Lapin I.L., Golubovich N.V.: Foreign literature. Literature of the 17th century. Foreign literature of the 17th century General characteristics of the Baroque

Foreign literature of the 17th – 18th centuries.
17th century in world literary development.

The literary process in Europe in the 17th century was very complex and contradictory. The 17th century is the era that marked the transition from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment, and this determined the characteristics of historical and cultural development in European countries; the positions of the feudal-Catholic reaction were strengthened, and this caused a crisis of Renaissance humanism, most forcefully expressed in Baroque art.

Baroque as a style is formed not only in literature, but also in painting and music. As a literary movement, the Baroque has a number of common ideological and artistic principles.

The Baroque is based on a concept of man that is polemical in relation to the Renaissance traditions. A weak and fragile creature, man, as Baroque writers believed, is doomed to wander in the tragic chaos of life. A deeply pessimistic concept of existence leads Baroque literature to ascetic religious ideals.

Baroque creates an elite theory of art and asserts a special metaphorical ornamental style. Based on the idea of disharmony in the world, Baroque writers, trying to express the idea of disharmony in the very figurative system of the work, are carried away by semantic and pictorial contrasts. The most vivid embodiment of the principles of Baroque was found in the work of the great Spanish playwright P. Calderon.

In European Baroque, two movements emerge - high and low, or democratic, Baroque. To the elite ideas, the sublime rhetoric of the high baroque, represented by the theater of P. Calderon, the poetry of L. de Gongora, D. Donne, the pastoral and gallant-heroic novel, the low baroque contrasts the style of comic burlesque, which in many ways consciously parodies the sublime imagery (these trends are expressed most clearly in a 17th century picaresque novel).

Another literary movement of the 17th century was classicism, which flourished in France. It must be remembered that the origins of classicism go back to the aesthetics of the Renaissance, which created the cult of antiquity as the focus of the artistic ideal. Classicism reflected the rise of national consciousness of French society. In the first third of the 17th century, the formation of an absolute monarchy took place in France, which led to the elimination of feudal civil strife and the formation of a single centralized state. This historically progressive process creates objective preconditions for the development of classicism. The ideas of R. Descartes, the creator of the rationalist philosophical school, had a profound impact on the aesthetics of classicism.

In its development, classicism of the 17th century went through two main stages. In the first half of the 17th century, he asserted high ideas of citizenship and heroism, which were reflected in the political tragedies of P. Corneille.

In the second half of the 17th century, after the tragic events of the Fronde, tragic motifs deepened in classicism. Classicism created a coherent aesthetic theory, which was fully embodied in N. Boileau’s treatise “Poetic Art”. The classicists developed a normative theory of art, including a clear differentiation of “high” and “low”, strict genre and style canons. The rationalistic attitude determined the concept of man and the features of conflict in classic works. At the same time, the classicists defended the principle of “imitation of nature,” “reasonable verisimilitude,” which allowed them to recreate in their works the typical features of social life of the 17th century.
^ 17th century in world literary development

The Renaissance is difficult to separate from the history and culture of the 17th century. At the beginning of the 17th century, the luminaries of the Renaissance continued to create. The transition between eras is very smooth and lasts for several generations. The same thing happens at the upper boundaries of the period. The 17th - 18th centuries are a fundamental era for the development of modern European culture. During this era, modern states were created. In France, under the influence of the culture of classicism, norms of literature and language are created that took root until the 20th century. The educational movement and rationalist literature had a similar regulatory function in England.

The Renaissance is an era of social optimism, the discovery of the universe and human capabilities. The social system becomes more dynamic, the possibilities of the human personality and destiny open up. There is a belief in overcoming social obstacles in a variety of areas. The ideal of the Renaissance man is typologically similar in different cultures. The universal ideal embodied the trinity of beauty, goodness and truth. But already at the end of the Renaissance, in the 16th century, this ideal began to weaken. In the 16th century, religious wars, the struggle of states for colonies, and competition in the European arena took place. The united European culture is being shaken. The generalizing influence of Latin origin is lost. A national culture appears, and different types of states are created: bourgeois (revolution in Holland and England), which emerged as a result of the process of refeudalization, a return to old social relations (Spain, Germany, Italy). “Dwarf absolutism” reigned in Germany, and the state found itself in a state of fragmentation. The situation was aggravated by the Thirty Years' War that occurred in the 16th century. In France there was a gradual movement towards capitalism. France of that era was one of the leading European powers. It is considered a classic for the literature of the era. The tendencies of centralization are most clearly manifested in it: regional differences disappear, the center strengthens, a unified legal and cultural system is created - and absolutism (the exclusive role of royal power).

In the 17th century, the concept of power appeared. Power becomes a transpersonal force that cannot be controlled. The English philosopher Hobbes imagined the state in the form of the monster Leviathan, which controls everything, demands obedience and acts with harsh methods. There is a complete unification of life, submission to the king. The leading category in the era is the category of controllability. In Europe, rituals emerged that controlled cultural and social life, and etiquette was introduced. In the era of Louis XIV, etiquette was exaggerated. Strict government control becomes a constraining force. Revolutions occur, giving way to dictatorship and the subsequent restoration of the monarchy.

During the 17th century, a new religious ideal was formed. There is a search for a “personal” God, his approach to everyday life. The bourgeoisie presupposes personal initiative. The embodiment of this search is the Reformation in its extreme manifestations (Puritanism, Calvinism). The ritual side is discarded and naked faith remains. The main tenet of Protestantism is individual proof that you are worthy of divine salvation. The content of the era also became the counter-reformation movement, especially developing in Spain and Italy. According to the counter-reformers, God is relegated to the empyrean, he acts as a blind and irrational force. The bearer of this faith becomes the Church, which is also pushed into the empyrean. This strategy is implemented by the Jesuit Order, whose slogan is “The end justifies the means.”

The 17th century is a turning point when human values shift catastrophically. The symbols of the era are endless searches, trust in irrational categories and rebellion, the riot of one’s own will. The man of the era is looking for support in his search. This support becomes either reason or feeling. Truth, goodness and beauty begin to exist separately from each other. As a result, two opposing trends arise: rationalism and irrationalism, respectively.

The most distinct symptom of rationalism is the emergence of science. In empiric studies, the problem of method arises, bringing science closer to literature (René Descartes, Spinoza, Hobbes). These scientific searches continue until the 20th century.

The flip side of these searches is irrationalism. Irrationalism doubts the possibilities of human knowledge. He strives to highlight areas of the unknown, to show the diversity and play of phenomena. In irrationalism, the category of concept is highlighted - the convergence of different, but mystically related categories. From the concept a metaphor develops. The literature of this era is metaphorical. The choice between private truths depends on one's own will.

One of the universals of the era is the feeling of crisis, turning point, revaluation of the ideals of the Renaissance. The literature of the era is polemical and propaganda. They either try to restore the ideal of the Renaissance or deny it. There is also a rejection of the principle of harmony. In the 17th century, there was an orientation toward dominant categories. Dialectics is determined by the unity and struggle of opposites: the interaction of reason and feelings, personality and society. The Baroque era is interested in personal processes. Humanism is changing - it becomes “humanism in spite of.” The value of a person is not given initially, it is acquired. Another feature of the era is analyticalism and a research approach. A method is being developed for dividing reality into details and combining it in unexpected ways. The era strives for wide epic panoramas. Writers focus on centralizing the idea. Thanks to the discovery of an idea, interaction occurs between journalistic and artistic creativity. The idea itself in a literary text is revealed through pathos and logic. Logic organizes the composition, the connection of parts. One of the main issues of the era is truth and credibility. There is a search for criteria of truth.
^ Baroque literature (general characteristics).

Writers and poets in the Baroque era perceived the real world as an illusion and a dream. Realistic descriptions were often combined with their allegorical depiction. Symbols, metaphors, theatrical techniques, graphic images (lines of poetry form a picture), richness in rhetorical figures, antitheses, parallelisms, gradations, and oxymorons are widely used. There is a burlesque-satirical attitude towards reality. Baroque literature is characterized by a desire for diversity, a summation of knowledge about the world, inclusiveness, encyclopedicism, which sometimes turns into chaos and collecting curiosities, a desire to study being in its contrasts (spirit and flesh, darkness and light, time and eternity). Baroque ethics is marked by a craving for the symbolism of the night, the theme of frailty and impermanence, life as a dream (F. de Quevedo, P. Calderon). Calderon's play “Life is a Dream” is famous. Genres such as the gallant-heroic novel (J. de Scudéry, M. de Scudéry) and the everyday and satirical novel (Furetière, C. Sorel, P. Scarron) are also developing. Within the framework of the Baroque style, its varieties and directions are born: Marinism, Gongorism (Culteranism), Conceptism (Italy, Spain), the metaphysical school and euphuism (England) (See Precision Literature).

The action of the novels is often transferred to the fictional world of antiquity, to Greece, court gentlemen and ladies are depicted as shepherdesses and shepherdesses, which is called pastoral (Honoré d'Urfe, “Astraea”). Pretentiousness and the use of complex metaphors flourish in poetry. Common forms include sonnet, rondo, concetti (a short poem expressing some witty thought), and madrigals.

In the West, an outstanding representative in the field of the novel is G. Grimmelshausen (the novel “Simplicissimus”), in the field of drama - P. Calderon (Spain). In poetry, V. Voiture (France), D. Marino (Italy), Don Luis de Gongora y Argote (Spain), D. Donne (England) became famous. In Russia, Baroque literature includes S. Polotsky and F. Prokopovich. In France during this period, “precious literature” flourished. It was then cultivated mainly in the salon of Madame de Rambouillet, one of the aristocratic salons in Paris, the most fashionable and famous. In Spain, the baroque movement in literature was called “Gongorism” after the name of its most prominent representative (see above).
Baroque literature (general characteristics).

the universals of the era appear in baroque and classicism. In European literature, classicism is presented as a simplified version of baroque; in Russian literature, baroque and classicism are considered as different artistic movements. But in the work of one writer both of these directions can converge. In Spain, the Baroque occupied a dominant position. His aesthetics and poetics were developed by representatives of the Lope de Vega school. Classicism developed there only theoretically. In England, none of the methods was dominant, since the traditions of the Renaissance were strong there. Only by the middle of the century did classicist features grow in English art (the theory of Ben Jonson), but they did not take root in this country. In Germany, a low-level baroque is developing, the preferred genres of which are bloody drama and picaresque romance. Classicism becomes the fundamental method in France, but Baroque tendencies also appear here. Along with classicism, there is also salon literature and libertine poetry.

Baroque is realized not only in literature. Initially it was highlighted in architecture (the works of Bernini, the fountains of Versailles). In music, the Baroque was represented by the works of Bach and Handel, in painting - by Titian and Caravaggio, in literature - by Jean-Baptiste Marino and Calderon. Baroque is closely related to the Renaissance. Yu.B. Whipper talks about mannerism - the tragic humanism of the late Renaissance. This is an exit to allegorical spaces with philosophical conflicts that demonstrate faith in man and the tragedy of human existence.

The word "Baroque" itself has no precise explanation. This term refers to a wide range of phenomena. In Baroque, by definition, there are no canons. The canon is individual, diversity reigns here.
Worldviews of the Baroque:
1. A sense of the contradictory nature of the world, the absence of established forms, endless struggle. The author’s task is to capture reality in its variability.

2. Pessimistic emotional tone. It comes from the fragmentation, the duality of the world. In the literature of this direction, the motif of the double is often found.

3. The leading motives are the struggle of flesh and spirit, visible and essential. A favorite theme is the struggle of life and death. Baroque authors often depict a person in his borderline states (sleep, illness, madness, feast during the plague).

4. Theatrics, play, experiments of heroes with life, reverent attitude towards earthly joys, admiring the little things of everyday life. Baroque works display a kaleidoscope of life.

5. The Baroque hero is a complete individualist. This is either a bright, but initially vicious creature who needs to atone for his sins, or an initially kind person, but disfigured by life’s circumstances. The second type of hero strives to escape from the world either into creativity or by creating life utopias.
Baroque aesthetics is expounded in the treatises “Wit or the Art of the Quick Mind” (Balthazar Grassian) and “Aristotle’s Spyglass” (Emmanuel Tesauro). Art from the Baroque point of view is subjective creativity. It does not express the truth, but creates an illusion, obeying the will of the author. The writer's task is to transform reality. The flight of thought must be exaggerated. Baroque authors are interested in everything unusual. Getting acquainted with the unprecedented, the reader is able to be surprised. The main artistic means is metaphor. Metaphor intersects with amplification—exaggeration. The same object is rotated from different sides.
^ Features of English literature of the 17th century.

