Literary Dictionary. Terms. Definitions. A brief dictionary of literary terms - Knowledge Hypermarket Literature terms 7

ABERTATION - distortion of something.
PARAGRAPH - a passage of text from one red line to another.
AUTOBIOGRAPHY is a work in which the writer describes his life.
AUTOGRAPH - a manuscript of a work, a letter, an inscription on a book, handwritten by the author, as well as the author’s handwritten signature.
AUTHOR is a real person, the creator of a literary work.
AUTHOR'S SPEECH is an allegorical depiction of an abstract concept or phenomenon of reality using a specific image.
ACMEISM is a literary movement (neo-romanticism) in Russian poetry of the early 20th century. This name was invented by N.S. Gumilyov to designate the work of a group of poets, which included A.A. Akhmatova, O.E. Mandelstam and others.
ACROSTIC - a poem in which the initial letters of the lines form a first or last name, word or phrase.
ACTUALISM is a sense of time in which the present is perceived as the only objective reality.
ALLEGORY is a type of allegory. An abstract concept embodied in a concrete image: wolf - greed, fox - cunning, cross (in Christianity) - suffering, etc.
ALLITERATION - repetition in poetry (less often in prose) of identical, consonant consonant sounds to enhance the expressiveness of artistic speech.
ALLUSION - the use of an allusion to some well-known fact instead of mentioning the fact itself.
ALMANAC - a collection of literary works of various contents.
AMFIBRACHIUS is a three-syllable foot in Russian syllabic-tonic versification, in which the stress falls on the second syllable.
ANACREONTIC POETRY is a type of ancient lyric poetry: poems that glorify a cheerful, carefree life.
ANAPEST - a three-syllable foot in Russian syllabic-tonic versification with stress on the third syllable.
ANAPHOR - repetition of the same sounds, words, or phrases at the beginning of each poetic line.
ANECDOTE is a genre of folklore, a short story of humorous content with a witty ending.
ANIMAL WORK – a work that describes the habits and characteristics of animals.
ABSTRACT - a brief explanation of the contents of the book.
ANONYMOUS - 1) a work without indicating the name of the author; 2) the author of the work who has hidden his name.
ANTISYSTEM - systemic integrity of people with a negative outlook.
ANTITHESIS is a turn of poetic speech in which, for expressiveness, directly opposite concepts, thoughts, and character traits of the characters are sharply contrasted.
ANTHOLOGY - a collection of selected works by various authors.
ANTHROPOCENTRISM is the view that man is the “crown of the universe.”
APOSTROPE - a turn of poetic speech consisting of addressing an inanimate phenomenon as an animate one and an absent person as a present one.
ARCHITECTONICS - the construction of a work of art, the proportionality of its parts, chapters, episodes.
APHORISM is a short saying containing an original thought, worldly wisdom, and moral teaching.

BALLAD is a lyric-epic poetic work with a clearly expressed plot of a historical or everyday nature.
FABLE - a small work with ironic, satirical or moralizing content based on the technique of allegory, allegory. A fable differs from a parable or an apologist in its completeness of plot development, and from other forms of allegorical storytelling, such as an allegorical novel, in its unity of action and conciseness of presentation.
ABYSS - emptiness or vacuum that is not part of the material world.
FICTION - artistic prose works.
BLANK POEMS - poems that do not rhyme.
BLESSING (euphony) - the quality of speech, which consists in the beauty and naturalness of its sound.
BURIME - a poem composed according to predetermined, often unusual rhymes.
BURLESQUE is a comic narrative poem in which a sublime theme is presented ironically and parodically.
BYLINA is a Russian folk narrative song-poem about heroes and heroes.

INSPIRATION - a state of inspiration, creative upsurge.
Free verse is free verse without formal characteristics (meter and rhyme), but with some rhythm.
VERSIFICATION is a system of certain rules and techniques for constructing poetic speech and versification.
VISION - a description of a journey through the afterlife accompanied by an angel, a saint; contains religious or ethical teaching.
VERSHI - poems on religious and secular topics with a mandatory rhyme at the end of the line.
ARTISTIC TASTE - the ability to correctly perceive and independently comprehend works of art; understanding the nature of artistic creativity and the ability to analyze a work of art.
EXTRA-PLOT ELEMENTS – elements of the composition of a work that do not develop the action: lyrical digressions, introductory episodes and descriptions.
VAUDEVILLE is a short play of the dramatic genre with intrigue and comic situations of love content.
FREE VERSE - syllabic-tonic, usually iambic verse with an unequal number of feet in the poetic lines.
WILL - the ability to act according to a freely made choice.
MEMORIES, or MEMOIRS - works of narrative literature about past events, written by their participants.
VULGARISM is a rude word, an incorrect turn of phrase, not accepted in literary speech.
FICTION is a figment of the writer's imagination.

HEXAMETER - poetic meter in ancient versification, in Russian - six-foot dactyl combined with trochee.
LYRICAL HERO - a person in lyric poetry, whose experiences, thoughts and feelings are expressed in the poem on whose behalf it is written.
THE HERO OF A LITERARY WORK is the main or one of the main characters, possessing distinct character traits and behavior, a certain attitude towards other characters and life phenomena.
HYPERBOLE is a stylistic figure consisting of a figurative exaggeration of the depicted event or phenomenon.
TALKING SURNAME – a character’s surname that conveys an important trait of his character.
GOLEM is a very common Jewish folk legend that originated in Prague about an artificial man, the Golem, created from clay to perform various “menial” jobs, difficult tasks that are important for the Jewish community, and ch. arr. to prevent blood libel through timely intervention and exposure.
FEE - literary fee - remuneration received by a writer for his work.
GOTHIC NOVEL - works of the horror genre, the scene of which is a medieval castle with ghosts, devilish forces and asserting the unknowability of the world and the omnipotence of evil.
GROTESQUE - an image of a person, events or phenomena in a fantastic, ugly-comic form.
HUMANISM is a worldview in which man in all his manifestations is declared the highest value.

DIGEST – a publication or book consisting of fragments or a summary of literary works.
DACTYL - a three-syllable foot in Russian syllabic-tonic versification, containing a stressed and two unstressed syllables.
DECADENTITY - decadence. Ideological phenomenon at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. which was based on the statement about the onset of an era of decline and extinction of civilization.
DETECTIVE is an epic work in which crimes are investigated.
CHILDREN'S LITERATURE - works of different genres intended for children.
DIALOGUE - a conversation between two or more characters.
DITHYRAMB - a work of praise.
DOLNIK - a three-syllable meter with the omission of one or two unstressed syllables within the line. An intermediate form between syllabic-tonic and tonic verse.
DUMA is a lyric-epic genre of Ukrainian folklore (ballad).

GENRE is a historically established division of a set of literary works, carried out on the basis of the specific properties of their form and content.
CRUEL ROMANCE is a lyric-epic genre; a poetic monologue telling about unhappy love and love suffering, with an emphasis on the experiences and torments of the lover.
LIFE - in ancient Russian literature, a story about the life of a hermit, monk or saint.

PREPARATION - the event from which the development of action in the work begins.
RIDDLE is a genre of folklore in which the correct answer must be found based on the image contained in the question.
CONSPIRACY – a genre of folklore; words that have a magical meaning and are called upon, through a certain combination, to influence the material world.
BORROWING - the use by an author of techniques, themes or ideas of another writer.
SPELL - a genre of folklore, a magical formula designed to influence nature and humans; usually accompanied by magical ritual actions.
ZAKLICHKA – a genre of children's folklore; a naive poetic appeal to the forces of nature.
SOUND WRITTEN - a technique that consists in selecting words, the combination of which imitates the sounds of the real world in the text (the whistle of the wind, the sound of rain, the chirping of birds, etc.).

IDEALIZATION - an image of something in a better form than in reality.
THE IDEAL WORLD OF A WORK is the area of ​​artistic solutions. It includes the author’s assessments and ideal, artistic ideas and pathos of the work.
IDIOMA is an indecomposable phrase peculiar only to a given language, the meaning of which does not coincide with the meaning of its constituent words, taken individually, for example, the Russian expressions “stay with your nose”, “ate the dog”, etc.
THE IDEA OF A WORK OF ART is the main idea about the range of phenomena that are depicted in the work; expressed by the writer in artistic images.
IDYLL - a poem that depicts a serene life in the lap of nature.
IMAGINISM is a literary movement; Imagists proclaimed that the main task of artistic creativity is to invent new images not related to reality. Participants in this movement argued for the necessity and inevitability of “pure art.” Imagists included S.A. Yesenin, V.G. Shershenevich and others.
IMPRESSIONISM is a literary movement; The impressionists considered the task of art to convey the writer’s immediate personal impressions.
IMPROVISATION is the creation of works without prior preparation.
INVECTIVE – a type of pathos, a sharp denunciation that expresses the author’s hatred of certain phenomena and characters. Unlike satire, it does not cause comedy or laughter.
INVERSION is a turn of poetic speech consisting of a peculiar arrangement of words in a sentence that violates the usual order.
Allegory - an indirect, hidden image of objects, phenomena, people.
INTERIOR – a description of the interior decoration of a room. Often used to indirectly characterize a character.
INTONATION is a syntactic structure of a relatively completed fragment of a literary text (phrase, period, stanza), indicating how artistic speech should sound in this fragment.
INTRIGE - the development of action in a complex plot of a work.
IRONY - hidden mockery.

