry. The Empress turned to her husband for the last time and told him that for 18 years she had been devoted to him, but he never bothered to listen to her, which led to this. After this, the empress hanged herself with her belt.

The emperor had no choice but to clumsily kill his daughter and concubine with a sword and hang himself with his belt on an ash tree. Following the emperor, according to the customs of that time, all 80 thousand officials passed away. According to one version, the Great Sovereign left a note on a piece of silk, which was addressed to Li Zichen. In it, he said that all officials are traitors, which is why they deserve death, they must be executed. The emperor justified his death by his reluctance to be beholden to the lowest, most despicable of his subjects. After several hours, the invader's envoys removed the emperor's body from the tree and then placed it in a coffin intended for the poor.

Great Ming Dynasty Tomb

More precisely, tombs, since on the territory of the famous memorial there are the graves of thirteen emperors of this dynasty. The Ming Dynasty tomb extends over 40 square meters. km. It is located approximately 50 km from Beijing (north) at the foot of the great Mountain of Heavenly Longevity. The Ming Dynasty tomb is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Many people come to Beijing just to see her.

Conclusion

The Manchu yoke of the newly created Qing dynasty, one might say, was imposed on the country during European times, which doomed China to as many as 268 years of political and socio-economic stagnation before the growing colonial expansion from Europe.

The two most powerful dynasties are the Ming and Qing. But the differences between them are colossal: the first showed the people the opportunity to take a new, progressive path, allowed them to feel free and significant. The second destroyed everything that had been created by many years of labor and made the state reclusive.

After the end of the era of territorial and state fragmentation, the imperial order was revived in China at the end of the 6th century. The first Chinese states. During the reign of the Tang Dynasty (VII-X centuries), the Chinese Empire was a state with centralized administration and a powerful bureaucratic apparatus.

At this time, many peasant uprisings took place in the country against the policies of tyrannical rule. Representatives of the Tang Dynasty did not have a good material base for waging war.

However, increasing the taxation of the peasantry, they organized military campaigns into neighboring territories with enviable consistency.

Long military confrontations with the Tibetans, as well as with the southern state of Nanzhao, were unsuccessful. Exhausted by hunger and poverty, the people were able to overthrow the Thanes. Along with the fall of the ruling dynasty, a new period of territorial fragmentation of the state began.

China on the eve of the Mongol invasion

By the end of the 13th century, China consisted of two empires, Jin and Southern Song. By this period, the process of consolidation of the Chinese nation had reached its completion. Despite the fragmentation, the population of the two empires perceives themselves as a single nation.

The management system that developed in the two empires became a classic of public administration and will be adopted by many countries in the future. The Chinese economy was represented by powerful agricultural production, as well as small but fairly well-organized artisan factories, in which the state was able to get ahead of the countries of Western Europe.

Foreign trade with Asian countries and Japan played a significant role in economic development. Society, as was typical for all states of the medieval period, was divided into classes. However, the peasants were not the lower classes.

In many cities, for the first time, a layer of the so-called lumpen of the impoverished urban population appeared, who often did not even have their own home. It was they who most often organized anti-government uprisings.

Mongol rule in China

During 70 years of continuous struggle for the independence of their own statehood, the population of China in 1215 found itself under the rule of the Mongols. Mongol rule lasted in China for approximately a century. This was the most difficult time for the country, when all the previously prosperous sectors of the economy fell into decay.

China was declared part of the Mongol Yuan Empire. The Mongol rulers exploited the Chinese economy through hard work and levied a tax of 40% of the total production.

However, internal strife did not allow the Mongols to consolidate their dominance in the long term. Due to a large-scale peasant militia, they were overthrown from the throne.

Ming Empire

In 1368, the people of China were virtually completely freed from the Mongol invaders. Representatives of the Ming dynasty came to power. The first period of their reign was marked by a deep state crisis, which would be exactly repeated at the end of the reign of the monarchical family.

The first emperor initiated large-scale reforms that affected the political system and economic life of the country. However, all the seemingly loyal measures of the emperor were accompanied by a strict police regime: special committees were created, the main function of which was denunciations and political persecution of the opposition population.

The dawn of the Ming Empire dates back to the beginning of the 15th century, when the state territory expanded significantly, and the trade and economy of the state experienced a rise. The Chinese, under the leadership of talented commanders, were able to stop new attempts to conquer the empire by the Mongols.

The main prerequisite for the collapse of the Ming Empire was the attempt to introduce democracy as a state form of government. Supreme power was concentrated primarily in the hands of officials, who increased oppression over peasants and artisans. Protests and military uprisings as early as 1644 provoked the fall of the once prosperous empire.

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The sixteen emperors of the Ming Dynasty ruled China from 1368 to 1644 for 276 years. The new empire came into being as a result of a popular uprising and was overthrown in the Peasants' War by the army of Li Zicheng and the invading Manchus, who had previously created Manchuria.