The first half of the 17th century was marked in England by the flourishing of Baroque poetry, represented primarily by the school of metaphysical poets. One of the most talented poets of this movement, who opened new horizons for European poetry of modern times, was John Donne (1572 - 1631), whose work is recommended for students to get acquainted with. The English bourgeois revolution (1640 - 1650) had a decisive influence on the development of English literature in the 17th century. It took place under religious Puritan slogans, which determined the specifics of the artistic thought of the era.

When studying English literature of the 17th century, the main attention should be paid to the work of D. Milton (1608 - 1674). An outstanding revolutionary publicist, Milton reflected in his poems the most pressing political conflicts of our time. His poem “Paradise Lost” is an attempt at a socio-philosophical understanding of the development of the world and humanity as a whole. In the artistic world of the poem, baroque and classicist trends are organically combined, which must be paid attention to when analyzing it.

Foreign literature of the 17th-18th centuries.
Questions for the exam

11. The work of Corneille.
Corneille (1606-1684)
Born in Rouen, in the family of an official. He graduated from the Jesuit College and became a lawyer. Once, as legend tells, one of Corneille’s friends introduced him to his beloved, but she preferred Pierre to her former admirer. This story prompted Corneille to write a comedy. This is how his “Melita” (1629) appeared. Then - “Clitander”, “Widow”, “Court Gallery”, “Royal Square” - now forgotten. After “Comic Illusion,” with its incredible accumulation of fantastic creatures and incidents, Corneille created “The Cid,” a tragedy that opened the glorious history of the French national theater and was the national pride of the French. “Sid” brought the author the praise of the people and the irritation of Richelieu (since there are political motives there - the Spanish hero). Richelieu was jealous because... he was a bad poet himself. They attacked Corneille. The Academy began to look for errors and deviations from the “rules” of classicism. The playwright fell silent for a while. In 1639-1640 - the tragedies "Horace" and "Cinna", 1643 - "Polyeuctus". In 1652, the tragedy “Pertarit” was a complete failure. Silent for seven years, then in 1659 - “Oedipus”. He is replaced by Racine. Corneille doesn't want to give up. Voltaire in 1731 in his poem “Temple of Taste” depicted Corneille throwing his last tragedies into the fire - “the cold old age of creation.” In 1674 K. stopped writing and died 10 years later.
Early creativity
Corneille's first play is usually considered to be the comedy Melite (1629), but in 1946 an anonymous manuscript of the pastoral play Alidor ou l'Indifférent, op. . between 1626 and 1628, published in 2001), which perhaps should be considered the true debut of the great playwright (according to other versions, its author is Jean Rotrou). Melita was followed by a series of comedies with which Corneille created a position for himself and won over Richelieu.
Since 1635, Corneille has been writing tragedies, first imitating Seneca; Among these first, rather weak attempts is Médée. Then, inspired by the Spanish theater, he wrote “L’Illusion Comique” (1636) - a ponderous farce, the main character of which is a Spanish matamor.
"Sid"
At the end of 1636, another tragedy by Corneille appeared, constituting an era in the history of the French theater: it was “The Cid,” immediately recognized as a masterpiece; even a proverb was created: “beautiful as Cid” (beau comme le Cid). Paris, and behind it the whole of France, continued to “look at Cid through the eyes of Ximena” even after the Paris Academy condemned this tragedy, in “Sentiments de l'Académie sur le Cid”: the author of this criticism, Chaplain, found the choice of the plot of the tragedy unsuccessful, the denouement unsatisfactory, and the style devoid of dignity.
The tragedy "Horace", written in Rouen, was staged in Paris at the beginning of 1640, apparently on the stage of the "Burgundy Hotel". The premiere of the tragedy was not a triumph for the playwright, but from performance to performance the success of the play increased. Included in the repertoire of the Comedy Française theater, the tragedy had a number of performances on this stage second only to The Cid. The main roles of the play were brilliantly performed by such famous actors as Mademoiselle Clairon, Rachel, Mounet-Sully and others.
Horace was first published in January 1641 by Augustin Courbet.
At the same time, Corneille’s marriage to Marie de Lamprière, the height of his social life, and constant relations with the Ramboulier Hotel date back to that time. One after another, his wonderful comedy “Le Menteur” and much weaker tragedies appeared:
Religious poetry
Beginning in 1651, Corneille succumbed to the influence of his Jesuit friends, who tried to distract his former pupil from the theater. Corneille took up religious poetry, as if to atone for his secular creativity of previous years, and soon published a poetic translation of “Imitation de Jésus Christ”. This translation was a huge success and went through 130 editions over 20 years. It was followed by several other translations, also made under the influence of the Jesuits: panegyrics to the Virgin Mary, psalms, etc.

13. The work of Racine.
The beginning of a creative journey
In 1658, Racine began studying law in Paris and made his first connections in the literary community. In 1660, he wrote the poem “Nymph of the Seine,” for which he received a pension from the king, and also created two plays that were never staged and have not survived to this day. His mother's family decided to prepare him for the religious field, and in 1661 he went to his uncle-priest in Languedoc, where he spent two years in the hope of receiving financial support from the church that would allow him to devote himself entirely to literary work. This venture ended in failure, and around 1663 Racine returned to Paris. The circle of his literary acquaintances expanded, the doors of court salons opened before him. The first of his surviving plays, Thebaid (1664) and Alexander the Great (1665), were staged by Molière. Stage success prompted Racine to enter into a controversy with his former teacher, the Jansenist Pierre Nicol, who proclaimed that any writer and playwright is a public poisoner of souls.

A triumphant decade
In 1665, Racine broke off relations with Moliere's theater and moved to the Burgundy Hotel theater together with his mistress, the famous actress Therese Du Parc, who played the title role in Andromache in 1667. This was Racine's first masterpiece, which was a huge success with the public. The well-known mythological plot had already been developed by Euripides, but the French playwright changed the essence of the tragic conflict so that “the image of Andromache corresponded to the idea of her that has become established among us.” Achilles' son Pyrrhus is engaged to Menelaus' daughter Hermione, but passionately loves Hector's widow Andromache. Seeking her consent to the marriage, he threatens to hand over his son Hector Astyanax to the Greeks if she refuses. The Greek embassy is headed by Orestes, who is in love with Hermione. In Andromache, there is no conflict between duty and feeling: relationships of mutual dependence create an insoluble dilemma and lead to inevitable disaster - when Andromache agrees to marry Pyrrhus, Hermione orders Orestes to kill her fiancé, after which she curses the murderer and commits suicide. This tragedy shows the passions that tear apart a person’s soul, which make a “reasonable” decision impossible.

With the production of Andromache, the most fruitful period in Racine’s work began: after his only comedy, Fussels (1668), the tragedies Britannicus (1669), Berenice (1670), Bayazet (1672), and Mithridates appeared. (1673), "Iphigenia" (1674). The playwright was on the crest of fame and success: in 1672 he was elected to the French Academy, and the king, who favored him, granted him a noble title. The turning point of this extremely successful career was the production of Phaedra (1677). Racine's enemies made every effort to ruin the play: the insignificant playwright Pradon used the same plot in his tragedy, which was staged at the same time as Phèdre, and the greatest tragedy of the French theater (which the playwright himself considered his best play) failed at its first performance. The lawless love of the wife of the Athenian king Theseus for his stepson Hippolytus at one time attracted the attention of Euripides, for whom the main character was a pure young man, cruelly punished by the goddess Aphrodite. Racine placed Phaedra at the center of his tragedy, showing the painful struggle of a woman with the sinful passion that burns her. There are at least two interpretations of this conflict - “pagan” and “Christian”. On the one hand, Racine shows a world inhabited by monsters (one of them destroys Hippolytus) and ruled by evil gods. At the same time, here one can discover the existence of the “hidden God” of the Jansenists: he does not give people any “signs,” but only in him can salvation be found. It is no coincidence that the play was enthusiastically received by Racine’s teacher Antoine Arnault, who wrote the famous definition: “Phaedra is a Christian woman on whom grace has not descended.” The heroine of the tragedy finds “salvation” by dooming herself to death and saving Hippolytus’ honor in the eyes of her father. In this play, Racine managed to fuse together the concept of pagan fate with the Calvinist idea of predestination.

Leaving the theater

The intrigue around "Phaedra" caused a heated controversy, in which Racine did not take part. Abruptly leaving the stage, he married a pious but quite ordinary girl, who bore him seven children, and took up the post of royal historiographer with his friend Boileau. His only plays during this period were Esther (1689) and Athaliah (1690), written for a girls' school in Saint-Cyr at the request of their patroness, the Marquise de Maintenon, the morganatic wife of Louis XIV.

Racine's work represents the highest stage of French classicism: in his tragedies, the harmonious rigor of construction and clarity of thought are combined with deep penetration into the recesses of the human soul.

15. The work of Moliere.
Moliere comes from a wealthy, educated family. When Moliere was 15 years old. His father insisted that he go to Sarbona. Moliere graduated from the Faculty of Journalism successfully, but when he was 19, a very sharp turn took place in his life, he “fell ill” with the theater. A theater from the provinces toured Paris. Moliere left home for 10 years and remained in the provinces. Performances were given either in the threshing floor, or in the knights' hall, or somewhere else. Moliere returned to Paris at the age of 30. Gradually, Moliere began to write plays and comedies, and he himself acted as a comic actor.
One of the earliest comedies was “funny affectations” - comedies-lessons, characters for the first years of Moliere’s stay in Paris (a lesson for wives and a lesson for husbands), the comedy “Georges Dandin” was written in the same vein. Its hero, a rich farmer, a relatively young and ambitious man, decided to marry a noblewoman at any cost. And he makes his dream come true. An impoverished noblewoman marries the wealthy Georges. When she gets married, she begins to settle scores with Georges Dandin - for her he is an ignoramus, an ignoramus: she vents her dissatisfaction to her husband and believes that lovers should have compensation for their victims. She cuckolds her husband at every opportunity. The image of the main character is drawn in a special way. This is a person prone to self-reflection: he first of all blames himself. This makes him at the same time vulnerable, unhappy and increases the reader's attitude towards the hero. “You wanted it yourself, Georges Dandin.”
“Amphitryon” occupies a special place in Moliere’s work. Husband of Alcmene (mother of Hercules). No one encroaches on her honor and beauty, she was a faithful wife. Zeus falls in love with Alcmene and decides that she should belong to him. Zeus took the form of Amphitryon. The comedy "Amphitryon" was a work of both gallant and ambiguous: it depicted Louis 14 in the image of the resourceful Zeus. The king was flattered by this work, and this comedy went on. In the first years of his stay in Paris, Moliere and his theater enjoyed the sympathy of the king; the king attended performances and especially loved comedy-ballet.
For example, “The Imaginary Sick” - the main character is a man who has only one illness - unthinkable suspiciousness. He dies all day long without harm to his health. Only the maid understands that this is a pretense. She figures out how to cure an imaginary patient in one go: he must be initiated into an eastern doctor. At the end of the comedy, a whole group of doctors enters the patient’s room; they are armed with professional weapons - tweezers. All this guard dances and sings, dedicating the patient to the Ta-to-shi clan, i.e. into enlightened doctors. In Macaroni language – French + Latin. These dances were comedy-ballets. The century of Louis 14th was the century of ballets, quite unique. The king, queen, princes, and ambassadors dance in these ballets. The courtiers contemplated.
The king's favor was so great that he was twice the godfather of Moliere's children, highlighting sumina, but Moliere's children did not survive.
In the 70s royal reverence came to an end, this is due to the comedy “Tartuffe”. When the first version was released, there was an immediate ban. The comedy was seen as a satire on the authority of the church. The second option also did not pass, followed by a ban. And in order to ensure the economic stability of the troupe, he writes the comedy “Don Juan” in 40 days, then creates the third version of “Tartuffe”.
Moliere died practically on stage: performing as the main character of “The Imaginary Invalid” and finished the play, the pain was genuine, and after that the curtain was closed and he was transferred to his house.
They could not find a single priest for Moliere to confess, but when the priest came, Moliere had already died. Based on this, the church refused to bury him in the cemetery; he was buried in the cemetery, but not in sacred ground.