PUN – a stylistic turn (“play on words”), based on the use of complete sound coincidence of various words and phrases.
CANTATA - a poem of a solemn nature, glorifying some joyful event or its hero.
CANTILENA - a short poem of a narrative nature, sung to music.
CANZONA - a poem glorifying knightly love.
CARICATURE - a humorous or satirical depiction of events or persons.
CATharsis is a strong emotional experience when perceiving a literary work. Catharsis is considered as an obligatory consequence of the tragic in literature.
CLASSICISM - literary movement (current) XVII - beginning. XIX centuries in Russia and Western Europe, based on imitation of ancient models and strict stylistic standards.
CLASSICAL LITERATURE - exemplary, most valuable literature of the past and present.
CLAUSE - the final syllables of a poetic line, starting with the last stressed syllable.
CLIMAX - a type of gradation, a series of expressions relating to the same phenomenon; Moreover, these expressions are arranged in order of increasing importance, i.e., so that each of them enhances the meaning of the previous one (“increasing”).
CODA - final, additional verse.
COLLISION - a clash, a struggle between acting forces involved in a conflict among themselves.
COMMENT - interpretation, explanation of the meaning of a work, episode, phrase.
COMPOSITION - the structure of a work of art.
CONTEXT is the “environment” in which a work of art was created and continued to live. The context can be socio-historical, biographical, everyday, literary, etc.
CONTRAST - a sharply expressed opposition of traits, qualities, properties of human character, object, phenomenon; literary device.
CONFLICT is a clash underlying the struggle of the characters in a work of art.
ENDING - the final part or epilogue of a literary work.
BEAUTY is a complex of forms that are liked without prejudice.
CRITICISM - essays devoted to the evaluation, analysis and interpretation of works of art.
WINGED WORD is an apt expression that has become a proverb.
CLIMAX - an episode of a literary work in which the conflict reaches a critical point in its development.
VERSE - a stanza in a song that has a refrain; usually has a complete meaning, close to the stanzas.

LACONISM - brevity in the expression of thoughts.
LEGEND - in folklore, an oral, folk story based on a miraculous event or image.
LEITMOTHIO - an image or turn of artistic speech that is repeated in a work.
LIMERICK - a pentaverse written in anapest according to the AABBA scheme. In limericks 3 and 4, verses have fewer feet than 1, 2 and 5. Limericks in a comic-ironic form describe some events that happen to someone.
FICTION LITERATURE is a field of art, the distinctive feature of which is the reflection of life, the creation of an artistic image using words.
LITOTE is the opposite of hyperbole. A deliberately implausible understatement.
PULK LITERATURE - cheap books with pictures, which were sold by traveling peddlers.

MAGIC is a set of actions, rituals and verbal formulas aimed at influencing the material world, changing it, as well as establishing connections between the real and the unreal world.
MADRIGAL is a lyrical work of humorous, complimentary or loving content, expressing admiration for someone.
MACARONICA SPEECH - a combination of two or more national languages ​​in one phrase; can create a comic effect and serve as a means of characterizing a literary character.
ARTISTIC SKILLS - the writer’s ability to convey the truth of life in artistic images.
MEDITATION – lyrical reflection accompanied by emotional experience.
MELODICS OF A VERSE - its intonation organization, raising and lowering the voice, conveying intonation and semantic shades.
MELODRAMA is a dramatic genre that orients the viewer toward compassion and sympathy for the characters.
METAPHOR - the use of a word in a figurative sense to describe a person, object or phenomenon.
METHOD - the basic principles that guide the writer. Artistic methods included realism, romanticism, sentimentalism, etc.
METONYMY - replacement in speech of a word or concept with another that has a causal or other connection with the first.
METRIC VERSE - a system of versification based on the alternation of short and long syllables in verse. This is what ancient versification is like.
MINIATURE - a small literary work.
MYTH is an ancient legend about the origin of life on Earth, about natural phenomena, about the exploits of gods and heroes.
POLY UNION (polysyndeton) - a turn of poetic speech; deliberate increase in the number of conjunctions in a sentence.
MODERNISM is a direction (current) in art that is opposite to realism and is characterized by the denial of traditions, conventional representation and experimentation.
MONOLOGUE is the speech of a character addressed to an interlocutor or to himself.
MONORHYTHM - a poem with a repeating single rhyme.
MOTIVE - in a literary work, additional, secondary themes, which, in combination with the main theme, form an artistic whole.
MOTIVATION - the dependence of all elements of the artistic form of a work on its content.

SCIENCE FICTION – works whose plot is based on scientific and technical achievements that have not been refuted, but also not proven by science.
INITIAL RHYME - consonance found at the beginning of a verse.
FABLES - a genre of children's folklore, comic poems that depict obvious absurdities and implausible circumstances.
NEOLOGISM is a new word.
INNOVATION - introducing new ideas and techniques.
NOVELLA - a short story with an unexpected ending.

IMAGE - an artistic depiction in a literary work of a person, nature or individual phenomena.
ADDRESS - a turn of poetic speech, consisting in the writer’s emphasized appeal to the hero of his work, natural phenomena, and the reader.
RITUAL SONG is a genre of folklore. Part of the ritual during wedding, funeral and other ceremonies.
ODA - a laudatory poem dedicated to a solemn event or hero.
OXYMORON - a combination of words that contradict each other in meaning in one image.
OCTAVE - a stanza of eight verses in which the first six verses are united by two cross rhymes, and the last two by an adjacent rhyme.
PERSONIFICATION (prosopopoeia) is a technique in which inanimate objects, animals, and natural phenomena are endowed with human abilities and properties.
ONEGIN STROPHE - a stanza used by A. S. Pushkin when writing the novel "Eugene Onegin", consisting of three quatrains and a final couplet.
DISCOVERY – describing the familiar from an unexpected point of view.
OPEN FINALE – no resolution to the work.

PANTORISM - a poem in which all the words rhyme.
PALINDROM - “reversal” - a word, phrase or verse that is read the same from left to right and back.
PAMPHLET is a journalistic work with a clearly expressed accusatory orientation and a specific socio-political address.
PARAPHRASE - retelling a work or part of it in your own words.
PARALLELISM is a technique of poetic speech that consists of comparing two phenomena by depicting them in parallel.
PARODY is a genre of literature that politically or satirically imitates the features of the original.
LAMPURE - a work with offensive, slanderous content.
PASTORAL - a poem describing the peaceful life of shepherds and shepherdesses in the lap of nature.
PAPHOS is the leading emotional tone of the work.
LANDSCAPE - an image of nature in a literary work.
TRANSFER (enjambeman) - transferring the end of a complete sentence from one poetic line or stanza to the next one.
PERIPHRASIS - replacing the name of an object or phenomenon with a description of its essential features and characteristics.
CHARACTER is the protagonist of a literary work.
NARRATOR - the person on whose behalf the story is told in epic and lyric epic works.
NARRATIVE - middle form; a work that highlights a number of events in the life of the main character.
PROVERB - a short figurative expression that does not have syntactic completeness.
PORTRAIT is a depiction of a character’s appearance in a work of art.
DEDICATION - an inscription at the beginning of a work indicating the person to whom it is dedicated.
MESSAGE - a literary work written in the form of an appeal to any person or persons.
AFTERWORD - an additional part of the work, which contains the author’s explanations of his creation.
PROVERB is a genre of folklore, a short, rhythmically organized and syntactically complete saying, containing judgments from the field of morality, philosophy, and worldly wisdom.
Rhymes are humorous rhymes that parents use to accompany games with their little children.
TEACHING - a literary work in the form of speech of an educational nature.
POETRY - artistic creativity in poetic form.
JOB - a sharp word or phrase.
A PARABLE is an edifying story about human life in an allegorical or allegorical form. Unlike fables, it explains abstract, for example, religious problems.
PROBLEM - a question that is explored by the writer in the work.
ISSUES - a list of issues raised in the work.
PROSE is a work of art presented in ordinary (freely organized, not poetic) speech.
PROLOGUE - introduction to a literary work.
COMMON SPEAK - words inherent in folk non-literary speech. Speech of poorly educated native speakers.
PROTOTYPE is a real person whose life and character were reflected when the writer created a literary image.
A pseudonym is a fictitious name or surname of a writer.
PUBLICISTICS - a set of artistic works reflecting the social and political life of society.
JOURNEY - a literary work that tells about a real or fictitious journey.

PARADISE VERSE - lines of different feet joined together by paired rhymes.
DENOUGH - the position of the characters that has developed in the work as a result of the development of the events depicted in it; final scene.
VERSE SIZE - the number and order of alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables in the feet of syllabic-tonic verse.
RHAPSOD is a wandering ancient Greek poet-singer who sang epic songs to the lyre.
STORY – a work of art of small form that describes a completed event.
REASON is the ability to freely choose a reaction under conditions that allow it.
EDITION - one of the text options of the work.
REASONER - an “outside observer” in a work expressing the author’s point of view on events and characters.
REQUIEM is a literary work in the form of farewell to the deceased.
REMARK - an explanation by the author about a particular character or the setting of the action, intended for actors.
REPLICA - the response of one character to the speech of another.
REFRAIN - repeated verses at the end of each stanza.
REVIEW - a critical review of a work. The review can be negative or positive.
RHYTHM is a systematic, measured repetition in verse of certain, similar units of speech (syllables).
RHYME - endings of poetic lines that match in sound.
TYPE OF LITERATURE - division according to fundamental characteristics: drama, lyricism, lyric epic, epic.
ROMAN - large form; a work in which events usually involve many characters whose destinies are intertwined. Novels can be philosophical, adventure, historical, family, social
ROMANCE is a small lyric poem of a melodious type on the theme of love.
NOVEL - EPIC - a work that reveals the fate of a person against the backdrop of historical events that are important for the entire people.
RONDO - an eight-line poem containing 13 (15) lines and 2 rhymes.
RUBAI - forms of lyrical poetry of the East: quatrains in which the first, second and fourth lines rhyme.
KNIGHT'S NOVEL is a medieval epic genre telling about the adventures of a knight, emphasizing the idealism of the feudal era.

SAGA is a genre of Scandinavian and Icelandic epic literature; a heroic epic that combines poetic and prose descriptions of deeds.
SARCASM is a caustic mockery.
SATIRE - works of art that ridicule vicious phenomena in the life of society or the negative qualities of an individual.
FREE VERSE (free verse) - verse in which the number of stressed and unstressed syllables is arbitrary; it is based on a homogeneous syntactic organization that determines the uniform intonation of the verse.
SYLLABIC VERSE - it is based on the same number of syllables in a poetic line.
SYLLAB-TONIC VERSE - a system of versification, which is determined by the number of syllables, the number of stresses and their location in the poetic line.
SYMBOLISM is a literary movement; Symbolists created and used a system of symbols that had a special mystical meaning.
SKAZ is a way of organizing a narrative, focused on oral, often popular, speech.
LEAD (legend) - a work of art based on an incident that took place in reality.
LITERARY TALE - a genre of epic that creates a mythologized artistic world based on fantastic conventions.
SYLLABLE - a sound or combination of sounds in a word, pronounced with one exhalation; primary rhythmic unit in poetic measured speech.
DEATH is a way of existence of biosphere phenomena, in which there is a separation of space from time.
EVENT - rupture of system connections.
A SONNET is a type of complex stanza consisting of 14 verses, divided into 2 quatrains (quatrains) and 2 tercets (tercets).
JUSTICE - compliance with morals and ethics.
COMPARISON - definition of a phenomenon or concept in artistic speech by comparing it with another phenomenon that has common characteristics with the first.
STANCES - a small form of lyric poetry, consisting of quatrains, complete in thought.
STYLISTICS is a section of literary theory that studies the features of the language of works.
STYLE is a set of basic ideological and artistic features of a writer’s work.
VERSE - measured, rhythmically organized, brightly emotional speech, as well as one line in a poetic work.
VERSE - a system for constructing measured poetic speech, which is based on some repeating rhythmic unit of speech. -
STOP - in syllabic-tonic versification, repeated combinations of stressed and unstressed syllables in a verse, which determine its size.
STROPHE - a combination of two or more poetic lines, united by a rhyme system and general intonation or only general intonation.
SCRIPT – processing of a work to create a film, play, cartoon.
PLOT - the main episodes of an event series in their artistic sequence.