The man under whose leadership the Yuan dynasty fell was from a poor peasant family that made its living by farming and panning for gold dust. Zhu Yuan-chang was 40 years old when he overthrew the Mongol Yuan dynasty as a result of the long-running Red Turban Rebellion and became emperor under the throne name Tai Tzu. The new ruler made the city his capital, surrounding it with a thirty-mile wall.

The thirty-year reign of Emperor Taizu was marked by brutal repression, when any, even the most minor, offense was punishable by death. Not forgetting his origins, the emperor tried to protect the peasants: officials who used their power to oppress the common people faced severe punishment from branding to confiscation of property, hard labor and execution.

Despite Tai Tzu's brutal rule, relative calm was established within the country, and the economic situation in the country also improved. The Empire managed to strengthen its position in Manchuria, liberate the provinces of Yunnan and Sichuan from the Mongols, and even burn Karakorum. However, a more serious problem during this era was the raids of Japanese pirates.

After the death of the emperor in 1398, the legal heir Jian Wen, a gentle and educated man, did not last long in power, but was killed in 1402 by the arrogant and power-hungry Prince Zhu Di, the middle son of the first Ming emperor. In 1403, the prince proclaimed himself emperor. To prove his legitimacy as the Son of Heaven, Zhu Di ordered scholars to rewrite the history of China's ruling dynasties.

In general, despite the usurpation of the throne and brutal terror at the very beginning of his reign, historians evaluate Zhu Di as a brilliant ruler.

To calm the mood of the population and riots, the emperor encouraged Buddhist rituals and adhered to traditional Confucian norms, revised the administrative structure of the empire, thus eliminating contradictions between individual tribes.

The Emperor paid special attention to the fight against corruption and secret societies. Thanks to the newly restored examination system, a new generation of officers and officials was attracted to the government.

The new ruler also took measures to restore the economy: production of food and textiles was increased, new lands were developed in the Yangtze Delta, river beds were cleared, and the Great Canal of China was rebuilt and expanded, which contributed to the development of trade and navigation.

As for foreign policy, the reign of Emperor Zhu Di was more successful at sea than on land. At the shipyards of Nanjing, huge ocean-going ships were built - nine-masted junks, reaching 133 m in length and 20 m in width. The Chinese fleet, numbering 300 similar ships, under the leadership of Admiral Zheng He (one of the court eunuchs) made trips to Southeast Asia, Ceylon, India and even the Persian Gulf, as a result of which many rulers were captured, and the Ming court became tribute comes from distant states. These expeditions significantly expanded the influence of the empire and became the greatest maritime explorations in human history, predating the European Age of Discovery by several decades.

It was Zhu Di who moved the capital of the Ming Empire to and ordered the construction, work on which was completed in 1420. However, fate gave the emperor only a few years to enjoy the new palace: in 1424, the ruler died while returning from a campaign against the Mongols.

The throne was briefly taken over by his eldest son, who died less than a year later from a heart attack. Then power passed to Zhu Di's grandson named Xuan Zong. Peace has returned to the country, and the borders have also become calm. Diplomatic ties with Japan and Korea began to develop. After the emperor's death in 1435, Chinese historians would hail him as the model of a Confucian monarch, skilled in the arts and inclined to govern benevolently.

The emperor's heir was one of his two sons, the young Ying Zong, who was barely 6 years old, so real power was in the hands of the regency council, consisting of three eunuchs, among whom Wang Jin was the main one. The situation in the country became turbulent: droughts, floods, epidemics, heavy forced labor, which again fell on peasants forced to participate in large-scale construction work, served as the reason for several uprisings, of which the last two were suppressed with difficulty.

At the same time, Mongolian troops began to attack the northern lands of China. The emperor, who by that time was 22 years old, under the leadership of Wang Jin, who was not versed in military affairs, gathered an army of half a million and marched against the enemy. The unprepared army was completely defeated by the enemy, and Ying Zong was captured. This became one of the greatest military defeats in history.

The next emperor was the half-brother of the captured ruler, who took the throne name Jing Zong. He successfully repelled the Mongol attack, including saving Beijing, reformed the army, and carried out large-scale restoration work. However, his brother was soon released from captivity and, during a palace coup, Ying Zong was again declared emperor. Jing Zong died a few months later - according to some sources, he was strangled by one of the palace eunuchs.

After Ying Zong's death, his son Xian Zong (Zhu Jiangshen) took the throne. During his reign, it was restored and finally completed. According to some estimates, the implementation of this greatest fortification on earth cost the lives of 8 million people. Xian Zong's reign was also notable for the 10-year war against the Mongols, which stabilized the raiding situation.

In addition to his childless official wife, the emperor had an older wife - Lady Wen, his former nanny, who was twice the emperor's age. After Wen's only child died, she did everything possible to prevent the emergence of an heir from other concubines, not even stopping at murder, but she miscalculated. From a chance relationship with a girl from the Yao tribe, the emperor had a son, whose appearance was hidden from Mrs. Wen. Xian Zong was shown the boy when he was already 5 years old. It was this child who became the next emperor.

As usual, with the arrival of a new ruler, executions and exiles followed: the new emperor got rid of greedy eunuchs, officials who received their positions through money or intrigue, dishonest clergy and depraved favorites of the previous imperial couple.