17. The work of Lope de Vega.
One of the brightest representatives of Renaissance realism of the 17th century was Lope Felix de Vega Carpio (1562–1635) - the great Spanish playwright, poet, the pinnacle of the golden age of Spanish literature.
Lope de Vega was born into a family of goldsmiths. Studied at the University of Alcalá. From the age of five he wrote poetry. At the age of 22 he became a successful playwright. His life was filled with passionate hobbies and dramatic events.
On December 29, 1587, during a performance, Lope de Vega was arrested and sent to prison. The reason for the arrest was offensive satirical poems addressed to his former lover Elena Osorio and her family, the head of which X. Velazquez was the director of Lope's first plays. By court decision, the young man was expelled from Madrid and Castile for many years. Leaving the capital, he kidnapped Doña Isabel de Urbina and married her against his father's will. At the wedding, the groom was represented by a relative, since Lope was facing the death penalty for appearing in Madrid in violation of the sentence.
On May 29, 1588, Lope de Vega volunteers on the ship San Juan and sets off on the campaign of the Invincible Armada. After many adventures and the loss of his brother, Lope returns to Spain, settles in Valencia and publishes the poem “The Beauty of Angelica” (1602).
After the death of his first wife in 1593, Lope married the daughter of a meat merchant, Juana de Guardo. During these same years, he became passionate about the actress Michaela de Lujan, whom he glorified in the image of Camilla Lucinda. For many years the poet travels after his beloved and lives where she plays.
Since 1605, Lope has served as secretary to the Duke de Sessa and writes a lot for the theater. In 1610, after the court verdict was overturned, he finally moved to Madrid.
In 1609, thanks to the participation of the Duke de Sessa, Lope de Vega received a title that protected him from church attacks - “close to the Inquisition,” that is, above suspicion. In 1614, after the death of his son and the death of his second wife, Lope accepted the priesthood, but did not change his secular principles of life. Church rank did not prevent him from experiencing once again an all-consuming feeling for Martha de Nevares. Lope did not give up his love even after Martha became blind and lost her mind.
In 1625, the Council of Castile prohibited the publication of Lope de Vega's plays. Misfortunes haunt the poet in his personal life.
In 1632, Martha de Nevares dies. In 1634, a son dies, one of the daughters, Marcela, goes to a monastery, another daughter, Antonia Clara, is kidnapped by a dissolute nobleman. Misfortunes made Lope completely lonely, but did not break his spirit or kill his interest in life. Shortly before his death, he completed the poem “The Golden Age” (1635), in which he expressed his dream while continuing to affirm the Renaissance ideal.
Lope's work is based on the ideas of Renaissance humanism and the traditions of patriarchal Spain. His legacy is great. It includes various genre forms: poems, dramas, comedies, sonnets, eclogues, parodies, prose novels. Lope de Vega owns more than 1,500 works. By name, 726 dramas and 47 autos have reached us; 470 play texts have been preserved. The writer actively developed folk motifs and themes along with the literary traditions of the Renaissance.
Lope's poems revealed his poetic skill, patriotic spirit, and desire to make a name for himself in the world of literature. He created about twenty poems on various subjects, including ancient ones. Competing with Ariosto, he developed an episode from his poem - the love story of Angelica and Medoro - in the poem “The Beauty of Angelica”; arguing with Torquatto Tasso, he wrote “Jerusalem Conquered” (ed. 1609), glorifying the exploits of the Spaniards in the struggle for the liberation of the Holy Sepulcher.
Gradually, patriotic sentiments give way to irony. In the poem “The War of the Cats” (1634), the poet, on the one hand, describing the March adventures of cats and their war for the beautiful cat, laughs at modern mores, on the other, denies artificial norms, the techniques of classical poems created according to book models.
In 1609, at the request of the Madrid Literary Academy, Lope wrote the treatise “The New Art of Composing Comedies in Our Time.” By this time, he was already the author of brilliant comedies - “The Dancing Teacher” (1594), “Toledo Night” (1605), “Dog in the Manger” (c. 1604) and others. In a poetic, half-joking treatise, Lope outlined important aesthetic principles and his views on dramaturgy, directed, on the one hand, against classicism, on the other, against the baroque.

19. Creativity of Calderon.
Calderon's dramaturgy is the baroque completion of the theatrical model created at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century by Lope de Vega. According to the list of works compiled by the author himself shortly before his death, Calderon wrote about 120 comedies and dramas, 80 autos sacramentales, 20 interludes and a considerable number of other works, including poems and poems. Although Calderon is less prolific than his predecessor, he brings to perfection the dramatic “formula” created by Lope de Vega, purifying it of lyrical and ineffective elements and turning the play into a magnificent baroque action. He, unlike Lope de Vega, is characterized by special attention to the scenographic and musical side of the performance.
There are many classifications of Calderon's plays. Most often, researchers identify the following groups:
Dramas of honor. These works are dominated by traditional Spanish Baroque themes: love, religion and honor. The conflict is associated either with a deviation from these principles, or with the tragic need to comply with them, even at the cost of human life. Although the action is often set in Spain's past, the setting and themes are close to contemporary Calderon. Examples: “Salamay alcalde”, “Physician of his honor”, “Painter of his dishonor”.
Philosophical dramas. Plays of this type touch upon fundamental questions of existence, first of all - human fate, free will, and the causes of human suffering. The action most often takes place in countries that are “exotic” for Spain (for example, Ireland, Poland, Muscovy); the historical and local flavor is emphatically conventional and is intended to emphasize their timeless issues. Examples: “Life is a Dream”, “The Magician”, “Purgatory of St. Patrick”.
Comedy of intrigue. The most “traditional” group of Calderon’s plays includes comedies, built according to the canons of Lope de Vega’s theater, with an intricate and fascinating love affair. Women most often become the initiators and most active participants in the intrigue. Comedies are characterized by the so-called “Calderon move” - objects that accidentally came to the heroes, letters that arrived by mistake, secret passages and hidden doors. Examples: “The Invisible Lady”, “In the Still Waters...”, “Aloud in Secret.”
Regardless of the genre, Calderon’s style is characterized by increased metaphor, vividly figurative poetic language, logically structured dialogues and monologues, where the character of the characters is revealed. Calderon's works are rich in reminiscences from ancient mythology and literature, Holy Scripture, and other writers of the Golden Age (for example, there are allusions to the characters and situations of Don Quixote in the text of The Lady of the Ghost and The Alcalde of Salamea). The characters of his plays simultaneously have one dominant feature (Cyprian (“The Magician”) - a thirst for knowledge, Segismundo (“Life is a Dream”) - the inability to distinguish between good and evil, Pedro Crespo (“The Alcalde of Salamea”) - the desire for justice) and complex internal device.
The last significant playwright of the Golden Age, Calderon, after a period of oblivion in the 18th century, was rediscovered in Germany. Goethe staged his plays at the Weimar theater; The influence of “The Magician” on the concept of “Faust” is noticeable. Thanks to the works of the Schlegel brothers, who were especially attracted by the philosophical and religious component of his works (“Calderon is the Catholic Shakespeare”), the Spanish playwright gained wide popularity and firmly took his place as a classic of European literature. Calderon's influence on German-language literature in the 20th century was reflected in the work of Hugo von Hofmannsthal.
20. The main motives of Burns's lyrics.
After the unification of Scotland and England, educated Scots tried to speak English. Burns came to Scottish literature when two traditions were fighting in it: imitation of English models and the desire to preserve national characteristics and the people's language. At first, Robert Burns tried to write his “serious” poems in English and only in songs and humorous messages to friends does he allow himself to speak Scots. But reading Ferguson, he saw that he wrote sonorous, light and melodious poetry in the “Scottish dialect”, wrote simply, clearly and at the same time elegantly, with cheerful invention. All poems, all songs and letters of Burns talk about love as the highest happiness available to a mortal. In tender lyrical lines, in the bitter complaints of an abandoned girl, in indignant rebuke to virtuous bigots and uncontrollably frank free songs, the mighty indomitable power of passion, the voice of blood, the immutable law of life are sung everywhere. Burns hates corrupt, selfish, feigned love.
Burns discovered the incomprehensible art of making poetry from the most ordinary, everyday situations, from the most “coarse,” “unpoetic” words that were resolutely rejected by classicist poets. , as “base”, “plebeian”. Burns made his muse speak the language of peasants and artisans. With his powerful, truly folk poetry, Burns created a new readership. This largely determined the future fate of not only Scottish, but also English literature. The romantics who came to the literary arena in the mid-90s relied on the circle of readers from the lower classes that Burns’s poetry created.
The origins of Burns's poetry are folk, his lyrics are a direct development of folk song. In his poems he reflected the life of the people, their sorrows and joys. The work of the farmer and his independent character. But for all the inextricable connection between Burns's poetry and folk songs and legends, it cannot be denied that his predecessors, the sentimentalists, influenced his formation. But having reached creative maturity, Burns rejected the sluggish writing style of his predecessors and even parodied their favorite “graveyard” poems. In "An Elegy on the Death of My Sheep, Which Was Called Meili," Burns comically lamented and "sang" the virtues of the sheep in a manner no less touchingly sublime than the sentimentalists did. With such parodies, Burns seems to explode from the inside the genre of elegy, beloved by poets. Burns combines the affirmation of the human dignity of the worker with a condemnation of the lords and the bourgeoisie. Even in love lyrics, the poet’s critical attitude towards representatives of the propertied classes is noticeable:

People are not recognized as people
The owners of the chambers.
The destiny of some is hard work
The lot of others is debauchery.
In idleness,
Hungover
They spend their days.
Not to the Garden of Eden,
Not in fucking hell
They don't believe. ("Is it really, Davy, you and I...")
But most of Burns' heroes and heroines are brave and courageous. People who are faithful in love and friendship. His heroines often go “to storm their own destiny”, courageously fighting for happiness, against the patriarchal way of life. Girls choose a husband after their heart, against the will of their harsh parents:

With such a fellow I don’t need
Fear the fate of change.
I will be happy with poverty too
If only Tam Glen were with me...
My mother said to me angrily:
- Beware of men's betrayals,
Quickly refuse the rake
But will Tam Glen change? ("Tam Glen")
Images of Scottish patriots - Bruce, Wallace, Macpherson - created
Burns laid the foundation for the appearance of a whole gallery of portraits of people's leaders, people from the lower classes. Gradually, the poet came to the conviction that if the social system of the British Empire was unjust and criminal, then there was no shame in contradicting a judge or constable; on the contrary, the fellows who take up the fight against the royal law are no less worthy of glory. Than Robin Hood. Thus, the theme of national independence merged in Burns’s work with a protest against national injustice.

21. The works of Grimmelshausen.
The largest representative of the democratic line of the novel was Hans Jakob Christoph Grimmelshausen (c. 1622-1676). All of Grimmelshausen's works were published under various pseudonyms, usually anagrams of the writer's name. Only in the 19th century. as a result of a long search, it was possible to establish the name of the author of “Simplicissimus” and some data on his biography. Grimmelshausen was born in the imperial city of Helnhausen in Hesse, into the family of a wealthy burgher. As a teenager, he was drawn into the whirlpool of the Thirty Years' War. He traveled along military roads throughout almost all of Germany, finding himself in one or another warring camp, and was a groom, a baggage handler, a musketeer, and a clerk. He ended the war as secretary of the regimental chancellery, then often changed occupations: he was now a tax and tax collector, now an innkeeper, now an estate manager. From 1667 until the end of his life, he held the position of mayor of the small Rhine town of Renchen, near Strasbourg, where almost all of his works were created.
During his travels, the writer accumulated not only a wealth of life experience, but also solid erudition. The number of books he read, which were reflected in his novels, is large in volume and variety. In 1668, the novel “The Intricate Simplicius Simplicissimus” was published, immediately followed by several of its sequels and other “Simplician” works: “Simplicius in defiance, or a lengthy and outlandish biography of the hardened deceiver and tramp Courage”, “Springinsfeld”, “The Magic Bird” nest", "Simplician perpetual calendar" and others. Grimmelshausen also wrote pastoral and “historical” novels (“Chaste Joseph”, “Dietwald and Amelinda”).
Grimmelshausen, like no other German writer of the 17th century, was associated with the life and fate of the German people and was an exponent of the true national worldview. The writer’s worldview absorbed various philosophical elements of the era, which he drew both from “book” scholarship and from mystical teachings that spread throughout Germany and determined the mentality of broad sections of the people.
Grimmelshausen's work represents an artistic synthesis of the entire previous development of German narrative prose and various foreign literary influences, primarily the Spanish picaresque novel. Grimmelshausen's novels are a striking example of the originality of the German Baroque.
The pinnacle of Grimmelshausen's work is the novel Simplicissimus.

List of questions for testing « Foreign literature XVII-XVIII centuries."

1. XVII century in world literary development.

2. Baroque (general characteristics of direction, method, style).

3. Classicism (general characteristics of direction, method, style).

4. Spanish literature of the 17th century and its representatives.

5. Creativity of Calderon. “Life is a Dream” by Calderon (analysis of the work).

6. French literature of the 17th century. Development of the theory of classicism from Malherbe to Boileau.

7. Creativity of Corneille. “Cid” by Corneille (analysis of the work).

10. The works of Racine. Phaedra (analysis of the work).

11. Moliere's role in transforming the comedy genre.

12. “Tartuffe” by Moliere (analysis of the work).

13. “The Misanthrope” by Moliere (analysis of the work).

14. Prose of French classicism. "Fairy Tales" by Perrault.

15. Italian comedy. Goldoni and Gozzi.

16. English literature of the 17th century. Lyrics by Donna.

17. Milton's "Paradise Lost" (general characteristics of the work).

18. General characteristics of the literature of the Enlightenment in the context of European culture of the 18th century.