TAUTOGRAM - a poem in which all words begin with the same letter.
CREATIVE HISTORY - the history of the creation of a work of art.
CREATIVE PROCESS - the writer’s work on a work.
THEME is the object of artistic reflection.
THEME - a set of themes of the work.
TREND is an idea, a conclusion to which the author seeks to lead the reader.
TERZETT – a poetic stanza consisting of 3 verses (lines) that rhyme with each other or with the corresponding verses of the subsequent terzetto.
LITERARY TREND - a creative unity of writers who are close to each other in ideology, perception of life and creativity.
TYPE is an artistic image that reflects the main characteristic features of a certain group of people or phenomena.
TRAGEDY is a dramatic genre that is built on an insoluble conflict. A type of dramatic work telling about the unfortunate fate of the main character, often doomed to death.
TREATISE – a genre of scientific literature; a complete essay on a scientific topic, containing a statement of the problem, a system of evidence for its solution and conclusions.
THRILLER – a work that causes severe stress, horror, disgust, etc.
TROP - a figure of speech consisting of the use of a word or expression in a figurative meaning, meaning.
LABOR SONGS – a genre of folklore, songs accompanying labor processes; with their rhythm and emotional attitudes contributing to the facilitation of work.

SIMPLIFICATION - reducing the density of system connections.
URBANISM is a direction in literature primarily concerned with describing the features of life in a big city.
UTOPIA is a work of art that tells about a dream as a real phenomenon, depicting an ideal social system without scientific justification.
ORAL FOLK POETIC CREATIVITY (folklore) - a set of poetic works created among the people, existing in oral form; they do not have a single author’s position, which is replaced by an orientation towards a national ideal.

FABULA - the plot basis of a literary work.
FANTASTIC – depiction of the impossible in real life.
FEULETON - A feuilleton, at the time of its appearance, is a piece of paper in a newspaper specifically devoted to issues of theater, literature, and art. Now, a newspaper article ridiculing the evils of society.
STYLISTIC FIGURE - an unusual turn of speech that the writer resorts to to enhance the expressiveness of the literary word.
FOLKLORE is a set of works of oral folk poetry.
FUTURISM is a sense of time in which the future is perceived as the only objective reality.
FANTASY is a creative method of romanticism characterized by the creation of works based on the myth-making of the author, which have a pronounced philosophical sound.

CHARACTER is an artistic image of a person with pronounced individual traits.
Trochaic - a two-syllable poetic meter with stress on the first syllable.
CHRONICLE - a narrative or dramatic literary work that displays events in public life in chronological order.

CAESURA - a pause in the middle of a verse (line) of a poetic work.
CYCLE - a series of artistic works united by the same characters, era, thought or experience.

CHASTUSHKA - a small work (quatrain) of oral folk poetry with humorous, satirical or lyrical content.

EUPHEMISM is the replacement of rude expressions in poetic speech with softer ones.
AESOP'S LANGUAGE is an allegorical, disguised way of expressing one's thoughts.
ECLOGUE - a short poem depicting rural life.
EXPOSITION - the introductory, initial part of the plot; unlike the plot, it does not affect the course of subsequent events in the work.
Impromptu is a work created quickly, without preparation.
ELEGY - a poem permeated with sadness or a dreamy mood.
EPIGRAM - a short witty, mocking or satirical poem.
EPIGRAPH - a short text placed at the beginning of the work and explaining the author's intention.
EPISODE - one of the interconnected events in the plot, which has more or less independent meaning in the work.
EPILOGUE is the final part of the work, briefly informing the reader about the fate of the heroes.
EPITHET - figurative definition.
EPIC - a heroic narrative describing a significant historical era or a major historical event.
ESSAY is a work of the epic genre, containing subjective, unconventional reasoning of the author, which does not pretend to be an exhaustive description and in-depth study of the problem raised. The essay is distinguished by its free composition and focus on figurative, aphoristic language, and a conversation with the reader.

HUMOR is a type of pathos based on the comic. Unlike satire, humor does not reject or ridicule the comic in life, but accepts and affirms it as an inevitable and necessary side of existence. Humor is an expression of cheerfulness and healthy optimism.
HUMORESQUE - a short humorous work in prose or poetry.

JAMB is a two-syllable meter in Russian versification, consisting of an unstressed and stressed syllable.

DICTIONARY OF LITERARY TERMS

Allegory - a trope consisting in an allegorical depiction of an abstract concept using a specific life image. For example, in fables and fairy tales, cunning is shown in the form of a fox, greed in the form of a wolf, deceit in the form of a snake, etc.

Alliteration - repetition of identical consonant sounds or sound combinations as a stylistic device (Hissing of foamy glasses and punch, blue flame. Push.).

Antithesis - a stylistic figure that serves to enhance the expressiveness of speech by sharply contrasting concepts, thoughts, and images. Antithesis is often built on antonyms (You are rich, I am very poor, //You are a prose writer, I am a poet. Pushk.).

Antonyms - words that have opposite meanings (hard - soft, youth - old age, respect - despise, here - there, etc.).

Anaphora - a stylistic figure consisting in the repetition of the same elements at the beginning of each parallel row, i.e. verse, stanza, prose passage (The winds did not blow in vain, I / The thunderstorm did not come in vain. Yesenin.).

Archaisms - obsolete for a certain era, obsolete linguistic elements (words, expressions, affixes), replaced by others (belly -> life, actor - actor, mirror \ -> mirror, shepherd -> shepherd, etc.).

Asyndeton - a stylistic device based on the non-union use of homogeneous members of a sentence or parts, a complex sentence [Swedish, Russian chops, chops, cuts. Fluff. If you're afraid of wolves, don't go into the forest. Seq.).

Hyperbola - a figurative expression containing an exorbitant exaggeration of size, strength, meaning, etc. any object, phenomenon (At one hundred and forty suns, the sunset glowed. Lighthouse,).

Gradation - a stylistic figure consisting of arranging words in order of increasing or decreasing meaning (In autumn, the feather grass steppes... take on their own special, original, unlike anything else appearance. Ax. I will not break, I will not falter, I will not get tired, I will not forgive a grain to my enemies . Berg.).

Dialectisms - words that have become widespread in a certain area (kochet - liter, rooster, pitching ~ liter, duck, bait, gutarit - liter, talk, watermelon - liter, pumpkin).

Nominative representations - placing a noun denoting the subject of thought in the first place in the statement for special emphasis, followed by its duplication with a personal or other pronoun (Love - everyone imagines it in their own way, everyone has their own memories).

Inversion - changing the usual word order in a sentence in order to increase the expressiveness of speech (I go out alone on the road... Lerm,).

Irony - a trope consisting in the use of a word or expression in the opposite sense to the literal one for the purpose of ridicule (Are you crazy, smart one? - so, having met a donkey, the fox asked him.

Historicisms- - obsolete words that have fallen out of use due to the disappearance of the realities that they denoted (boyar, clerk, oprichnik, collectivization, security officer).

Litotes - a stylistic figure consisting of emphasized understatement (...And he himself is from the nail. N/cr.).

Metaphor - a trope that contains a hidden comparison, a figurative rapprochement of layers based on their figurative meaning (On the thread of idle fun I"/He lowered with a cunning hand //Transparent flattery of a necklace //And the rosary of golden wisdom (P).,

Metonymy - a trope based on the designation of an object or phenomenon according to one of its characteristics (From my hands I / Old Dante falls out. Cannon. The amber in his mouth smoked. Cannon.).

Multi-Union - a stylistic figure consisting of a deliberate increase in the number of conjunctions in a sentence, usually to connect homogeneous members (I will either burst into tears, or scream, or faint.

Neologism - a word or figure of speech created to designate a new subject or to express a new concept (computerization, PR, interregional deputy group).

Appeal - this or that naming of the listeners, often followed by the use of verbs in the second person plural (at the beginning of the speech and in its other part) (Friends! Understand me: I speak out of conscience).

Oxymoron - a stylistic figure consisting of a combination of two concepts that logically exclude one another (bitter joy, ringing silence, eloquent silence).

Personification - a special type of metaphor based on the transfer of signs of living beings to inanimate objects (What are you howling about, night wind, //Why are you complaining so madly? Tutch.).

Homonyms - words belonging to the same part of speech and sounding the same, but different in meaning (marriage - “marriage” and marriage - “damaged products”; make furniture and make work).

Paradox - a statement, externally constructed, at first glance, as contrary to common sense, a false alogism (If you want peace, prepare for war).

Parallelism - analogy, similarity, commonality of characteristic features; in poetics - the same syntactic and intonation structure of sentences following each other (Your mind is as deep as the sea, //Your spirit is high as the mountains... Bruce.)

Paronyms - words of the same root” that are close in sound, but different in meaning or partially coinciding in their meaning (ignoramus - ignoramus).

Parcellation - dismemberment of a sentence with the withdrawal beyond its limits of members contacting it as a separate incomplete sentence and stylistically strengthening the main part (I demand amnesty. I demand that it be complete and comprehensive. Without reservations. Without restrictions, Hugo).

Paraphrase(s) - a trope consisting of using a descriptive phrase instead of one’s own name or the name (the king of beasts instead of a lion; black gold instead of oil; the author of “War and Peace” instead of Leo Tolstoy).

Simple repeat - using one word twice or three times in a row (Winter was waiting, nature was waiting. Pushk.).