Xiao Zong (the emperor's throne name) strictly followed Confucian principles, cared for the well-being of the people, performed all necessary rituals, appointed Confucians to high positions, and was devoted to his only wife, Lady Chan. Actually, this lady was his only weakness, which caused significant damage to the state treasury, because... the empress was distinguished by her extravagance, and titles and lands went to her relatives and friends.

The number of eunuchs at the court again increased, the number of which exceeded 10 thousand people. In fact, this huge apparatus began to operate in parallel with the civil administration, constantly competing with each other for positions and influence over the emperor. The situation only worsened after Xiao Zong's death, when his 13-year-old son Wu Zong became emperor.

Zong did not have the positive qualities of his father: not only did he prefer the company of eunuchs to the company of his legal wife, but he also became a real alcoholic, terrifying the whole country. They say that while traveling around the country, the emperor kidnapped women from houses, and this was just one of his few amusements. Wu Jing eventually died at the age of 21 in 1522, childless, leaving no legal heir.

After more palace intrigues, the emperor's 15-year-old cousin, Shi Zong, ascended the throne. This man was distinguished by his vindictiveness and harsh disposition: even his concubines were afraid of him, and several of them even dared to attempt an assassination attempt, however, the emperor was saved, and the women were subject to painful execution.

The emperor reigned for 44 years, but no major achievements occurred during this period. Shi Zong led a reclusive life in the Palace of Eternal Life in the western part of the Forbidden City and continued his policy of isolation, fearing spies and dangerous alliances from abroad. Therefore, trade that could improve the economic situation in the country remained prohibited, as a result of which the eastern coast of the country suffered from raids by Japanese pirates and lived on smuggling.

Emperor Shi Zong, increasingly moving away from business, became interested in fortune telling and the search for the elixir of immortality. The emperor's chief Taoist adviser prescribed him pills containing red lead and white arsenic, which greatly undermined the ruler's health. In 1567, the emperor, whose mind was already completely weakened, died in the Forbidden City.

His eldest son Lung-qing became the heir, but his reign lasted only 5 years and the emperor practically did not interfere in the affairs of governing the country.

In 1573, the throne was taken by his son Shen Tsung (Wan-li), who was distinguished by his rationality and sober approach to governance. However, every year his interest in politics faded away, and contradictions between the monarch and officials increased. They say that in the second half of his reign, the emperor began to completely ignore officials who, trying to attract his attention, gathered in crowds near the Forbidden City and, kneeling, shouting the name Wan-li.

But, in addition to the poorly coordinated work of the government, a threat from the West began to approach China, which was still unclear at that time, but later brought irreparable troubles to the Celestial Empire. In the late 60s of the 16th century, the Portuguese settled in Macau and began trading in 1578, having received permission from China to purchase goods in Canton. This attracted the attention of the Spaniards to Asia, who sent an expedition to colonize Manila, where Chinese dominance had already been established. In 1603, military conflict broke out in the Philippines, and the Chinese were expelled from the archipelago.

In addition to this war, which claimed the lives of 20 thousand people, internal uprisings periodically arose in China; the authorities launched punitive campaigns against the rebellious Miao tribe, as well as against the Japanese who invaded Korean territory. But the decisive role in the fall of the Ming dynasty was played by the military campaign against the Jurchens, a tribal alliance of Mongols and Tungus that arose in the 12th century and was pushed to the northeastern lands. Mixed with migrants from Korea and other peoples, they became known as Manchus.

At the end of the 16th century, one of the Manchu leaders, 24-year-old Nurhaci, united many Manchu aimags under his rule, creating an empire and declaring himself emperor. To rid Manchuria of vassalage, Nurhaci undertook a series of successful military campaigns against China, which again led to an economic crisis in the empire, increased taxes and popular uprisings. In addition, failures undermined the emperor's health: Shen Zong died in 1620.

After the death of the emperor, the situation in the country only worsened. The population by that time exceeded 150 million people. The constant reduction in silver entering the treasury, inflation, congestion in cities, the gap between rich and poor, piracy, and natural disasters again became the cause of popular uprisings. Peasants experienced the economic crisis especially hard: for several years, severe winters raged in northern China, causing severe famine, during which cases of cannibalism were noted. Many families were forced to sell their children into slavery, the younger generation looked for any means of subsistence - many of them poured into the cities, others began to join the ranks of robbers, women became servants or prostitutes.

In addition to internal uprisings, an external threat remained in China: in 1642, the Manchus resumed their raids, eventually capturing 94 cities. The power of the ruling house was finally weakened: the Manchus and rebels besieged the emperor from all sides. In 1644, peasant rebels led by Li Zicheng approached Beijing. The last Ming Emperor, Chongzhen, refused to flee and hanged himself in a house on a hill in the imperial palace complex in order to ascend to heaven riding a dragon, according to Chinese beliefs. Another 20 years later, the Manchus executed the Ming prince Yun-li, who fled to Burma. Thus ended the 300-year era of the Ming Dynasty.