19. Defoe's works. "Robinson Crusoe" by Defoe (analysis of volume 1).

20. Swift's work. "Gulliver's Travels" (analysis of the work).

21. “The School of Scandal” by Sheridan (analysis of the work).

22. Burns lyrics.

23. Voltaire's works. “Candide” by Voltaire (analysis of the work).

24. Creativity of Diderot. Analysis of one of Diderot's works.

25. The work of Rousseau. Analysis of one of the works.

26. “The Marriage of Figaro” by Beaumarchais (analysis of the work).

27. Wieland's work. Satire.

28. Literature of Sturm and Drang. Goethe's work. Lyrics.

29. “The Sorrows of Young Werther” by Goethe (analysis of the work).

30. “Faust” by Goethe (analysis of the work)

31. Schiller's work. Analysis of one of Schiller's works.

32. Pre-Romanticism in foreign literature of the 18th century. English School. From sentimentalism to pre-romanticism (review).

List of required readings for the discipline

“History of foreign literature of the 17th - 18th centuries.”

1. Lope de Vega F. Dog in the manger. Sheep Spring (Fuente Ovejuna). Dance teacher.

2. Tirso de Molina.Pious Martha. The Mischief of Seville, or Don Juan.

3. Calderon P.Life is a dream.

4. Kornel P.Sid. Horace.

5. Racine J. Andromache. Phaedra. Britannic.

6. Moliere J.-B.Misanthrope. Tartuffe . Stingy. Don Juan. A tradesman among the nobility.

7. Donn D. Poems.

8. Thomson D. Seasons.

9. Milton D. Lost heaven. Paradise returned.

10. Defoe D. Robinson Crusoe(volume 1).

11. Swift D. Gulliver's Travels (adult version).

10. Fielding G. The story of Tom Jones, a foundling.

11. Sheridan R.B. School of slander.

12. Stern L. Sentimental Journey . The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy.

13. Burns R. Lyrics.

14. Montesquieu Sh. Persian letters.

15. Voltaire F.-M. Simple-minded. Candide. Virgin of Orleans.

16. Diderot D. Nephew of Ramo. Nun. Jacques the fatalist.

17. Rousseau J.-J. Julia, or New Heloise (separate parts). Emil. Confession. Pygmalion.

18. Beaumarchais P.The Barber of Seville. Marriage of Figaro .

19. Lesage.The Adventures of Gil Blas of Santillana .

20. Lafayette. Princess of Cleves.

21. Lafontaine.

18. Fables. Fairy tales.

19. Lessing G.-E. Emilia Galotti. Laocoon (preface). Goethe I.-V . Lyrics.. The Sorrows of Young Werther

20. Faust. Schiller F. Deceit and love . Robbers. Mary Stuart.

Don Carlos.

22. 21. Gray T. Elegies.

23. Wieland. History of the Abderites. Oberon.

Goldoni K. The hostess of the hotel, or the innkeeper.

24. Gozzi K. Princess Turandot.

25. Perrault S. Fairy tales.

26. Choderlos de Laclos. Dangerous ties.

28. 27. Prevost A. History of the Chevalier des Grieux and Manon Lescaut.

29. Austin D. Pride and Prejudice. Sense and Sensibility, or Reason and Sensibility. Arguments of reason. Emma.

Walpole G. Castle of Otranto.

30. Radcliffe A. Udolf secrets.

Note. Required literature is highlighted in bold. Students must observe proportionality in the selection of works from the list, taking into account national schools and genres.

Required literature is highlighted in bold. Regular - extra (bonus points for reading).

1) The list of reading texts consists of mandatory and optional. All works read must be recorded in the “Reader’s Diary” (a separate notebook) in the following form:

imprint of the book (indicating the translation);

3) 2) method;

4) genre of a work of art;

5) main storylines;

system of images, names.

Each module contains lists of articles to take notes on. Notes must be written in a separate notebook.

KOZLOVA G.A.

FOREIGN LITERATURE 17-18 centuries. 2 COURSE, OZO

Requirements for credit.
Boileau. Poetic art.
P. Corneille. Sid.
J. Racine. Phaedra.
D. Milton. Lost heaven.
D. Donn. Lyrics.
D. Defoe. Robinson Crusoe.
R. Burns. Lyrics.
Voltaire. Candide.
Schiller. Robbers.

Goethe. Faust.

Main literature

1. Artamonov, S. D. History of foreign literature of the 17th-18th centuries: textbook / S. D. Artamonov. – M.: Education, 1978 / (reprint 2005)

2. Zhirmunskaya N. A. History of foreign literature of the 17th century: textbook / N. A. Zhirmunskaya. – M.: Higher. school, 2007.

3. Erofeeva N. E. Foreign literature. 17th century – M., 2005.

4.Erofeeva N.E. Foreign literature. 18 century. Textbook. – M., 2005

5. History of foreign literature: textbook. – M.: MSU, 2008

7. History of foreign literature of the 18th century / Ed. L.V.Sidorchenko. - M., 2009.

8. History of foreign literature of the 17th-18th centuries: Textbook for students of pedagogical institutes. M.: Education, 1988.

9. Pakhsaryan N.T. History of foreign literature of the 17th-18th centuries. Educational and methodological manual. - M.: 19969.

10. Samarin R. M. Foreign literature. – M., 1987.

11. Solovyova N. A. History of foreign literature: Pre-romanticism. – M., 2005.

additional literature

1. Atarova, K. N. Lawrence Stern and his “Sentimental Journey through

France and Italy” / K. N. Atarova. - M., 1988.

2. Balashov, N. I. Pierre Corneille / N. I. Balashov. - M., 1956.

3. Barth, R. Rasinovsky man / R. Barth // Barth R. Selected works

Semiotics. Poetics. - M., 1989.

4. Bordonov, J. Moliere / J. Bordonov. - M., 1983.

5. Vertsman, I. E. Jean-Jacques Rousseau / I. E. Vertsman. – M., 1958.

6. Vipper, Yu. B. Creative destinies and history (On Western European

Literatures of the 16th - first half of the 19th centuries) / Yu. B. Vipper. - M., 1990.

7. Volkov, I. F. “Faust” by Goethe and the problem of artistic method / I. F. Volkov. - M., 1970.

8. XVII century in world literary development / Ed. Yu. B. Vipper.

9. Ganin, V. N. Poetics of pastoral: The evolution of English pastoral

poetry of the 16th-18th centuries / V. N. Ganin. - Oxford, 1998.

10. Grandel, F. Beaumarchais / F. Grandel. - M., 1979.

11. De Sanctis, F. History of Italian literature. In 2 vols. / Ed.

D. E. Mikhalchi. - M., 1963-1964.

12. Dlugach, T. B. Denis Diderot / T. B. Dlugach. - M., 1975.

13. Dubashinsky, I. A. “Gulliver’s Travels” by Jonathan Swift / I. A. Dubashinsky. - M., 1969.

14. Elistratova, A. A. English novel of the Enlightenment / A. A. Elistratova. - M., 1966.

15. Ermolenko, G. N. French comic poem of the 17th-18th centuries. / G. N.

Ermolenko. - Smolensk, 1998.

16. Zhirmunsky, V. M. Essays on the history of classical German literature / V. M. Zhirmunsky. - L., 1972.

Foreign literature: Renaissance. Baroque. Classicism. – M, 1998

17. History of English literature. In 3 volumes - M., 1943 - 1945. - T. 1

18. History of Western European theater. In 8 volumes. T. 1. / Under general. ed. S.S.

Mokulsky. - M., 1956.

19. History of foreign literature of the 18th century / Ed. A.P.

Neustroeva, R. M. Samarina. - M., 1974.

20. History of foreign literature of the 17th century / Ed. Z. I. Plavskina. - M., 1987.

2
13
1. History of foreign literature of the 18th century / Ed. Z. I. Plavskina.

22. History of German literature. In 5 volumes. T.1 - M., 1962.

23. History of French literature. In 4 volumes. T. 1. - M., 1946.

24. History of aesthetics: Monuments of aesthetic thought: In 5 volumes. T. 2. - M., 1964.

25. Kadyshev, B.S. Racine / V. S. Kadyshev. - M., 1990.

26. Kettle, A. Introduction to the history of the English novel / A. Kettle. - M., 1966.

27. Kirnoze, Z. I. Workshop on the history of French literature / Z. I. Kirnoze, V. N. Pronin. - M., 1991.

28. Conradi, K. O. Goethe: Life and Creativity. In 2 volumes / K. O. Conradi. - M., 1987.

29. Lukov, V. A. History of foreign literature: XVII-XVIII centuries. At 2 o'clock / V. A. Lukov. - M., 2000.

30. Lukov, V. A. French drama (pre-romanticism, romantic movement) / V. A. Lukov. - M., 1984.

31. Maurois, A. From Montaigne to Aragon / A. Maurois. - M., 1983.

32. Multatuli, V. M. Moliere / V. M. Multatuli. 2nd ed. - M., 1988.

33. Muravyov, B.C. Travel with Gulliver / V. S. Muravyov. - M., 1972. 34. Oblomievsky, D. D. French classicism / D. D. Oblomievsky. - M., 1968.

35. Plavskin, Z. I. Spanish literature of the 17th-19th centuries / Z. I. Plavskin. - M., 1978.

36. Practical lessons in foreign literature / Ed. N. P. Michalskaya, B. I. Purisheva. - M., 1981.

37. Problems of Enlightenment in world literature / Rep. ed. S. V. Turaev. - M., 1970.

38. Purishev, B. I. Essays on German literature of the 15th-17th centuries. / B.I. Purishev. - M., 1955.

39. Razumovskaya, M. V. The formation of a new novel in France and the ban on the novel in the 1730s / M. V. Razumovskaya. - L., 1981.

40. Sidorchenko, L. V. Alexander Pope and artistic quests in English literature of the first quarter of the 18th century / L. V. Sidorchenko. - St. Petersburg, 1992.

41. Svasyan, K. A. Johann Wolfgang Goethe / K. A. Svasyan. - M., 1989.

42. Chameev, A. A. John Milton and his poem “Paradise Lost” / A. A. M. A. M. A. M. A. Chameev. - L., 1986.

43. Chernozemova, E. N. History of English literature: Plans. Developments. Materials. Assignments / E. N. Chernozemova. - M., 1998.

44. Shaitanov, I. O. Thinking muse: “Discovery of nature” in poetry of the 18th century / I. O. Shaitanov. - M., 1989.

45. Schiller, F. P. History of Western European literature of modern times. In 3 volumes. T. 1. / F. P. Schiller. - M., 1935.

46. Stein, A. L. Literature of the Spanish Baroque / A. L. Stein. - M., 1983.

47. Stein, A. L. History of Spanish literature / A. L. Stein. - M., 1994.

48. Stein, A. L. History of German literature: Part 1. / A. L. Stein. - M., 1999

49. Stein, A. L. History of French literature / A. L. Stein, M. N. Chernevich, M. A. Yakhontova. - M., 1988.

Readers

1. Artamonov, S. D. Foreign literature of the 17-18 centuries: anthology; textbook / S. D. Artamonov. – M.: Education, 1982.

2. Purishev, B. I. Reader on foreign literature of the 18th century: textbook / B. I. Purishev. – M.: Higher. school, 1973 / (reprint 1998)

3. Foreign literature of the 18th century: anthology: a textbook for universities in 2 volumes / Ed. B. I. Purisheva - M.: Higher School, 1988. PLANS AND CONTENTS PRACTICAL LESSONS

Topic No. 1.Theater of French classicism. Corneille. Racine. Moliere.

Aesthetic principles of 17th century classicism. “Eternal images” and “eternal plots”.

Aristotle's development of the aesthetic principles of classicism in Poetics.
The philosophy of rationalism and classicism of the 17th century. Descartes, Bacon.
“Poetic art” by N. Boileau and the aesthetics of classicism of the 17th century.

The high tragedy of the theater of French classicism.

Reflection of the dramatic principles of P. Corneille in the tragedy “The Cid”. Images of tragedy.
Aesthetic views of J. Racine. Ancient Greek myths in the tragedies of Racine (“Andromache”, “Phaedra”).

High comedy of classicism.

Moliere's aesthetic views. “Eternal plots in Moliere’s comedies.
Problems of Molière's comedy "The Bourgeois in the Nobility". Comedy images.
Problems of studying Moliere's work at school.

The problem of studying classicism at school. Russian criticism and Russian writers about classicism, classics and classicists (Pushkin and others)

Forms and methods of conducting classes, types of educational activities of students:

- interview on the topic of the lesson;

- answers on questions;

Listening to reports on the topics “Russian literature about French classicism”, “Problems of studying Moliere’s work at school” and discussing them.