Professionalism - a word or expression characteristic of the speech of one or another professional group (in the speech of sailors, flask - “half an hour”, in the speech of miners, issue na-gora - “raise from the mine to the surface of the earth”, etc.).

A rhetorical question - a sentence containing an affirmation or negation in the form of a question to which an answer is not expected (Who is not affected by novelty? Czech).

Rhetorical appeal - a stylistic figure, consisting in the fact that the statement is addressed to an inanimate object, an abstract concept, an absent person, thereby enhancing the expressiveness of speech (Dreams, dreams! Where is your sweetness? Fluff).

Synecdoche - a special case of metonymy, a stylistic turn consisting in the use of the name of a larger one in the meaning of a smaller one, a whole in the meaning of a part, and vice versa: All flags (instead of ships) will visit us. Fluff. Pique vest (instead of a man in a pique vest)

Syntactic parallelism - see parallelism

Synonyms - words that are close or identical in meaning, expressing the same concept, but differing either in shades of meaning, or stylistic coloring, or both (hot, hot, burning, sultry, scorching, scorching; waste, squander book., it's easy to squander).

Comparison ~ a trope based on the likening of one object to another based on a common characteristic (The air is clean and fresh, like a child’s kiss. Lerm. Her love for her son was like madness. Bitter.).

Tautology ~ semantic redundancy, which consists in the use of several cognate words in one phrase (torrential downpour).

Term - a word or phrase that accurately designates any concept used in science, technology, art (prefix, positron, duet, battery).

Trope ~ a figure of speech in which a word or expression is used figuratively in order to achieve greater artistic expressiveness. The most common types of tropes are: allegory, hyperbole, irony, litotes, metaphor, metonymy, personification, periphrasis, synecdoche, simile, epithet (see these terms in alphabetical order).

Default - a turn of phrase that consists in the fact that the author does not fully express the thought, leaving the reader or listener to guess for themselves what exactly remains unspoken (But listen: if I owe you... I own a dagger, I was born near the Caucasus. Fluff.) .

Outdated words - see archaisms and historicisms.

Figure of speech (rhetorical figure, stylistic figure) - a figure of speech, a syntactic structure used to enhance the expressiveness of a statement. The most common figures of speech: anaphora, antithesis, non-union, gradation, inversion, polyunion, parallelism, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, silence, ellipsis, epiphora (see these terms in alphabetical order).

Phraseologism - a lexically indivisible, stable in its composition and structure, complete in meaning phrase (beat the buck, keep a stone in your bosom, work carelessly, a sensitive question).

Functional styles - styles distinguished in accordance with the main functions of language associated with a particular field of human activity. Typically, colloquial, official business, scientific, journalistic, and artistic styles are distinguished.

Euphemism - a softening designation of something, especially indecent, rude (What you say is not entirely accurate, instead you are lying).

Epithet - artistic, figurative definition (cheerful wind, dead silence, hoary antiquity, black melancholy).

Ellipsis ~ omission of an element of an utterance that is easily restored in a given context or situation (Officer ~ with a pistol, Terkin ~ with a soft bayonet, Tward.).

Epiphora - a stylistic figure opposite to anaphora, consisting in the repetition of the same elements at the end of each parallel series, i.e. verse, stanza, sentence (I would like to know why I am a titular councilor? Why exactly a titular councilor? Gog.).

DICTIONARY OF LITERARY TERMS

Paragraph (fromGerman move back) - 1) indent at the beginning of the line,Red line; 2) part of the text that representsthe battle is a separate semantic passage and is indentedin the first line.

Joke (Greek unpublished) - short oral historywith a witty ending that can have a humorousor satirical overtones. In fictionan anecdote is sometimes introduced into a character's speech or into thenarration.

Aphorism (Greek saying) - the author’s thought expressedin a concise form and distinguished by the ultimate expressionness. An aphorism affects the consciousness of the reader orginal wording and is unexpectedjudgments.

It is easy and pleasant to speak the truth.M. Bulgakov

Ballad (fromItalian dance) - a short poem witha complete fantasy or heroic plotcharacter.

Fable - a short piece of narrativecharacter in verses with moralizing, satiricalmore ironic content. Using images of the bellyanimate or inanimate objects (sometimes people) in basshuman or social vices are not exposed.Usually a fable is a small scene in whichwhich depicts some event or developmentsThere is a dispute between the actors. As a rule, inthe fable contains a conclusion from the drawn allegoricalpictures (morality, morality).

Bylina - Russian narrative song-poem about boGatyrs and folk heroes, folded in the old daysby popular singer-storytellers and orally transmittedfrom generation to generation. According to the content of the epic termsbut are divided intoheroic Andhistorical and everyday.

Hymn (Greek solemn song) - in Ancient Greecea solemn poem glorifying the legendny heroes or gods. In the future - solemn,a song of praise in which a person is praisedor event. Beginning withXIXcentury anthem - solemna song expressing and glorifying a national orstate unity.

Dialogue (Greek conversation between two people) - conversationbetween two or more actors in xymagisterial work.

Mystery - type of oral folk art; plansThis allegorical definition of any previousmeta or phenomenon proposed as a question for guessingvaniya.

The tablecloth was white and covered the whole world.(Snow) Antoshka stands on one leg.(Mushroom)

Historical song - a folk narrative song dedicated to a historical event or hero. Historical songs are works of oralfolk art, composed of epic verse, sung.

Winged words - apt expressions, often shortquotes or aphorisms that have become widespreadunderstanding in live speech.

Time is money.B. Franklin

Legend (lat. what should be read) - folka legend about some remarkable event in lifesociety or about an outstanding act of a personcentury. Varyhistorical, religious, everyday Andother legends.

Chronicle - description of historical events by year,which was created by learned people, most often monksmi. The oldest Russian chronicle is called “The Taletemporary years"; compiled by a monk of Kiev-Pecherskmonastery by Nestor in 1112.

Myth (Greek word, legend) - a legend conveyingideas of people in ancient times about the origin of the worldand life on earth, about gods and heroes. We are most famousphys of Ancient Greece.

Monologue (from Greek I say one) - in literary workconducting the speech of the actor addressed to himselfyourself or other actors.

Scenery (fr. area, country) - description of paintings withchildbirth in a work of art, which is often usedLives as an additional means for a more expressivegreat depiction of the state of mind of literaryheroes.

Character (lat. personality, person) - is it valid?literary work.

Song (song) - one of the most ancient forms of lyricalpoetry, a poem intended to be sung andusually consisting of several stanzas (couplets), often withchorus. In ancient times, the lyrics of the song consisted of onetemporarily with the melody and was inseparable from music and movementnies who accompanied her during work, folkfestivities, during the performance of religious or household ritesDov. Highlightlabor, ritual, everyday, lyrical Andhistorical songs.

Tale - a narrative work with a plotmore complex than in the story, and usually larger in volumeto him.

Proverb - type of oral folk art; markfigurative expression defining some lifenew phenomenon. Unlike a proverb, a saying is lesson direct instructive meaning and is limited tosome allegorical definition of some phenomenonnia.As is the master, so is the work. Seven Fridays a week.

Portrait - description of the character’s appearance (facial features,clothes, figures, postures, features of gestures, gait, manner of speaking and bearing)

Proverb - type of oral folk art; a short (often in poetic form) figurative saying aboutwater of various life phenomena. Most often, a proverb consists of two parts: a figurative image of someor the apparition and the final teaching. In proverbsa variety of artistic media are usedexpressiveness, they reflect folk wisdom.Food is known by taste, and skill by art.

Teaching - one of the types of ancient Russian literature; whethera literary work of an edifying nature.

Poem (fromGreek I do, I create) - a large poetic poema work that tells about the actions andexperiences of literary heroes, about events in whichthey participate, as well as about the author’s feelings and experiences.

joke - a humorous folk expression, complete withoutoffensive humor.

There is a washcloth on the stake - start over.

Saying - a type of Russian joke. Typically used at the beginning, middle and end of a story:in neko Thor's kingdom (at first);nothing to do (in the middle);Here A fairy tale for you, but a glass of butter for me (at the end).

Parable - a short story that concludesmeaningful moral or religious teaching.Widely represented in the Bible, in allegorical formexpresses various spiritual instructions.

Nickname (Greek fictitious name) - fictitiousthe name or surname with which the authors sign theirworks or under which actors perform ontheater stage.

Story - a short work of art aboutany event in a person’s life without a detailed picturereflections of what wasbefore Andafter this event.

Fairy tale - a work in prose (less often in verse) about fictionlennyh events. This is the oldest and most widespreada form of oral folk art among all peoples, fromreflecting folk traditions, life and characters. According toholding is distinguishedmagical, everyday, satirical, humorous, political fairy tales.

Patter - a phrase deliberately built onreading sounds or words that are difficult to pronounce together.Used to teach good diction and to displaymaintaining a clear pronunciation of certain sounds, andalso for fun game tasks.

Karl stole corals from Clara, And Clara stole Karl’s clarinet.

Poem (Greek row, order) - poetic prothe product is usually of small volume.

Plot (fr. subject) - a number of interconnected and relatedconsequently the developing events that make upcontent of a literary work.

Text (lat. textile; connection, connection) - several sentences or paragraphs interconnected into a single wholetheme and main idea. The text can representfight and an entire article or book.

Folklore (English) folk wisdom) - oral folkpoetic creativity. Types of folklore includewould lines, folk songs, fairy tales, ditties, proverbs, pogos vorki, riddles. All these works created in ancient timestion times, in oral transmission are subject to processingke. As a result, various variants of one andthe same work.

Quote (fromlat. call as witnesses) - verbatim youexcerpt from any work, someone's speech,provided by the author for clarification or confirmationyour thoughts.

Ditty - one of the types of folklore; a short (usually four lines) song in response to topical issuestia of a socio-political or everyday nature.

Vanya sits at the gate, With his mouth wide open. And no one will understand Where is the gate and where is the mouth.

Epigraph (Greek inscription) - among the ancient Greeks: inscription onany subject. Currently: phrase (oftenquotation), placed before the essay or before its separate section, in which the author explains his intention,the idea of ​​the whole work or part of it.

Episode (Greek insert) - a small part of literaryworks that play in a sequence of eventsa certain role. These are the actions of the characters, smallincidents or major events that guide timestwist of action.

LITERARY TERMS

Author - writer who created oneor a series of works.

Allegory - allegory, imagesome kind of distractionvaluable idea in the concrete,clearly presentingtimes. For example, in the fable"Dragonfly and Ant" Strekofor - this is an allegory of frivolityLeah, and the Ant is prescientruthlessness.

Antithesis - artistic proticomparison of charactersimages, concepts, etc.,creating the effect of sharp contrast.

Archaisms - words and phrases thatrye were used in the pastcrowbar to indicate someor objects, phenomena orconcepts, but are superseded by othersin the same words and phrases,which are used intemporary speech.

Poster - list of existingpersons in the play.

Ballad - a short poemwith historical or Fantastatic plot.

Fable - short allegorical

satirical storyproblems with morality.

Blank verse - poetic productionleading without rhyme.

Bylina - Russian folklore genrera; the song that tells storiestalks about the exploits of heroes and reflects the life of the Middle Ageshowl of Rus'.

Hyperbola - artistic preincrease, strengthening of qualities or results of actions.

Dialogue - conversation between two or morepersons

The beginning - initial moment of developmentevents depictedin a work of artNI.

Idea - the main idea,the plan that determinesholding the work. Ideacan be formulatedby the author in the text in the form of a clearconclusion (for example, morality infable), or can logically follow from the entire work.Climax - the highest point of tension in the development of actionsartistic productioninformation

Lyrics - a type of literary workknowledge depicting dothe spiritual world of man, hisfeelings, moods, experiencesvaniya.

Metaphor - hidden comparison, inwhich lacks the words:as if, as if.(For example, "emerald trava).

Myth - A legend that arose in the depthsside of antiquity, in whichnatural phenomena were explainedyes, the origin of the world andman with the help of artpersonal fantasy.

Monologue - expanded statementlack of one activetsa or the author of the work.

Morality - an instructive conclusion inwork of artnii, usually in a fable.

Personification - endowment of phenomenaor objects of inanimate nature with human qualities (speech, laughter, thoughts, experiences).

Repeat - repetition of one phrase,words or phrases infor some time nowcutting text; usedfor rhythmicity, as well asto highlight special significanceour thoughts, feelings, images.

Prologue - element of composition, towhich precedes the plot.

Denouement - final pointin the development of action worsereal work.

Comparison - comparison of people,objects, phenomena according to theirexternal resemblancequalities that they share. For examplemeasures: "Anchar, how formidablehourly..."

Plot - a chain of events that

develop in the work.

Subject - a range of problems, life phenomena on which to focusthe author of a literary work sharpened his attention.

Fragment - excerpt, part of productionmanagement

Epigraph - a short saying thatswarm is placed in front of productionleading, expressing its headsnew thought or attitudeauthor to the events.

Epithet - artistic definitiontion. For example:"The lonely sail is white

Basic artistic techniques,

used by the authors in literary works

Comparison - comparison of objects or phenomenaniy on a general basis. Most often the comparison is madeusing wordsas, exactly, as if, as if.

Moon,How pale spot,

Through the gloomy clouds it turned yellow...

A. Pushkin

Epithet - figurative definition of someproperties or qualities of an object, phenomenon:silk curls, silver dew, shining eyes, greedy sight.

In folk poetry they often useThese are the so-called permanent epithets:red devi tsa, Kind Well done, blue sea, black clouds, green grass.

Personification - transfer of properties of living susociety on an inanimate object.

Green hairstyle,

Girlish breasts,

O thin birch tree,

Why did you look into the pond? S. Yesenin

Metaphor - transference to a phenomenon that hothey want to depict the names of another, well-knownphenomena. Young peals thunder,

The rain is splashing, the dust is flying,

Hungpearls rain,

And the sunthreads gilds. F. Tyutchev

Our everyday speech is replete with metaphors:cold heart, killed grief, break head and etc.

Hyperbola - artistic exaggerationdimensions and sizes of objects or phenomena: Isaid those damn it a million times.

Hyperboles are often used in fairy tales.(the forest is high before heaven), in epics(sword weighing one hundred poods).

Allegory - allegory; image distracteda new concept through a specific image. Reception more oftengo is used in fables and fairy tales. Cunning is embodied in the image of a fox, cowardice - in the image of a hare, stubbornproperty - in the form of a donkey, etc.

The fox sees the cheese, - The fox is captivated by the cheese,Cheat approaches the tree on tiptoe;He wags his tail and doesn’t take his eyes off Crow...

I. Krylov

Phraseologisms - stable combinations of words:my friend and I ate not alone peck of salt.

Exclamation - exclamation words and prepositionsexpressions used to enhance feelings.

Hurry up, my dear! You are losing Hour after Hour! You can't count the stars!

K. Sluchevsky

A rhetorical question - interrogative sentencea sentence that does not require an answer. This is how the writer drawsreaders' attention to some problem or phenomenon,making you think.

"Guys!Isn't Moscow behind us?

We’ll die near Moscow...”

M. Lermontov

Irony - ridicule; The technique is based on the contrast of visible and hidden meaning.

“Ai, Moska!know she's strong

What barks at the Elephant!

I. Krylov

Synonyms - words that are close in meaning.

A magical dreamfascinated,

Allentangled allshackled

Light down chain...

F. Tyutchev

Antonyms - words with opposite meanings.

In a daydespondency accept it:Dayfun, Believe it will come.

A. Pushkin

Repeat - use of the same words throughoutrequests or exclamations to enhance emotional impression.

Moscow, I thought about you!Moscow... there is so much in this soundFor the Russian heart it has merged!

A. Pushkin

Basic theoretical and literary concepts

1. Fiction as the art of words

Literature- this is the art of words, one of the main types of art. Literature refers to works of art enshrined in the written word. Unlike painting, sculpture, music, dance, which have an objective-sensual form from some matter (paint, stone, etc.) or from action (the sound of a string, the movement of a body), literature creates its form from words, from language, which, embodied in sounds and letters, is comprehended not in sensory perception, but in intellectual understanding. It is in the art of words that a person, as a bearer of spirituality, becomes an object of reproduction and comprehension from various points of view, the main point of application of artistic forces even when it is not about him directly, but about the world around him. In its diverse and multifaceted manifestations, literature is studied by various branches of literary criticism.

2. Artistic image - this is fundamental in artistic creativity way perception and reflection of reality, a form of knowledge of life and expression of this knowledge specific to art.

3. Folklore- this (from English - folk wisdom) is oral folk art. Features: variation, contact between the creator or performer and the listener, collectivity of creation and distribution. Folklore is the most important part of the national culture of every nation, however, despite the expressive national coloring of folklore works, many of their themes, motifs, images and plots turn out to be very close to different nations. Among the many genres folklore includes epics, fairy tales, riddles, proverbs, sayings, ballads, songs, ditties, ritual poetry, parables, legends, and spiritual poems.

4. Literary types and genres

Genus- this is one of the main sections in the taxonomy of literary works, defining three different forms: epic, lyric, drama.

Lyrics- an expressive type of literature. The subject is the inner world of a person, his thoughts and feelings. Lyric genres: ode, poem (landscape, civil, intimate, philosophical lyrics), elegy, song, thought, message, epigram.

Epic- a visual type of literature. The subject is real reality in its objective, material reality: characters, events, everyday and natural environment in which the characters exist and interact. Genres: small odds ( story, essay, novella), medium forms ( story), large forms ( novel, epic novel).

Story- a story about an event in a person’s life; a single example shows a clash of characters and views; characterized by the capacity of details and depth of subtext.

Feature article- a short narrative depicting the customs of a particular environment, a particular human type; artistic and journalistic genre.

Novella- an extraordinary incident with a dynamic plot development and its sharp twists.

Tale- a story about the vicissitudes of human life; This example shows some patterns of life itself.

Novel- a story about many characters whose destinies are intertwined; the subject of the image is life in its complexity and inconsistency.

Drama- a visual type of literature. The subject is objective material existence, presented not in its entirety, but through the characters of people, manifested in their purposeful actions. Genres: tragedy, drama, comedy.

Tragedy recreates acute, insoluble conflicts and contradictions in which exceptional individuals are involved; irreconcilable clash of warring forces; one of the fighting parties dies.

Drama- depiction of the individual in his dramatic relationships with society and difficult experiences; however, there is a possibility of a successful resolution of the conflict of clashing forces.

Comedy reproduces mainly the private lives of people with the aim of ridiculing the backward, outdated.

5. Main literary trends

Classicism(XVII - early XIX century) Imitation of images of ancient literature; faith in the reason of rationalism; strict hierarchy of genres: high - tragedy, ode, epic; low - satire, comedy, fable. Representatives: Moliere, A.D. Kantemir, M.V. Lomonosov, A.P. Sumarokov, D.I. Fonvizin, G.R. Derzhavin.

• The requirement to subordinate a person's personal interests to public duty.
• Presence of civic motives.
• Antagonistic contradictions at the heart of the conflict.
• The tragic intensity of the conflict.
• The desire to emphasize what is common in a person; satirical typification.

Sentimentalism(2nd half of the 18th century) Priority of feelings; the significance of the concept of a “natural” person; genres: elegy, message, epistolary novel, travel notes, diaries. Representatives: S. Richardson, L. Stern, J.J. Russo, G.E. Lessing, N.M. Karamzin.

• Cult of feelings.
• Cult of nature.
• Emphasized attention to the spiritual world of heroes (including those belonging to the lower class).
• The priority of natural feeling over reason.
• Sympathy for the common man.
• Frankness in depicting a person.

Romanticism(end of the 18th - 1st half of the 19th century) The embodiment of the discord between personality and reality; reflection of pessimism; historicism, desire for exoticism; the flowering of lyricism; genres: historical novel, idyll, ballad; romantic poem. Representatives: THIS. Goffman, J. Byron, V. Hugo, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.S. Pushkin, E.A. Baratynsky, M.Yu. Lermontov, F.I. Tyutchev.

• Character system with one main character.
• The immutability of the characters' characters.
• The irresistibility and demonism of the hero is the “charm of Evil.”
• Exotic plot and location.
• The theme of fate (fate) in the fate of the hero.

Realism(2nd half of the 19th century - 20th century) Study of human character in its connection with the environment; focus on an objective, truthful reflection of life; reflection of the depth and breadth of reality; embodiment of the social-critical principle; life-likeness: creating a living image of reality; genre representation: novel, story, epic, lyric-epic drama, lyrics. Representatives: O. Balzac, C. Dickens, J.S. Turgenev, I.A. Goncharov, L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.P. Chekhov.