1. Carefully read the lecture material and textbooks on a given topic.

2. Answer the questions in the plan.

3. Make presentations.

Literature

Boileau N. Poetic art. – M., 2005.
History of foreign literature of the 17th century. / ed. M.V. Razumovskaya. – M.: Higher School, 2001.
Lukov V.A. History of literature. Foreign literature from its origins to the present day. – M.: Academia, 2009.
Mikhailov A.V., Shestopalov D.P. Tragedy // Brief literary encyclopedia. – M., 1972. – T. 7. – P. 588-593.
Nikolyukin A.N. Literary encyclopedia of terms and concepts. – M.: NPK Intelvac, 2001.

Tasks for SRS. Prepare critical material on the topic of the lesson. Read works of art by Moliere, Corneille, Racine...

Subjects of reports, abstracts.

1. Bourgeois revolution and literature.

2. The influence of the ideas of Puritanism on the literature of the 17th-18th centuries.

3. Philosophy of the 17th-18th centuries and literature.

4. Russian writers about Western European literature of the 17th century.

5. Western European Enlightenment and Russian literature.

6. Western European poetry of the 17th century. in the context of Christian thought.

7. Creativity of writers (poets) of the 17th-18th centuries. in the context of Christian thought.

8. Western European lyrics of the 17th-18th centuries. in the context of Christian thought

Interim certification in the discipline – test .

FOREIGN LITERATURE 17-18 centuries. 2 COURSE, OZO Availability of notes, quality of homework, knowledge literary texts, performing tests and tests, mastery of skills reasoned speech and work with primary sources, Internet resources.

Literary texts for mandatory use(2nd year OZO, 4th semester. 3rd year ZSVL, 5th semester).

Baroque lyric. Marino. Gongora.
Lope de Vega. Sheep source.
P. Calderon. Worship of the cross. Life is a dream.
Requirements for credit.
Boileau. Poetic art.
P. Corneille. Sid.
J. B. Moliere. Tartuffe. A tradesman among the nobility.
J. Racine. Phaedra.
D. Milton. Lost heaven.
D. Donn. Lyrics.
D. Swift. Gulliver's travels.
G. Fielding. The Story of Tom Jones, Foundling" (excerpts).
D. Defoe. Robinson Crusoe.
D. Diderot. The paradox about the actor. Nephew of Ramo.
R. Burns. Lyrics.
Rousseau. New Eloise. Confession.
Voltaire. Candide.
Schiller. Robbers.

General characteristics of foreign literature of the 17th century.
Puritanism and its influence on literature.
The English bourgeois revolution and the world literary process.
General characteristics of literary trends of the 17th century.
General characteristics of literature of the 18th century. The concept of Enlightenment.
Aesthetic program of the Enlighteners. Theories of “natural law”, “natural man”, “social contract”.
17th century philosophy and literature. V. Kozhinov on the influence of Western European philosophy on literature. Descartes, Bacon.
18th century philosophy and literature. Hobbes, Locke, Hume.
General characteristics of Baroque literature. Baroque in architecture. Representatives.
General characteristics of the literature of classicism. Architecture, painting. Representatives.
The dramaturgy of Lope de Vega as a reflection of a new period in the development of theater. Problems of the drama "Sheep Spring".
Comedies "cloak and sword" by Lope de Vega.
Baroque in the poetry of Italy and Spain. Marinism, Gongorism.
Poetry of the Spanish Baroque. Luis de Gongora. Francisco de Quevedo.
Aesthetics of Calderon. Turgenev about Calderon. Christian motives of the drama “Worship of the Cross”.
Problems of Calderon's drama “Life is a Dream”. Christian-philosophical context of drama. Images of drama.
English literature of the 17th century and the English bourgeois revolution. Puritanism and English literature.
Poetry of metaphysicians. Creativity of D. Donne.
Milton and the English bourgeois revolution. Milton's aesthetics in the poem "Paradise Lost".
Features of the biblical plot in Milton's poem "Paradise Lost". Images of the poem.
General characteristics of German literature of the 17th century.
Artistic features of Grimmelshausen's novel “Simplicius Simplicissimus”.
Traditions of Aristotle's Poetics. “Poetic art” of Boileau and the demands of classicism.
Development of the aesthetics of classic theater in the works of P. Corneille. The conflict of duty and passion in the tragedy "Sid".
Racine and the traditions of ancient tragedy. Euripides and Racine. Problems of Racine's tragedy "Phaedra".
Features of the “high” comedy of classicism. Moliere on the aesthetics of comedy.
Themes and problems of Moliere's comedies "Tartuffe", "Don Juan", "The Misanthrope".
Problematics of the comedy "The Bourgeois in the Nobility". Specifics of studying Moliere at school.
“Eternal plots” and “eternal images” in Moliere’s comedies.
Features of the literature of the English Enlightenment and its theory of the novel. Problems of the novel “The Story of Tom Jones, Foundling”.
English drama of the 18th century. Sheridan's School of Scandal.
The work ethic of the Puritans and the problems of Defoe’s novel “Robinson Crusoe”. Problems of studying Defoe's work at school.
Swift and the English Enlightenment. Problems of the novel "Gulliver's Travels". Studying the novel at school.
English sentimentalism. Stern, Smollett, R. Burns. Problems of studying Burns's lyrics at school.
Stern's book "A Sentimental Journey".
Literature of the French Enlightenment. Voltaire's aesthetic views. Problems of philosophical stories.
Features of Diderot's aesthetics. Problems of the philosophical story “Ramo’s Nephew.”
Social, political and philosophical views of Rousseau. Artistic features of "Confession".
Rousseau and sentimentalism. General characteristics of sentimentalism.
Problems of Rousseau's novel “The New Heloise”.
Artistic features of Beaumarchais' comedies "The Barber of Seville" and "The Marriage of Figaro".
Features of the development of the German Enlightenment. Literature of Sturm and Drang.
Weimar classicism": aesthetic characteristics, rethinking the heritage of antiquity.
Lessing's treatise "Laocoon" and its influence on the aesthetics of the Enlightenment.
Problems of Schiller's drama "The Robbers". Studying Schiller's work at school.
Philosophical views of Goethe. Goethe and Russian literature. Studying Goethe's works at school.
German sentimentalism. Goethe "The Sorrows of Young Werther".

Guidelines for SRS

Students’ independent work depends on whether it is related to the problems included in the lecture course, or whether the topics are included only in the SRS. The lecture greatly facilitates the work of students and the first stage of the SRS will be the study of the lecture materials and textbooks.

If lectures on SRS material are not provided for in the curriculum, then the student relies on the material from textbooks, scientific and practical literature and literary texts.

Important in both cases is bibliographic work. The teacher provides the necessary sources at the lecture, or indicates in the list of scientific and practical literature available in the methodological plans for the courses. Particular attention should be paid to working with terms, in which the student must use not only comments, but also reference literature: “Concise Literary Encyclopedia” , “Dictionary of Literary Terms”, “Poetic Dictionary”, “Philosophical Encyclopedia”. Basic terms are written down and applied during the analysis of works.

The bibliographic culture of the student is evidenced by both the time the work appeared and the contradiction between the critic’s position and his own opinion.

A useful form is to compile chronological tables, for example, tables of the dates of the writer’s life and work.

Note taking– an important element of working on a theoretical and critical text. Notes are checked periodically.

The abstract should consist of a plan for the work studied and a brief summary. The abstract should contain several quotes that formulate the main provisions of the work and their proof.

When reading works of fiction, notes should also be taken.

In preparation for the lesson, the student must draw up response plan to the questions posed by the teacher, write down the argumentation of the answers, clarify the terminology with which he intends to operate.

The teacher must also give students the right to act independently. The student is obliged to independently fill the gap that is not filled by the lecture material.

Forms of SRS include drawing up a lesson plan, an elective lesson in accordance with the requirements of school methodology. Reports and abstracts can be prepared, which can be read at practical classes, clubs, scientific conferences, and problem group meetings. Certain topics can be used in coursework and thesis. Abstracts or articles written by students may be published. Similar scientific student work can be intermediate control and influences intermediate final certification.

Personalization is an important principle of SRS

Transcript

1 Abstract The publication, intended for philology students and written in the form of lectures, provides a description of the conditions for the formation of European literature in the 17th and 18th centuries, an analysis of the work of outstanding writers, whose works reflected the characteristic features of the artistic systems of that time: Renaissance realism, baroque, classicism, enlightenment classicism, educational realism, sentimentalism. After each topic, a list of references is provided, which greatly facilitates student orientation within the course.

2 Veraksich I.Yu. History of foreign literature of the 17th and 18th centuries Course of lectures

3 Preface The course “History of Foreign Literature of the 17th-18th Centuries” is an integral part of the university course “History of Foreign Literature”. The manual, written in the form of lectures, is designed to help students master difficult but interesting material and prepare them to perceive the literature of the 17th and 18th centuries. All material is arranged in such a way that students ultimately have a holistic understanding of the features of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. Foreign literature of the 17th century has long been viewed as a phenomenon that predates the Age of Enlightenment. However, research in recent decades has shown that it has its own distinctive features, including stylistic ones. It was the 17th century that for a long time determined the development of the main artistic systems of that time: classicism, baroque, and Renaissance realism. The Enlightenmentists largely relied on the experience of their predecessors in developing epic concepts (honor, reason, the relationship between honor and duty, etc.). The artistic systems of the 18th century (Enlightenment classicism, Enlightenment realism, sentimentalism) are examined in detail. Complex theoretical material is supplemented by an analysis of the works of the most prominent representatives of a particular artistic system. At the same time, the well-known concepts of literary scholars presented in textbooks, teaching aids on the history of literature and reference books are taken into account, which greatly facilitates the orientation of students within this course. The number of hours allocated by the curriculum for studying the course “History of Foreign Literature of the 17th-18th Centuries” is, unfortunately, small, therefore this manual provides a system of basic knowledge necessary for students. After each topic, students are offered a list of literature, the study of which will allow them to summarize the knowledge gained in lectures, as well as during independent work on the subject.

4 Contents Lecture 1. General characteristics of the literary process of the 17th century. The works of Lope de Vega. Lecture 2. Spanish Baroque literature of the 17th century. Lecture 3. German literature of the 17th century. Lecture 4. French classicism (Cornel, Racine, Moliere). Lecture 5. The Age of Enlightenment. General characteristics of the English Enlightenment. Lecture 6. English Enlightenment. D. Swift. R. Burns. Lecture 7. German Enlightenment. Lessing's aesthetic program. Lecture 8. Goethe's work. Lecture 9. French Enlightenment. Voltaire. J.-J. Rousseau. Lecture 10. The work of Beaumarchais.

5 Lecture 1 General characteristics of the literary process of the 17th century. Creativity of Lope de Vega Plan 1. Features of the development of the literary process of the 17th century. 2. Leading literary movements of the 17th century: a) classicism; b) baroque; c) Renaissance realism. 3. The work of Lope de Vega: a) a brief overview of the life and creative path of the playwright; b) the ideological and artistic originality of the drama “Fuente Ovejuna”; c) the ideological and artistic originality of the drama “Star of Seville”. 1. Features of the development of the literary process of the 17th century Literary eras are difficult to fit into the strict framework of the calendar. When speaking about literature of the 18th century, we mean primarily the era of Enlightenment. Is there such ideological and aesthetic content in the concept of “foreign literature of the 17th century”? There is no consensus on this issue both in domestic science and abroad. Many literary scholars answer this question in the negative and put forward many arguments that sound very convincing. Anyone who turns to the study of this era is struck first of all by the variety of economic, social, political and cultural processes that took place at that time in different European countries. In the economies of England and the Netherlands, bourgeois relations became predominant in the 17th century; in France, capitalist orders triumphed in industry, trade and banking, but in agriculture the feudal structure remained quite strong; in Spain, Italy, Germany, bourgeois relations were barely visible, taking the form of usury. Equally obvious are the contrasts in the balance of social forces. At the beginning of the 17th century, the bourgeois revolution in the Netherlands ended, which merged with the national liberation struggle against Spanish rule and led to the emergence of the bourgeois state of Holland. A bourgeois revolution took place in England. However, in Italy, Spain and Germany, feudal forces are trying to consolidate their power.

6 An equally motley picture of the political life of Western Europe. In the 17th century, the dominant form of state was absolutism. It is no coincidence that the century under review is called the century of absolutism. However, the forms of the absolutist system were varied in European countries. The 17th century was an era of continuous wars in Europe, ongoing colonial conquests in the New World, Asia and Africa. At the same time, the old colonial countries of Spain and Portugal are gradually being pushed into the background by the young states of Holland and England. With such diversity of economic, political and social relations in European countries, it would seem impossible to talk about any unity of Western European culture in the 17th century. And yet we will refer to the point of view of S.D. Artamonova, Z.T. Civil, who consider this era as an independent stage in the history of foreign literature, since through the variety of specific forms of historical and cultural development of individual countries, features of the typological community of social, political and cultural processes of this era are visible. So, the 17th century is an independent period in the transitional era from feudalism to capitalism, which lies between the Renaissance and the Enlightenment. This is an eventful period of history, marked by extremely intense class struggle and characterized by the growing development of nature. Two groups enter the political arena: the Protestant Union (France, the Netherlands, England, Denmark, Sweden founded in 1607) and the Catholic League (Austria, Spain, Vatican founded in 1609). The rivalry between these two political camps led to the 30 Years' War, a key event in the 17th century. The war began in 1618 and was characterized by a struggle between the early bourgeois order established in the Netherlands as a result of the liberation movement, and a particular reactionary form of the late feudal order. On the other hand, an armed conflict arose between feudal countries with different levels of development. The war ended with the conclusion of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, the final recognition of the States General (the Netherlands) and the English bourgeois revolution of 1649. This is how the first bourgeois national states arose and the dominance of reactionary Spain was broken. Thus, we see that the main thing that characterizes the history of Europe in the 17th century is the transition, the crisis of the era. Age-old foundations are crumbling; feudal orders still retain dominance, but in the depths of feudalism, acute contradictions are revealed that foreshadow the collapse of the old system.

7 This period began with the previous era. The Renaissance worldview is being replaced by a new one. Shifts in the field of science also contributed to its formation. The first scientific communities and academies emerged in Europe, and the publication of scientific journals began. The scholastic science of the Middle Ages gives way to the experimental method. Mathematics became the leading field of science in the 17th century. In these historical conditions, as well as under the influence of the partly continuing tradition of the Renaissance, concepts for comprehending reality were developed, which were based on opposing views on the world and the purpose of man. These processes could not help but be reflected in the sphere of literary creativity and in the development of philosophical thought of the era. While writers, on the one hand, advocated the liberation of the individual, on the other, they observed a gradual return to the old social order, which, instead of the old personal subordination, established a new form of human dependence on a material and ideological basis. This new thing gave rise to faith in fate. What was new in the concept of man put forward by the literature of this period was the understanding of responsibility for one’s actions and deeds, regardless of the political and religious relations by which he was constrained. The question of man's relationship to God occupied a decisive place in the thinking of the 17th century. God represented a higher order, harmony, which was taken as a model for the chaotic earthly structure. Involvement in God was supposed to help a person withstand the trials of life. 2. Leading literary movements of the 17th century The aggravation of the political and ideological struggle was reflected in the formation and confrontation of the two artistic systems of Baroque and Classicism. Usually, when characterizing these systems, attention is focused on their differences. Their dissimilarity is undeniable, but it is also undeniable that these two systems have typologically common features: 1) artistic systems arose as an awareness of the crisis of Renaissance ideals; 2) representatives of Baroque and Classicism rejected the idea of harmony underlying the humanistic Renaissance concept: instead of harmony between man and society, the art of the 17th century reveals a complex interaction between the individual and the environment; Instead of harmony between reason and feeling, the idea of subordinating passions to reason is put forward.

8 A. Classicism Classicism of the 17th century became a unique reflection of post-Renaissance humanism. Classicists are characterized by the desire to explore the individual in its connections with the world. Classicism as an artistic system combines an orientation towards antiquity with a deep penetration into the inner world of characters. The struggle between feeling and duty is the main conflict of classicism. Through his prism, writers tried to resolve many contradictions of reality. Classicism from lat. classicus, first-class, exemplary, originated in Italy in the 16th century in university circles as a practice of imitating antiquity. Humanist scientists tried to contrast the high optimistic art of the ancients with the feudal world. They sought to revive ancient drama and tried to derive general rules from the works of ancient masters, on the basis of which ancient Greek plays were allegedly built. In fact, ancient literature did not have any rules, but humanists did not understand that art from one era cannot be “transplanted” into another. After all, any work arises not on the basis of certain rules, but on the basis of specific conditions of social development. In France of the 17th century, classicism not only developed rapidly, found its methodological justification in philosophy, but also became an official literary movement for the first time in history. This was facilitated by the policy of the French court. French absolutism (a transitional form of state, when the weakened aristocracy and the bourgeoisie, which had not yet gained strength, were equally interested in the unlimited power of the king) sought to restore order in all areas of life and establish the principles of civil discipline. Classicism with its strict system of rules was convenient for absolutism. It allowed royal power to intervene in the artistic sphere of public life and control the creative process. It was for such control that the famous Academy of Resiliers was created in the 40s of the 17th century. The philosophy of Rene Descartes (), which argued that man, and not God, is the measure of all things, largely opposed the Catholic reaction of that time. Instead of affirming asceticism and obedience, Descartes proclaims “Cogito, ergo sum” “I think, therefore I am.” The proclamation of human reason was objectively anti-clerical in nature. This is precisely what attracted theorists of the aesthetics of classicism to the teachings of the French thinker. The philosophy of rationalism predetermined the nature of the classicists' ideas about the ideal and the positive hero. The classicists saw the purpose of art in the knowledge of truth, which acted as the ideal of beauty. They put forward a method for achieving it, based on three central categories of their

9 aesthetics: reason, model, taste. All these categories were considered objective criteria of artistry. From the point of view of classicists, great works are the fruit not of talent, not of inspiration, not of artistic imagination, but of persistent adherence to the dictates of reason, the study of classical works of antiquity and knowledge of the rules of taste. The classicists believed that a worthy example is only that person who can subordinate his feelings and passions to reason. That is why the positive hero of classic literature has always been considered a person capable of sacrificing his feelings for the sake of reason. This, in their opinion, is Sid, a character in Corneille’s play of the same name. Rationalistic philosophy also predetermined the content of the artistic system of classicism, which is based on the artistic method as a system of principles with the help of which the artistic development of reality in all its diversity occurs. The principle of hierarchy (i.e., subordination) of genres appears, asserting their inequality. This principle was in good agreement with the ideology of absolutism, which likened society to a pyramid, at the top of which stands the king, as well as with the philosophy of rationalism, which required clarity, simplicity, and a systematic approach to any phenomenon. According to the principle of hierarchy, there are “high” and “low” genres. “High” genres (tragedy, ode) were assigned a national theme; they could only tell stories about kings, generals, and the highest nobility. The language of these works was of an upbeat, solemn character (“high calm”). In “low” genres (comedy, fable, satire) it was possible to touch only on private problems or abstract vices (stinginess, hypocrisy, vanity, etc.), acting as absolutized private traits of human character. Heroes in “low” genres could be representatives of the lower classes of society. The removal of noble persons was allowed only in exceptional cases. In the language of such works, rudeness, ambiguous allusions, and play on words (“low calm”) were allowed. The use of the words “high calm” here was, as a rule, of a parodic nature. In accordance with the principles of rationalism, classicists put forward a demand for purity of genres. Mixed genres, such as tragicomedy, are being squeezed out. This deals a blow to the ability of a particular genre to comprehensively reflect reality. From now on, only the entire system of genres is capable of expressing the diversity of life. In other words, in classicism the richness and complexity of reality is revealed not through genre, but through method.

10 By the middle of the 17th century, the opinion had become established that the most important literary genre was tragedy (a palace in architecture, a ceremonial portrait in painting). In this genre, the laws were the most stringent. The plot (historical or legendary, but plausible) should reproduce ancient times, the life of distant states. It should be guessed from the title, just like the idea from the first lines. The fame of the plot opposed the cult of intrigue. It was required to establish the logic of life, in which regularity triumphed over chance. The principle of three unities occupied a special place in the theory of tragedy. It was formulated in the works of Italian and French humanists of the 16th century (G. Trissino, J. Scaliger), who relied on Aristotle in the fight against medieval theater. But only the classicists of the 17th century (especially Boileau) elevated it to an indisputable law. Unity of action required the reproduction of one integral and complete action that would unite all the characters. The unity of time came down to the requirement to fit actions into one day. The unity of place was expressed in the fact that the entire play should take place in one place. The main theoretical work in which the principles we considered were set out was N. Boileau’s book “Poetic Art” (1674). The most famous representatives of classicism: Jean La Fontaine (), Pierre Corneille (), Jean Racine (), Jean-Baptiste Moliere (). B. Baroque There are different explanations for the term "baroque". And each of them gives a lot for understanding the style itself. It is believed that the name of this trend comes from the Portuguese perola barrocca, meaning a precious pearl of irregular shape, shimmering and shimmering with all the colors of the rainbow. According to the second version, barocco is an intricate scholastic syllogism. Finally, the third option, barocco, means falsehood and deception. The fact that this pearl is irregular in shape immediately contrasts Baroque with the harmonious art of the Renaissance, close to the classical ideal. The rapprochement with a precious pearl marks the Baroque's desire for luxury, sophistication, and decorativeness. The mention of the syllogism indicates the connection between the Baroque and medieval scholasticism. Finally, the fact that Baroque is interpreted as falsehood and deception emphasizes the illusory aspect that is very strong in this art.

11 At the heart of the Baroque is disharmony and contrast. This is the contrast between unreasonable human nature and sober reason. Baroque is also characterized by the contrast of prosaic and poetic, ugly and beautiful, caricature and sublime ideal. Baroque writers emphasized the dependence of man on objective conditions, on nature and society, the material environment and situation. Their view of a person is sober and mercilessly tough. Having abandoned the idealization of man, which formed the basis of Renaissance literature, Baroque artists depict people as evil and selfish or prosaic and ordinary. The person himself is in their eyes the bearer of disharmony. In his psychology they look for contradictions and oddities. In this way, they highlight the complexity of a person’s inner world and emphasize its seemingly mutually exclusive features. But it is not only man who is disharmonious. One of the principles of Baroque literature is also the principle of dynamics and movement. The movement is seen as based on internal contradictions and antagonism. This internal disharmony, reflected in Baroque literature, revealed the fact that in society itself there is disharmony arising from the struggle of selfish interests. Connected with this is an important feature of the understanding of beauty, the idea of beauty in Baroque art. Life is prosaic, man is weak and vicious by nature. Therefore, everything beautiful is outside the material natural principle. Only a spiritual impulse can be beautiful. The beautiful is fleeting, ideal and belongs not to the real world, but to the other world, the world of fantasy. For Renaissance writers, beauty was contained in nature itself, for example, in the natural poetry of the people. For Baroque writers, beauty is the result of conscious craftsmanship, conscious mental activity. It is whimsical, peculiar, pretentious. In the 16th and 17th centuries, writers from different countries argued about what is higher: this spontaneity of nature itself or art, skill. The sympathies of Baroque writers were on the side of craftsmanship. This also applies to the literary style, which they sought to make difficult to access, intricate, filled with complex metaphors and comparisons, hyperboles and rhetorical figures. Despite the fact that the Baroque is a complete style, from an ideological point of view it was not integral. It is enough to point out the fierce policy that Gongora and Quevedo pursued between themselves. Gongora represented the Baroque in its aristocratic form. He contrasted reality with an illusory world, similar to a conventional decoration. Gongora's style, replete with intricate hyperboles and bizarre images, also contributed to the creation of this world.

12 turning life into fantasy. This style was called “culteranism” (from the word culto, processed, dressed). In contrast to Gongora, his opponent Quevedo looked for contrasts and contradictions in Spanish reality itself, bringing the vices of life to caricature and grotesque. His style of "conceptism" (from the word concepto thought) is opposed to what Gongora represented. To complete the description of the Baroque, we must add the following. The greatest writers of this era, Quevedo, Tirso de Molina, and Calderon, were religious people. Many of their works are imbued with religious ideas and belong to religious art. Based on this, it is very easy to declare them reactionaries. However, the greatest of them (Calderon, Quevedo, Gracian, Tirso de Molina) came into contact in their work with popular ideas and the popular point of view. They gave a sober and sharp criticism of the emerging monetary world, painted the ordinary person and thereby contributed to the democratization of art. B. Renaissance realism Renaissance realism, developing in parallel with classicism and baroque, shed new light on the contradictions of the time, especially in views on moral values, the highest of which remained man. Representatives of Renaissance realism were in many ways opponents of classicism with its system of rules and norms and baroque, aimed at the world of exoticism and fantasy. They did not accept the mannerisms and excessive sophistication of Baroque works. The followers of humanism remained supporters of clarity and truthfulness in art, but were no longer in a hurry to affirm the power of the human mind and the limitless possibilities of the individual. Experiencing the same disappointment in humanistic ideals as their contemporaries, the writers of Renaissance realism were not afraid to pose pressing questions. A special place among them is occupied by the concept of virtue, including human dignity, pride, honor, which conflicts with the class prejudices of feudalism. In addition, representatives of Renaissance realism turned to describing the everyday life of people. They continued to develop the traditions of urban literature. For the first time, representatives of Renaissance realism raised the question of the relationship between a person’s moral character and his class, with the environment in which he was raised. At the same time, representatives of the people appeared higher and morally more often in their works, and Lope de Vega, for example, was the first to show peasants as a community of bright individuals, people capable of talking about lofty matters and, if necessary, defending their human dignity to the end.