• A true and authentic portrayal of life.
• A depiction of a historically specific society.
• The image of a hero typical of a given era and environment.
• The motivation of plot collisions and character actions.
• Depiction of life and characters in development.
• Rethinking the romantic conflict “hero - society”.
• Unresolved and unsolvable conflict (open ending).

6. Shape and content literary works are inseparable from each other.

Content: theme, problem, idea, conflict, pathos.

Subject- the circle of events and phenomena underlying a work of art, the subject of artistic depiction (the area of ​​reflection of reality).

Issues- list of problems.

Problem- an acute contradiction in life, a point of tension between the existing and the should, the desired and the real. The same topic can serve as the basis for posing different problems (the topic of serfdom - the problem of the internal unfreedom of the serf, the problem of mutual corruption, deformation of both serfs and serf-owners, the problem of social injustice).

Idea- the essence of the writer’s attitude to life; the main general idea underlying the work of art and expressed in figurative form; the author's attitude to what is depicted; solution to the main problem. It is expressed in the entire artistic structure of the work.

Conflict- a clash of characters and circumstances, views and principles of life, which forms the basis of action.

Art form: plot, composition, central and minor characters, characters, techniques for creating character images, landscape, interior, artistic details, artistic speech.

Plot- a set of events in a work of art, presented in a certain connection, revealing the characters of the characters and the writer’s attitude to the depicted life phenomena; sequence, course of events that makes up the content of a work of art.

Composition- sequential construction, arrangement and interrelation of parts, images, episodes of a work of art.

Stages of action development

Exposition- the conditions that gave rise to the conflict, the general background of the action, can be direct (at the beginning of the work) or delayed (in the middle or end of the work).

The beginning is an event that is the beginning of an action.

Climax - the highest point of tension in the development of action, the highest point of conflict, when the contradiction reaches its limit and is expressed in a particularly acute form.

Denouement- outcome of events. This is the final moment in creating an artistic conflict.

Epilogue- always concludes the work. The epilogue tells about the further fate of the heroes.

Lyrical digression(extra-plot, inserted element) - the author’s deviation from the plot, the author’s lyrical insertions on topics that have little or nothing to do with the main theme of the work. On the one hand, they inhibit the plot development of the work, and on the other, they allow the writer to openly express his subjective opinion on various issues that are directly or indirectly related to the central theme.

Imaging Tools

1. Epigraph to a literary work may indicate the main character trait of the hero.

3. Hero's Speech. Internal monologues and dialogues with other characters in the work characterize the character and reveal his inclinations and preferences.

4. Actions, the actions of the hero.

5. Psychological analysis of the character: detailed, detailed recreation of feelings, thoughts, motives - the inner world of the character; here the depiction of the “dialectics of the soul” (the movement of the hero’s inner life) is of particular importance.

6. The character's relationships with other characters in the work.

7. Portrait of a hero. Image of the hero’s external appearance: his face, figure, clothing, behavior.

Portrait types:

• naturalistic (portrait copied from a real person);
• psychological (through the hero’s appearance, the hero’s inner world and character are revealed);
• idealizing or grotesque (spectacular and vivid, replete with metaphors, comparisons, epithets).

8. Social environment, society.

9. Scenery helps to better understand the thoughts and feelings of the character.

10. Artistic detail: description of objects and phenomena of the reality surrounding the character (details that reflect a broad generalization can act as symbolic details).

11. The background of the hero's life.

Author's image- a character, a protagonist of a work of art, considered among other characters, a conditional carrier of the author's speech in a prose work. It cannot be identified with the writer, since it is the fruit of the latter’s creative imagination.

Literary hero - the image of a person in a work of art. Often used in the meaning of “character”, “actor”. An additional semantic connotation is the positive dominant of the personality, its originality, exclusivity.

Lyrical hero - the image of the poet (his lyrical “I”), whose experiences, thoughts, feelings are reflected in the lyrical work. The lyrical hero is not identical to the biographical personality.

7. Language of the work of art:

• artistic vocabulary : tropes (words and expressions used in a figurative meaning), groups of words of a certain origin and sphere of use;
• syntactic figures : repetition, parallelism, antithesis, inversion, rhetorical questions, appeals, exclamations;
• euphony (features of sound): euphony, rhythm, rhyme, anaphora, epiphora, alliteration, assonance, dissonance, sound repetitions.

Trails(visual and expressive means)

Epithet- a figurative definition characterizing a property, quality, concept, phenomenon.

Metaphor- a figurative meaning of a word based on similarity.

Comparison- comparison of two objects, concepts or states that have a common feature.

Hyperbola- artistic exaggeration.

Allegory- transferring the meanings of one circle of phenomena to another, for example, from the human world to the animal world, allegory.

8. Prose and poetry: similarities and differences

Basics of versification

Poetic size - consistently expressed form of poetic rhythm. Determined by the number of syllables, stresses or feet.

Trochee- two-syllable meter with stress on the first syllable. | ` _ |

Iambic- two-syllable meter with stress on the second syllable. | _ ` |

Dactyl- three-syllable meter with stress on the first syllable. | ` _ _ |.

Amphibrachium(“surrounded”) - three-syllable meter with stress on the second syllable. | _ ` _ |

Anapaest(“inverted, reflected”) - three-syllable meter with stress on the third syllable. | _ _ ` |

Rhythm - repetition of homogeneous sound, intonation, syntactic features in poetic speech; periodic repetition of any elements of poetic speech at certain intervals; the orderliness of its sound structure.

Rhyme - repetition of sounds connecting the endings of two or more lines.

Stanza - a group of verses repeated in poetic speech, related in meaning, as well as in the arrangement of rhymes; a combination of verses that forms a rhythmic and syntactic whole, united by a certain rhyme system; additional rhythmic element of verse.

Sources and literature:

1. Culture of written speech [Electronic resource]: St. Petersburg: 2001-2016 - http://gramma.ru/
2. Meshcheryakova M.I. Literature in tables and diagrams: Theory. Story. Dictionary. - 8th edition. - Moscow: Iris-press, 2008. - 224. - (Home tutor).

ANTITHESIS - opposition of characters, events, actions, words. It can be used at the level of details, particulars (“Black evening, white snow” - A. Blok), or can serve as a technique for creating the entire work as a whole. This is the contrast between the two parts of A. Pushkin’s poem “The Village” (1819), where the first depicts pictures of beautiful nature, peaceful and happy, and the second, by contrast, depicts episodes from the life of a powerless and brutally oppressed Russian peasant.

ARCHITECTONICS - the relationship and proportionality of the main parts and elements that make up a literary work.

DIALOGUE - a conversation, conversation, argument between two or more characters in a work.

PREPARATION - an element of the plot, meaning the moment of conflict, the beginning of the events depicted in the work.

INTERIOR is a compositional tool that recreates the environment in the room where the action takes place.

INTRIGUE is the movement of the soul and the actions of a character aimed at searching for the meaning of life, truth, etc. - a kind of “spring” that drives the action in a dramatic or epic work and makes it entertaining.

COLLISION - a clash of opposing views, aspirations, interests of characters in a work of art.

COMPOSITION – the construction of a work of art, a certain system in the arrangement of its parts. Vary compositional means(portraits of characters, interior, landscape, dialogue, monologue, including internal) and compositional techniques(montage, symbol, stream of consciousness, self-disclosure of the character, mutual disclosure, depiction of the character’s character in dynamics or statics). The composition is determined by the characteristics of the writer’s talent, the genre, content and purpose of the work.

COMPONENT - an integral part of a work: when analyzing it, for example, we can talk about components of content and components of form, sometimes interpenetrating.

CONFLICT is a clash of opinions, positions, characters in a work, driving its action, like intrigue and conflict.

CLIMAX is an element of the plot: the moment of highest tension in the development of the action of the work.

LEITMOTHIO - the main idea of ​​a work, repeatedly repeated and emphasized.

MONOLOGUE is a lengthy speech of a character in a literary work, addressed, in contrast to an internal monologue, to others. An example of an internal monologue is the first stanza of A. Pushkin’s novel “Eugene Onegin”: “My uncle has the most honest rules...”, etc.

MONTAGE is a compositional technique: compiling a work or its section into a single whole from individual parts, passages, quotes. An example is the book of Eug. Popov "The beauty of life."

MOTIVE is one of the components of a literary text, part of the theme of the work, which more often than others acquires symbolic meaning. Road motif, house motif, etc.

OPPOSITION - a variant of the antithesis: opposition, opposition of views, behavior of characters at the level of characters (Onegin - Lensky, Oblomov - Stolz) and at the level of concepts ("wreath - crown" in M. Lermontov's poem "The Death of the Poet"; "it seemed - it turned out" in A. Chekhov's story “The Lady with the Dog”).

LANDSCAPE is a compositional tool: the depiction of pictures of nature in a work.

PORTRAIT – 1. Compositional means: depiction of a character’s appearance – face, clothing, figure, demeanor, etc.; 2. Literary portrait is one of the prose genres.

STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS is a compositional technique used mainly in the literature of modernist movements. Its area of ​​application is the analysis of complex crisis states of the human spirit. F. Kafka, J. Joyce, M. Proust and others are recognized as masters of the “stream of consciousness”. In some episodes, this technique can also be used in realistic works - Artem Vesely, V. Aksenov and others.

PROLOGUE is an extra-plot element that describes the events or persons involved before the start of the action in the work (“The Snow Maiden” by A. N. Ostrovsky, “Faust” by I. V. Goethe, etc.).

DENOUNCING is a plot element that fixes the moment of resolution of the conflict in the work, the outcome of the development of events in it.

RETARDATION is a compositional technique that delays, stops or reverses the development of action in a work. It is carried out by including in the text various kinds of digressions of a lyrical and journalistic nature (“The Tale of Captain Kopeikin” in “Dead Souls” by N. Gogol, autobiographical digressions in A. Pushkin’s novel “Eugene Onegin”, etc.).

PLOT - a system, the order of development of events in a work. Its main elements: prologue, exposition, plot, development of action, climax, denouement; in some cases an epilogue is possible. The plot reveals cause-and-effect relationships in the relationship between characters, facts and events in the work. To evaluate various types of plots, concepts such as plot intensity and “wandering” plots can be used.