13 The reproach that critics make against humanist writers is the lack of sharp social criticism in their works. But we should not forget that in both drama and prose, ethical issues are closely related to political issues. Only now they are not put in the foreground. The earthly daily life of a person does not require high pathos and sophistication in the expression of thoughts. At the same time, behind all the apparent simplicity of the description of reality, serious reflections of the writers about the fate of their country and people are hidden. That is why the dramaturgy of Lope de Vega or the early dramaturgy of Tirso de Molina has not yet lost its civil sound. And it is no coincidence that in various literary sources, writers of Renaissance realism of the first half of the 17th century are often classified as authors of the late Renaissance, and their work is considered in the section on the history of literature of the Renaissance. We find this approach in the works of A.L. Stein, V.S. Uzina, N.I. Balashova. 3. The work of Lope de Vega A. Review of the life and creative path of the playwright At the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, Lope de Vega (), relying on the traditions of Spanish folk theater and the powerful realistic tradition of the Renaissance, created Spanish drama. Among the galaxy of outstanding playwrights, he holds first place. The Spaniards adored their national genius. His name has become a symbol of all that is beautiful. Lope Felix de Vega Carpio was born on November 25, 1562 in Madrid. His father, who came from an Asturian peasant family, was a wealthy man who had his own gold embroidery establishment in Madrid. He gave his son a good education and even the nobility, purchasing, according to the custom of those times, a patent for the title of nobility. Having received his initial education at a Jesuit college, the young man graduated from the university. From a young age he was in the service of noble people, early on he performed with acting troupes for whom he wrote plays, was at one time a soldier, was married several times, had an endless number of love affairs, at the age of fifty he became an employee of the Inquisition, then a monk and priest , which did not prevent him from leading a secular lifestyle, without stopping his love affairs until his old age. Only very shortly before his death, under the influence of difficult personal experiences (the death of his son, the kidnapping of his daughter), Lope de Vega began to indulge in ascetic beliefs and show a penchant for mysticism. He died surrounded by universal honor. More than a hundred poets composed poems on his death. The diverse life of Lope de Vega is reflected in his literary work. The ease with which he wrote, the richness and brilliance

14 of his work delighted his contemporaries, who called him a “miracle of nature,” a “phoenix,” and an “ocean of poetry.” At the age of five, Lope de Vega was already writing poetry, and at twelve he composed a comedy, which was staged on stage. Subsequently, as he assured, he wrote a play more than once in one day. He tried all poetic and prose genres. According to Lope de Vega himself, he wrote 1,800 comedies, to which must be added 400 religious plays and a very large number of interludes. However, Lope de Vega himself cared little about the safety of his dramatic works, which were considered a lower type of literature, as a result of which most of them were not published during his lifetime. The text of only 400 plays by Lope de Vega (almost entirely written) has reached us, and another 250 are known only by their titles. The playwright noticed early on that plays written according to the strict rules of classicism did not find the proper response among the people. The pompous phrases of the characters are perceived coldly, passions seem excessive. Lope de Vega wanted to please the audience, he wrote for the common people. The founders of the classic theater demanded unity of impression, for tragic tragedy, for funny comedy. Lope de Vega refused this, declaring that in life everything is not tragic or everything is funny, and for the sake of the truth of life, he established for his theater “a mixture of the tragic and the funny,” “a mixture of the sublime and the funny.” Lope de Vega believed that limiting the playwright to a twenty-four-hour time limit and demanding unity of place from him is absurd, but unity of plot is necessary, unity of action is mandatory. The playwright develops a theory of stage intrigue. The intrigue is the nerve of the play. She ties the play together and powerfully holds the viewer captive to the scene. From the very beginning, the intrigue should already firmly tie the knot of events and lead the viewer through the labyrinth of stage obstacles. Lope de Vega tried his hand at various genres. He wrote sonnets, epic poems, short stories, and spiritual poems. However, Lope de Vega was primarily a playwright. The range of subjects of the works is wide: human history, the national history of Spain, especially heroic times, events from the life of contemporaries of various social strata of the country, vivid episodes from the life of all peoples. There are 3 periods in the playwright’s work: Period I () during this time he actively summarizes the achievements of the national theater and asserts the writer’s right to free creativity. The best plays of this period are “The Dancing Teacher” (1594), “The Valencian Widow” (1599), “The New World Discovered by Christopher Columbus” (1609).

15 In the second period (), the writer creates his own national historical dramas, using the plots of the folk novels “Fuente Ovejuna” (1613), “The Illegitimate Son of Mudarra” (1612). During this period, the most famous comedies appeared: “The Dog in the Manger” (1613), “The Fool” (1613). III period () writes dramas “The Best Alcalde King” (), “Star of Seville” (1623), comedies “Girl with a Jug” (1623), “To Love Without Knowing Who” (1622). Despite the complexity of classifying a writer’s heritage by genre, three groups of works are usually distinguished: folk-heroic, national-historical and social dramas; domestic comedies called “cloak and sword comedies”; autos spiritual actions. B. Ideological and artistic originality of the drama “Fuente Ovejuna” The drama “Fuente Ovejuna” is one of the peaks of Lope de Vega’s creativity. It can also be classified as a historical play, since its action takes place at the end of the 15th century, during the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. The most remarkable thing about this play, imbued with truly revolutionary pathos, is that its hero is not any individual character, but the masses. The town of Fuente Ovejuna, translated as “Sheep Spring”, is located in Spain near the city of Cordoba. Here, in 1476, an uprising broke out against the arbitrariness of the commander of the Order of Calatrava, Fernan Gomez de Guzman. The commander was killed by the rebels. The playwright reproduced this historical fact in his play. The concept of “spiritual order” leads us to the deep antiquity of Spain. Back in the 12th century, spiritual knightly orders and military monastic organizations were created in the country to fight the Moors. At the head of the order was the Grand Master, who was subordinate to the council of the order and the Pope. The power of the Grand Master was exercised by commanders and regional military governors. These orders soon captured vast territories, grew stronger economically, and since they were subordinate directly to the pope and not the king, they became unique strongholds of feudal anarchy in the country. The commander of the Order of Calatrava, Fernand Gomez, stationed with his detachment in the village of Fuente Ovejuna, commits violence against the residents, insults the local mayor and tries to dishonor his daughter Laurencia. The peasant Frondoso, who loves her, manages to protect the girl. But during the wedding of Frondoso and Laurencia, the commander appears with his henchmen, disperses the crowd, beats the alcalde, wants to hang Frondoso and kidnaps Laurencia in order to then take possession of her by force. The peasants cannot bear such dishonor: they are all men,

16 women and children arm themselves and beat the rapists. During the judicial investigation in this case appointed by the king, when the peasants are being tortured as to who exactly killed Fernan Gomez, everyone answers as one: “Fuente Ovejuna!” The king is forced to stop the trial: he “forgives” the peasants and takes Fuente Ovejuna under his direct authority. Such is the power of popular solidarity. Commander Fernand Gomez, as the historical chronicle says, took possession of the town of Fuente Ovejuna willfully, contrary to the will of the king and the authorities of the city of Cordoba. The peasants who rebelled against him personified not only fighters against the oppressors of the people, but also fighters for the political unity of the country, which Lope de Vega emphasized in his play. This coincided with the political program of the Spanish authorities. Therefore, it was possible to so boldly glorify the rebel peasants. The political issues of the play are interpreted by Lope de Vega from a historical perspective. The marriage of the Aragonese infanta Ferdinand with Isabella of Castile meant the annexation of the kingdom of Aragon to Castile, that is, the unification of all of Spain. In Lope de Vega, the peasants of Fuente Ovejuna are loyal to Ferdinand and Isabella, while the commander, along with his entire order, acts as a traitor, supporting the claims to the Castilian throne of another claimant, which would lead to the fragmentation of Spain. Thus, in Lope de Vega's play, national unity, nationality and true nobility are internally linked. The central character of the play is Laurencia. This is a simple peasant girl. Charming, proud, sharp-tongued, smart. She has a highly developed sense of self-esteem, and she will not allow herself to be insulted. Laurencia is being courted by village boys, but so far she and her friend Pascuala have decided that every single man is a cheat. The soldiers try to seduce Laurencia with gifts, persuading her to favor the commander, but the girl answers them with contempt: The hen is not so stupid, And she’s too harsh for him. (Translation by K. Balmont) However, the girl already knows that love exists in the world; she already had a certain philosophy on this matter. In one of the scenes of the play, a dispute about love ensues between young peasant boys and girls. What is love? Does it even exist? The peasant Mengo, one of the most interesting characters in the play, denies love. Barrildo does not agree with him: If love did not exist, then the world could not exist. (Translation by K. Balmont)

17 This judgment is echoed by others. Love, according to Laurencia, is “the desire for beauty” and its ultimate goal is “to experience pleasure.” Before us is the life-affirming philosophy of the Renaissance. Laurencia's character is not immediately revealed to the viewer. We do not yet know what powers of soul this peasant girl conceals within herself. Here is a scene by the river: Laurencia is rinsing clothes, the peasant boy Frondoso, languishing in love with her, tells her about his feelings. Careless Laurencia laughs at him. It gives her joy to mock her lover, but she likes him, this honest, truthful young man. The commander appears. Seeing him, Frondoso hides, and the commander, believing that the girl is alone, rudely pesters her. Laurencia is in great danger, and she has no choice but to call for help. She does not name Frondoso, who is hiding behind a bush, she calls out to the sky. Here is a test of Frondoso's courage: is his love strong, is he selfless enough? And the young man rushes to the rescue. He is threatened with death, but he saves the girl. Frondoso is forced to go into hiding. The commander's soldiers are hunting him down to catch and execute him. But he is careless. He is looking for meetings with Laurencia, he loves her and once again tells her about his love. Now the girl cannot help but love him, she is ready to marry him. So, careless Laurencia, who considered all men to be deceivers and cheats, fell in love. Everything portends happiness for her. The wedding is coming soon. The parents of the young people agree to unite them. Meanwhile, the commander and his soldiers are rampaging, overflowing the patience of the people. Terrible things are happening in the town of Fuente Ovejuna. But a poet cannot be gloomy when talking even about this. Moods of despondency and pessimism are alien to him, like his peasant heroes. The spirit of cheerfulness and faith in truth is invisibly present on the stage. Frondoso and Laurencia are married. The peasants sing happy songs. The wedding procession is overtaken by the commander and his soldiers. The commander orders both to be captured. And the festive crowd is scattered, young spouses are captured, unhappy parents mourn their children. Frondoso faces death. After much torture and dirty harassment, Laurencia runs away from the commander. And how she has changed! She appeared at the national assembly, where women were not allowed: I don’t need the right to vote, A woman has the right to moan (Translation by K. Balmont) But she didn’t come here to moan, but to express her contempt for pathetic men who are unable to defend themselves. She refuses her father. She denounces the cowardly peasants:

18 You are sheep, and the Sheep Key is just right for you to live in!.. You are savages, not Spaniards, Cowards, a brood of hares. Unhappy ones! You are giving your wives to other people's men! Why do you carry swords? Hang the spindles from the side! I swear to you, I will arrange it so that the women themselves will wash their stained honor in the blood of treacherous tyrants, and you will be left in the cold (Translation by K. Balmont) Laurencia’s speech ignited the peasants, they rebelled. The rage of the rebels is merciless. The commander is killed. Cheerful and shy, a completely ordinary peasant woman at the beginning of the play, Laurencia, as the action progresses, becomes the recognized leader of the rebels. And not only personal resentment and love for Frondoso guide her actions, but also the general interests of the village. The play ends with a happy denouement. The peasants won. And it couldn’t be otherwise, since life always wins. This is the main difference between Lope de Vega and the Baroque poets and playwrights. The essence of the issue is not in the themes and plots, not in the events depicted, but in the author’s attitude to these themes, plots and events. B. Ideological and artistic originality of the drama “The Star of Seville” (1623) The action of the play takes place in Seville, the center of Andalusia, in ancient times, when the country was ruled by the peasant king Sancho IV the Bold. The conflict develops between the king, who does not take into account the human dignity of others, and old Spain, which preserves traditions and lives according to the laws of high honor. Two concepts of honor determine the development of the conflict. Both are embodied in the central character Sancho Ortiz. The king liked Estrella, nicknamed the “Star of Seville” by the people for her beauty. He wants to take possession of the beauty, but the girl’s brother, Busto Tabera, stands in his way. Finding the king in his house, he rushes at him with a sword. The monarch decides to kill the enemy, but to do this he will use the noble Sancho Ortiz, Estrella's fiancé. The king plays on Sancho's honesty. Before ordering the murder of Busto Tabera, he brings Sancho to a frank conversation about

19 devotion and loyalty to the king and takes his word to carry out all the orders of the master unquestioningly. Knowing Sancho’s proud nature very well, he hands the young man a paper justifying all subsequent actions, but Sancho tears it up. And only after the king is finally convinced of Sancho’s readiness to take revenge for the insult to the monarch, he gives a written order with the name of the victim and immediately leaves hastily with a remark indicating complete indifference to the fate of his subordinates: Read after and find out Who you have to kill. Although the name may confuse you, But do not retreat (Translation by T. Shchepkina-Kupernik) Having learned that he must kill Busto Taber, his best friend and Estrella’s brother, Sancho is faced with a choice: to carry out the king’s order or refuse. In both cases he is a hostage to honor. For the first time, the playwright spoke about the lack of human freedom in an inhumane society and the meaninglessness of life. Sancho kills Busto Tabera and loses Estrella forever. The climax of the dispute over honor will be the court scene in which Sancho refuses to name the man who ordered the murder. Focusing special attention on issues of honor and traditions of old Spain, Lope de Vega at the same time emphasized that, brought up in the spirit of these traditions, Sancho Ortiz becomes their hostage, finding himself an instrument in the hands of royal power. A characteristic feature of the play is that the author introduces into the stage narrative a historical flavor inherent in the era of Sancho IV the Bold, which gives the action an exciting poetry. Like many other works, “The Star of Seville” is also characterized by humor and a sly joke. Immediately after the pathetic explanation of the young lovers, he forces the servants, who happened to be casual witnesses of this event, to parody their masters. Here Lope de Vega follows his tradition, bringing “sublime and funny” into the stage narrative. List of recommended and used literature 1. Artamonov, S.D. History of foreign literature of the 17th and 18th centuries / S.D. Artamonov. M.: Education, S. Artamonov, S.D. Foreign literature of the 17th and 18th centuries: a reader. Textbook aid for students ped. Institute / S.D. Artamonov. M.: Enlightenment, St.