THEME – the subject of the image in the work, its material, indicating the place and time of action. The main topic, as a rule, is specified by topic, i.e., a set of private, individual topics.

FABULA - the sequence of unfolding of the events of a work in time and space.

FORM is a certain system of artistic means that reveals the content of a literary work. Categories of form - plot, composition, language, genre, etc. Form as a way of existence of the content of a literary work.

CHRONOTOP is the spatiotemporal organization of material in a work of art.

Bald man with white beard – I. Nikitin

Old Russian giant – M. Lermontov

With the young dogaressa – A. Pushkin

Falls on the sofa – N. Nekrasov

Used most often in postmodern works:

There's a stream underneath him,
But not azure,
There is an aroma above it -
Well, I have no strength.
He, having given everything to literature,
I tasted its full fruits.

Drive away, man, five altyn,
And don’t irritate unnecessarily.
Freedom sower desert
Reaps a meager harvest.

(I. Irtenev)

EXPOSITION - an element of the plot: setting, circumstances, positions of the characters in which they find themselves before the start of the action in the work.

EPIGRAPH – a proverb, a quotation, someone’s statement placed by the author before a work or its part, parts, designed to indicate his intention: “...So who are you finally? I am part of that force that always wants evil and always does good.” Goethe. “Faust” is an epigraph to M. Bulgakov’s novel “The Master and Margarita.”

EPILOGUE is a plot element that describes the events that occurred after the end of the action in the work (sometimes after many years - I. Turgenev. “Fathers and Sons”).

ALLEGORY is an allegory, a type of metaphor. Allegory captures a conventional image: in fables, the fox is cunning, the donkey is stupidity, etc. Allegory is also used in fairy tales, parables, and satire.

ALLITERATION is an expressive means of language: repetition of identical or homogeneous consonant sounds in order to create a sound image:

And its area is empty
He runs and hears behind him -
It's like thunder roaring -
Heavy ringing galloping
Along the shocked pavement...

(A. Pushkin)

ANAPHOR - an expressive means of language: repetition at the beginning of poetic lines, stanzas, paragraphs of the same words, sounds, syntactic structures.

With all my insomnia I love you,
With all my insomnia I listen to you -
About that time, as throughout the Kremlin
The bell ringers wake up...

But my river is yes with your river,
But my hand- yes with your hand
Not will come together. My joy, how long
Not the dawn will catch up.

(M. Tsvetaeva)

ANTITHESIS is an expressive means of language: the opposition of sharply contrasting concepts and images: You and the poor, // You and the abundant, // You and the mighty, // You and the powerless, // Mother Rus'! (I. Nekrasov).

ANTONYMS – words with opposite meanings; serve to create bright contrasting images:

The rich man fell in love with the poor woman,
A scientist fell in love with a stupid woman,
I fell in love with ruddy - pale,
I fell in love with a good one - a harmful one,
Gold - copper half.

(M. Tsvetaeva)

ARCHAISMS - obsolete words, figures of speech, grammatical forms. They serve in the work to recreate the flavor of a bygone era and characterize the character in a certain way. They can give solemnity to the language: “Show off, city of Petrov, and stand, unshakable, like Russia,” and in other cases - an ironic shade: “This youth in Magnitogorsk gnawed at the granite of science in college and, with God’s help, graduated from it successfully.”

UNION is an expressive means of language that accelerates the pace of speech in the work: “Clouds are rushing, clouds are curling; // The invisible moon // Illuminates the flying snow; // the sky is cloudy, the night is cloudy" (A. Pushkin).

BARVARISMS are words from a foreign language. With their help, the flavor of a specific era can be recreated (“Peter the Great” by A. N. Tolstoy), and a literary character can be characterized (“War and Peace” by L. N. Tolstoy). In some cases, barbarisms can be the object of controversy and irony (V. Mayakovsky.“About “fiascoes”, “apogees” and other unknown things”).

RHETORICAL QUESTION – an expressive means of language: a statement in the form of a question that does not require an answer:

Why is it so painful and so difficult for me?
Am I waiting for what? Do I regret anything?

(M. Lermontov)

RHETORICAL EXCLAMATION – an expressive means of language; an appeal that serves the purpose of increasing emotionality usually creates a solemn, upbeat mood:

Oh, Volga! My cradle!
Has anyone ever loved you like I do?

(N. Nekrasov)

VULGARISM is a vulgar, rude word or expression.

HYPERBOLE - excessive exaggeration of the properties of an object, phenomenon, quality in order to enhance the impression.

Your love will not cure you at all,
forty thousand other loving pavements.
Ah, my Arbat, Arbat,
you are my fatherland,
will never completely get past you.

(B. Okudzhava)

GRADATION is an expressive means of language, with the help of which the depicted feelings and thoughts are gradually strengthened or weakened. For example, in the poem “Poltava” A. Pushkin characterizes Mazepa this way: “that he does not know the shrine; // that he does not remember charity; // that he doesn't like anything; // that he is ready to shed blood like water; // that he despises freedom; // that there is no homeland for him.” Anaphora can serve as the basis for gradation.

GROTESQUE is an artistic device of an exaggerated violation of the proportions of the depicted, a bizarre combination of the fantastic and the real, the tragic and the comic, the beautiful and the ugly, etc. The grotesque can be used at the level of style, genre and image: “And I see: // Half of the people are sitting. // Oh, devilry! //Where is the other half?” (V. Mayakovsky).

DIALECTISM - words from a common national language, used mainly in a certain area and used in literary works to create local color or speech characteristics of characters: “Nagulnov let his mashtaka tent and stopped him side of the mound” (M. Sholokhov).

JARGON is the conventional language of a small social group, differing from the national language mainly in vocabulary: “The writing language was refined, but at the same time flavored with a good dose of maritime jargon... the way sailors and tramps speak.” (K. Paustovsky).

ABSOLUTE LANGUAGE is the result of an experiment that was mainly carried out by futurists. Its goal is to find a correspondence between the sound of a word and its meaning and to free the word from its usual meaning: “Bobeobi lips sang. // Veeomi's eyes sang..." (V. Khlebnikov).

INVERSION is a change in the order of words in a sentence in order to highlight the meaning of a word or give an unusual sound to the phrase as a whole: “We moved from the highway to a piece of canvas // Barge haulers of these Repin’s legs” (Dm. Kedrin).

IRONY - subtle hidden mockery: “He sang the faded color of life // At almost eighteen years old” (A. Pushkin).

PUN – a witty joke based on homonyms or the use of different meanings of one word:

The realm of rhymes is my element
And I write poetry easily.
Without hesitation, without delay
I run to line by line.
Even to the Finnish brown rocks
I'm making a pun.

(D. Minaev)

LITOTE - a figurative means of language, built on a fantastic understatement of an object or its properties: “Your Spitz, lovely Spitz, // No more than a thimble” (A. Griboedov).

METAPHOR – a word or expression used in a figurative meaning. A figurative means of language based on implicit comparison. The main types of metaphors are allegory, symbol, personification: “Hamlet, who thought with timid steps...” (O. Mandelstam).

METONYMY is an artistic means of language: replacing the name of a whole with the name of a part (or vice versa) based on their similarity, proximity, contiguity, etc.: “What’s wrong with you, blue sweater, // There’s an anxious breeze in your eyes?” (A. Voznesensky).

NEOLOGISM – 1. A word or expression created by the author of a literary work: A. Blok – above the blizzard, etc.; V. Mayakovsky - huge, hammer-handed, etc.; I. Severyanin – sparkling, etc.; 2. Words that have acquired a new additional meaning over time - satellite, cart, etc.

RHETORICAL APPEAL – an oratorical device, an expressive means of language; a word or group of words that names the person to whom the speech is addressed and contains an appeal, demand, request: “Listen, comrades descendants, // agitator, loudmouth, leader” (V. Mayakovsky).

OXYMORON - an epithet used in the opposite meaning of the words being defined: “miserly knight”, “living corpse”, “blinding darkness”, “sad joy”, etc.

PERSONIFICATION is a method of metaphorically transferring the features of living things to non-living things: “The river is playing,” “It’s raining,” “The poplar is burdened by loneliness,” etc. The polysemantic nature of personification is revealed in the system of other artistic means of language.

HOMONYMS - words that sound the same, but have different meanings: scythe, stove, marriage, once, etc. “And I didn’t care. about // What a secret volume my daughter has // Dozing under the pillow until the morning" (A. Pushkin).

ONOMATOPOEIA – onomatopoeia, imitation of natural and everyday sounds:

The kulesh cackled in the cauldron.
Heeled in the wind
Red wings of fire.

(E. Yevtushenko)

Midnight in the swamp wilderness
The reeds rustle barely audibly, silently.

(K. Balmont)

PARALLELISM is a figurative means of language; a similar symmetrical arrangement of speech elements, in relation to creating a harmonious artistic image. Parallelism is often found in oral folklore and in the Bible. In fiction, parallelism can be used at the level of verbal-sound, rhythmic, compositional: “Black raven in the gentle dusk, // Black velvet on dark shoulders” (A. Blok).

PERIPHRASE – a figurative means of language; replacing the concept with a descriptive phrase: “Sad time! The charm of the eyes! - autumn; “Foggy Albion” – England; “Singer of Gyaur and Juan” - Byron, etc.

PLEONASM (Greek “pleonasmos” - excess) is an expressive means of language; repetition of words and phrases that are close in meaning: sadness, melancholy, once upon a time, crying - shedding tears, etc.

REPEATMENTS are stylistic figures, syntactic constructions based on the repetition of words that carry a special semantic load. Types of repetitions – Anaphora, Epiphora, Refrain, Pleonasm, Tautology and etc.

REFRAIN – an expressive means of language; periodic repetition of a semantically complete passage that summarizes the thought expressed in it:

Mountain king on a long journey
- It's boring in a foreign country. -
He wants to find a beautiful maiden.
-You won't come back to me. -
He sees a manor on a mossy mountain.
- It's boring in a foreign country. -
Little Kirsten is standing in the yard.
-You won't come back to me. –<…>

(K. Balmont )

SYMBOL (one of the meanings) is a type of metaphor, a comparison of a generalizing nature: for M. Lermontov, “sail” is a symbol of loneliness; A. Pushkin’s “star of captivating happiness” is a symbol of freedom, etc.