20 3. Vipper, Yu.B., Samarin, R.M. Course of lectures on the history of foreign literature of the 17th century / Yu.B. Whipper, R.M. Samarin; edited by S.S. Ignatova. M.: Universitetskoe, S. Erofeeva, N.E. Foreign literature. XVII century: textbook for pedagogical students. universities / N.E. Erofeeva. M.: Bustard, S. Plavskin, Z.I. Lope de Vega / Z.I. Plavskin. M.; L., p. 6. Stein, A.L. History of Spanish literature / A.L. Matte. 2nd ed. M.: Editorial URSS, S

21 Lecture 2 Spanish Baroque literature of the 17th century Plan 1. Features of the development of Spanish Baroque literature. 2. Literary schools of the Spanish Baroque. 3. Luis de Gongora as a leading representative of Spanish Baroque lyric poetry. 4. Spanish Baroque drama (Calderon). 5. Francisco de Quevedo and the prose of the Spanish Baroque. 1. Features of the development of Spanish Baroque literature of the 17th century in Spain, an era of deep economic decline, political crisis and ideological reaction. When a unified Spanish state emerged at the end of the 15th century and the Reconquista was completed, it seemed that nothing foreshadowed a quick catastrophe. Colonization first served as an impetus for the development of the economy and the emergence of early bourgeois relations in industry and trade. Very soon, however, the deep decline of the Spanish state, its economy and politics was revealed. The gold of America allowed the ruling classes and the royal power of Spain to neglect the development of domestic industry and trade. As a result, by the end of the 16th century, industry withered away. Entire branches of production disappeared, trade ended up in the hands of foreigners. Agriculture fell into decline. The people were begging, and the nobility and the highest clergy were drowning in luxury. Social and national contradictions within the country sharply worsened. In 1640, a widespread separatist uprising began in Catalonia (the most industrially developed region of what was then Spain), accompanied by numerous peasant uprisings and riots. Gradually, Spain began to lose its colonies. All this could not but leave its mark on Spanish literature of the 17th century. Distinctive features of Spanish literature of the 17th century: 1) during the first decades of the 17th century, Renaissance art maintained a strong position in Spain, although crisis features were already revealed in it. Progressive writers are becoming more and more clearly aware of the internal contradictions of the ideals of the Renaissance, their inconsistency with the gloomy reality;

22 2) the dominant artistic system in Spain throughout the century was Baroque. Its tendencies are inherent in the work of the 17th century artists Velazquez (“Venus in front of the mirror”), Murillo (“Jesus distributes bread to strangers”), etc. The interaction of the Baroque and the Renaissance in Spain was more intense than in other countries of Western Europe. It is no coincidence that in the works of major literary figures of the Spanish Baroque, Quevedo, Calderon and others, echoes of Renaissance ideals and problems are clearly visible; 3) Spanish Baroque art was aimed at the intellectual elite. In general, the art of Spanish Baroque is distinguished by: severity and tragedy; highlighting the spiritual principle; the desire to escape from the clutches of life's prose. In the second half of the 17th century, it was characterized by an increase in mystical tendencies. 2. Literary schools of the Spanish Baroque In the literature of the Spanish Baroque (especially in the first half of the century), there was a struggle between its two main schools of cultism (culteranism) and conceptism. Cultism (from the Spanish cultos, processed, cultivated) was designed to be perceived by select, finely educated people. Not accepting reality, opposing it to the perfect and beautiful world of art, the cultists used language primarily as a means of rejecting ugly reality. They created a special “dark style”, overloading their works with unusual and complex metaphors, neologisms (mostly of Latin origin), and complex syntactic constructions. The largest and most talented poet-cultist was Gongora (therefore, cultism is also called Gongorism). Conceptism (from Spanish sonsepto thought), in contrast to cultism, claimed to express the entire complexity of human thought. The main task of conceptists is to uncover deep and unexpected connections between concepts and objects that are far apart from each other. Conceptists demanded maximum semantic richness of the statement. The favorite techniques of conceptists are the use of polysemy of words, puns, and the destruction of stable and familiar phrases. Their language is more democratic than the language of the cultists, but it is no less difficult to understand. It is no coincidence that the prominent Spanish philologist R. Menendez Pidal called the conceptist style a “difficult style.” The most prominent conceptist writers were Quevedo, Guevara and Gracian (the latter is also a theorist of conceptism).

23 However, both schools have more in common than differences. Both directions placed metaphor above all else, in which the “fast mind” combined unexpected and distant concepts, combined the incongruous. With extreme adherence to their dogmas, the schools enriched literature with new means of expression and influenced its subsequent development. Cultism received its most vivid embodiment in poetry, conceptism in prose. And this is no coincidence. The cultists expressed the subtlest shades of feeling: their poetry is emotionally oversaturated. The Conceptists conveyed all the richness and flexibility of acute thought: their prose is dry, rationalistic, and witty. 3. Luis de Gongora as a leading representative of Spanish baroque lyricism Luis de Gongora y Argote () one of the most complex and talented poets of world literature, has long been considered “abstruse”, “dark”, inaccessible to the common reader. Interest in his work was revived in the twentieth century through the efforts of such poets as R. Dario and F. García Lorca. Gongora's works were not published during his lifetime. They were published posthumously in the collection Works in Poems of the Spanish Homer (1627) and in his collected works, published in 1629. Romance, letrilla (popular forms of folk poetry), sonnet, lyric poem are genres in which the poet immortalized his name. Gongora created a special “dark style” in poetry, which excluded thoughtless reading of poetry and was for him a kind of means of rejecting ugly reality. Medieval Arab-Andalusian lyrics were of great importance for the formation of the poet’s style (Gongora was born in Cordoba, the former capital of the Arab Caliphate, which preserved the traditions of a thousand-year-old culture). She reproduced reality on two levels, real and conditional. The constant replacement of the real plane with a metaphorical one is the most common technique in Gongora’s poetry. The themes of his poems are almost always simple, but their implementation is extremely complex. His lines need to be unraveled, and this is his conscious creative attitude. The author believed that the vagueness of expressions and the “dark style” encourage a person to be active and co-creative, while familiar, worn-out words and expressions lull his consciousness. That is why he saturated his poetic speech with exotic neologisms and archaisms, using familiar words in an unusual context, and abandoned traditional syntax. Gongora's poetry demonstrates the plurality of points of view on the subject (pluralism) and the polysemy of words, typical of the Baroque artistic system. His poetic vocabulary contains peculiar

24 supporting words on which a whole system of metaphors is built: crystal, ruby, pearl, gold, snow, carnation. Each of them, depending on the context, acquires one or another additional meaning. Thus, the word “crystal” can mean not only water, a source, but also a woman’s body or her tears. “Gold” is the gold of hair, the gold of olive oil, the gold of honeycombs; “flying snow” a white bird, “spun snow” a white tablecloth, “running snow” the snow-white face of a beloved. In While still very young, Gongora created about 30 sonnets, which he wrote based on Ariosto, Tasso and other Italian poets. Already these poems, often still written by students, are characterized by originality of concept and careful polishing of form. Most of them are devoted to the theme of the frailty of life, the fragility of beauty. The motif of the famous sonnet “While the fleece of your hair flows” goes back to Horace. It was developed by many poets, including Tasso. But even in the tragic Tasso it does not sound as hopeless as in Gongora: beauty will not just fade or wither, but will turn into an omnipotent Nothing....Hurry to experience the pleasure in the power Hidden in the skin, in the curl, in the lips. Until your bouquet of carnations and lilies Not only has not withered ingloriously, But the years have not turned you into ash and earth, into ashes, smoke and dust. (Translation by S. Goncharenko) The disharmony of the world, in which happiness is fleeting in the face of the all-powerful Nothing, is emphasized by the harmoniously harmonious, thoughtful composition of the poem down to the smallest detail. Gongora's poetic style was most fully expressed in his poems “The Tale of Polyphemus and Galatea” (1612) and “Loneliness” (1614). The plot of Polyphemus and Galatea is borrowed from Ovid's Metamorphoses. Gongora was attracted to the plot by its fantastic character and whimsicality of images. Starting from the classical image, Gongora created a complete and perfect Baroque poem, moreover lyrical than narrative. She is internally musical. A researcher of Gongora's work, Belmas, compared it to a symphony. The poem, written in octaves, is built on the antithesis of the beautiful, bright world of Galatea and her beloved Asis and the dark world of Polyphemus, as well as the ugly appearance of the Cyclops and that tender, powerful feeling that completely filled him. At the center of the poem is the meeting of Asis and Galatea. We do not hear their speech; it is a silent pantomime or ballet. The date looks like an idyll, imbued with the spirit of harmony and serenity. He is interrupted by the appearance of a monster enraged by jealousy. Lovers flee, but disaster

25 overtakes them. The angry Polyphemus throws a rock onto Asis and buries him under it. Asis turns into a stream. Gongora leads the reader to the idea: the world is disharmonious, happiness is unattainable in it, beauty perishes in it, just as the beautiful Asis perishes over the fragments of a rock. But the disharmony of existence is balanced by the strict harmony of art. The poem is finished. And despite all the internal disharmony, it has a balance of its constituent parts. The true pinnacle of Gongora’s work is the poem “Loneliness” (only “The First Loneliness” and part of the “Second” of the planned 4 parts were written). The name itself is polysemantic and symbolic: the loneliness of fields, forests, deserts, human destiny. The wanderings of the lonely wanderer, the hero of the poem, are perceived as a symbol of human existence. There is practically no plot in the poem: a nameless young man, disillusioned with everything, suffering from unrequited love, ends up on a deserted shore as a result of a shipwreck. The plot serves only as a pretext for identifying the subtlest associations of the consciousness of the hero contemplating nature. The poem is oversaturated with images and metaphors, most often based on the merging in one image of concepts that are far apart from each other (the so-called “concetto”). The figurative density of the verse, taken to the limit, creates the effect of “darkness” of the style. Thus, we see that Gongora’s work required a thoughtful reader, educated, familiar with mythology, history, and knowledgeable of historicisms and aphorisms. For the perfect reader, his poetry is, of course, more understandable, but for Gongora’s contemporaries it seemed mysterious and unearthly. 4. Spanish Baroque Drama (Calderon) The formation of Baroque drama took place in the context of an intensified ideological struggle in the theater. The most fanatical supporters of the Counter-Reformation repeatedly put forward demands for the prohibition of secular theatrical performances. However, not only humanistically minded figures of the Spanish theater, but also moderate representatives of the ruling elite of society opposed these attempts, seeing in the theater a powerful means of affirming their ideals. Nevertheless, from the very beginning of the 17th century, the ruling classes increasingly attacked the democratic forces that had established themselves in the Spanish theater. This goal was met by reducing the number of theater troupes, establishing strict secular and church censorship over the repertoire and, in particular, gradually limiting the activities of public city theaters (the so-called “corrals”) and strengthening the role of court theaters. Naturally, the trendsetter of theatrical fashion here is not the riotous and disobedient mass of townspeople, as in the “corrals”,

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