SYNECDOCHE is a figurative means of language; view Metonymies, based on replacing the name of the whole with the name of its part. Synecdoche is sometimes called "quantitative" metonymy. “The bride has gone crazy today” (A. Chekhov).

COMPARISON is a figurative means of language; creating an image by comparing the already known with the unknown (old with new). Comparison is created using special words (“as”, “as if”, “exactly”, “as if”), instrumental case forms or comparative forms of adjectives:

And she herself is majestic,
Swims out like a peahen;
And as the speech says,
It's like a river babbling.

(A. Pushkin )

TAUTOLOGY is an expressive means of language; repetition of words with the same root.

Where is this house with the shutter that came off?
A room with a colorful carpet on the wall?
Dear, dear, long, long ago
I remember my childhood.

(D. Kedrin )

TRAILS are words used in a figurative meaning. Types of tropes are Metaphor, Metonymy, Epithet and etc.

DEFAULT is an expressive means of language. The hero's speech is interrupted in order to activate the reader's imagination, called upon to fill in what was missed. Typically indicated by an ellipsis:

What's wrong with me?
Father... Mazepa... execution - with a prayer
Here, in this castle, my mother -

(A. Pushkin )

EUPHEMISM is an expressive means of language; a descriptive phrase that changes the assessment of an object or phenomenon.

“In private I would call him a liar. In a newspaper article I would use the expression - a frivolous attitude towards the truth. In Parliament - I would regret that the gentleman is ill-informed. One could add that people get punched in the face for such information.” (D. Galsworthy"The Forsyte Saga").

EPITHET – a figurative device of language; a colorful definition of an object that allows you to distinguish it from a whole range of similar ones and discover the author’s assessment of what is being described. Types of epithet - constant, oxymoron, etc.: “The lonely sail is white...”.

EPIPHOR - an expressive means of language; repetition of words or phrases at the end of poetic lines. Epiphora is a rare form in Russian poetry:

Note - I love you!
Edge - I love you!
Animal - I love you!
Separation - I love you!

(V. Voznesensky )

ACROSTIC - a poem in which the initial letters of each verse form a word or phrase vertically:

The angel lay down at the edge of the sky,
Leaning over, he marvels at the abyss.
The new world was dark and starless.
Hell was silent. Not a groan was heard.

Scarlet blood timid beating,
Fragile hands are frightened and shuddering,
The world of dreams got possession
Angel's holy reflection.

The world is crowded! Let him live dreaming
About love, about sadness and about shadows,
In the eternal darkness, opening
The ABC of your own revelations.

(N. Gumilev)

ALEXANDRIAN VERSE - a system of couplets; iambic hexameter with a number of paired verses based on the principle of alternating male and female pairs: aaBBvvGG...

Two Astronomers happened together at a feast
A
And they argued quite heatedly among themselves:
A
One repeated: the earth, spinning, circles the Sun,
B
Another is that the Sun takes all the planets with it:
B
One was Copernicus, the other was known as Ptolemy,
V
Here the cook settled the dispute with his smile.
V
The owner asked: “Do you know the course of the stars?
G
Tell me, how do you reason about this doubt?”
G
He gave the following answer: “In that Copernicus is right,
d
I will prove the truth without having been to the Sun.
d
Who has seen a simpleton of cooks like this?
E
Who would turn the hearth around the roaster?
E

(M. Lomonosov)

Alexandrian verse was used mainly in high classicist genres - tragedies, odes, etc.

AMPHIBRACHIUS (Greek “amphi” - around; “bhaspu” - short; literal translation: “short on both sides”) - three-syllable size with emphasis on the 2nd, 5th, 8th, 11th, etc. d. syllables.

Once upon a time there lived a little boy
He was as tall / as tall as a finger.
The face was / handsome, -
Like sparks / little eyes,
Like the fluff of a calf...

(V. A. Zhukovsky(two-footed amphibrachium))

ANAPEST (Greek “anapaistos” - reflected back) - three-syllable size with emphasis on the 3rd, 6th, 9th, 12th, etc. syllables.

Neither country / nor state / that
I don't want / to choose.
On Vasil/evsky os/trov
I will come / die.

(I. Brodsky(two-foot anapest))

ASSONANCE is an imprecise rhyme based on the consonance of the roots of words, rather than the endings:

The student wants to listen to Scriabin,
And for half a month he lives as a miser.

(E. Yevtushenko)

ASTROPHIC TEXT - the text of a poetic work, not divided into stanzas (N. A. Nekrasov“Reflections at the Front Entrance”, etc.).

BANAL RHYME - a frequently occurring, familiar rhyme; sound and semantic stencil. “...There are too few rhymes in the Russian language. One calls the other. The “flame” inevitably drags the “stone” along with it. Because of the “feelings”, “art” certainly appears. Who isn’t tired of “love” and “blood”, “difficult” and “wonderful”, “faithful” and “hypocritical” and so on.” (A. Pushkin"Journey from Moscow to St. Petersburg").

POOR RHYME - only stressed vowels are consonant in it: “near” - “earth”, “she” - “soul”, etc. Sometimes a poor rhyme is called a “sufficient” rhyme.

BLANK VERSE - verse without rhyme:

Of life's pleasures
Music is inferior to love alone;
But love is also a melody...

(A. Pushkin)

Blank verse appeared in Russian poetry in the 18th century. (V. Trediakovsky), in the 19th century. used by A. Pushkin (“Again I visited...”),

M. Lermontov (“Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich...”), N. Nekrasov (“Who Lives Well in Rus'”), etc. In the 20th century. blank verse is represented in the works of I. Bunin, Sasha Cherny, O. Mandelstam, A. Tarkovsky, D. Samoilov and others.

BRACHICOLON - a monosyllabic verse used to convey an energetic rhythm or as a form of humor.

Forehead -
Chalk.
Bel
Coffin.
Sang
Pop.
Sheaf
Strel -
Day
Holy!
Crypt
Blind
Shadow -
In hell!

(V. Khodasevich."Funeral")

BURIME – 1. Poem with given rhymes; 2. A game consisting of composing such poems. During the game, the following conditions are met: rhymes must be unexpected and varied; they cannot be changed or rearranged.

Free verse - free verse. It may lack meter and rhyme. Free verse is a verse in which the unit of rhythmic organization (line, Rhyme, Stanza) intonation appears (chant in oral performance):

I was lying on the top of a mountain
I was surrounded by earth.
Enchanted Edge Below
Lost all colors except two:
Light blue,
Light brown where there is blue stone
the pen of Azrael wrote,
Dagestan lay around me.

(A. Tarkovsky)

INTERNAL RHYME - consonances, one (or both) of which are located inside the verse. Internal rhyme can be constant (appears in a caesura and determines the boundary between hemistiches) and irregular (breaks the verse into separate rhythmic unequal and inconsistent groups):

If rhea, disappearing,
Numb and shining
Snow flakes curl. -
If sleepy, distant
Sometimes with reproach, sometimes in love,
The sounds of crying are gentle.

(K. Balmont)

FREE VERSE - verse in different feet. The predominant size of free verse is iambic with a verse length of one to six feet. This form is convenient for conveying lively colloquial speech and therefore is used mainly in fables, poetic comedies and dramas (“Woe from Wit” by A. S. Griboedov and others).

Crosses / no, you / shed from / terpen / I 4-stop.
From ra/zoren/ya, 2-stop.
What speech / ki them / and ru / cells 4-stop.
When in / additional / lie when / fixing / whether, 4-stop.
Let's go / ask / for ourselves / upra / you at / the River, 6-stop.
In which / torus / the stream / and the river / flows / there are 6 stops.

(I. Krylov)

Octagon - a stanza of eight verses with a certain method of rhyming. See more details. Octave. Triolet.

HEXAMETER – hexameter dactyl, favorite meter of ancient Greek poetry:

The son of the Thunderer and Lethe - Phoebus, angry with the king
He brought an evil plague upon the army: nations perished.

(Homer. Iliad; lane N. Gnedich)

The maiden dropped the urn with water and broke it on the cliff.
The virgin sits sadly, idle holding a shard.
Miracle! The water flowing from the broken urn will not dry up,
The Virgin, above the eternal stream, sits forever sad.

(A. Pushkin)

HYPERDACTYLIC RHYME - a consonance in which the stress falls on the fourth and further syllables from the end of the verse:

Goes, Balda, quacks,
And the priest, seeing Balda, jumps up...

(A. Pushkin)

DACTYLIC RHYME - a consonance in which the stress falls on the third syllable from the end of the verse:

I, Mother of God, now with prayer
Before your image, bright radiance,
Not about salvation, not before battle
Not with gratitude or repentance,
I don’t pray for my deserted soul,
For the soul of a wanderer in the light of a rootless...

(M. Yu. Lermontov)

DACTYL – three-syllable meter with emphasis on the 1st, 4th, 7th, 10th, etc. syllables:

Was approaching / gray behind / cat
The air was / tender and / intoxicated,
And from there / beckoned / garden
Somehow about / especially / green.

(I. Annensky(3-foot dactyl))

COUPLET – 1. A stanza of two verses with a paired rhyme:

Pale blue mysterious face
He drooped over the withered roses.

And the lamps gild the coffin
And their children flow transparently...

(I. Bunin)

2. Type of lyrics; a complete poem of two verses:

From others I receive praise - what ashes,
From you and blasphemy - praise.

(A. Akhmatova)

DOLNIK (Pauznik) – poetic meter on the verge syllabo-tonic And tonic versification. Based on the rhythmic repetition of strong ones (see. ICT) and weak points, as well as variable pauses between stressed syllables. The range of interictal intervals ranges from 0 to 4 unstressed. The length of a verse is determined by the number of stresses in a line. The dolnik came into widespread use at the beginning of the 20th century:

Late autumn. The sky is open
And the forests are filled with silence.
Lying down on the blurry shore
The mermaid's head is sick.

(A. Blok(three-beat dolder))

FEMALE RHYME - a consonance in which the stress falls on the second syllable from the end of the verse:

These meager villages
This meager nature
The native land of long-suffering,
You are the edge of the Russian people!

(F. I. Tyutchev)

ZEVGMA (from ancient Greek literally “bundle”, “bridge”) - an indication of the commonality of various poetic forms, literary movements, and types of art (see: Biryukov SE. Zeugma: Russian poetry from mannerism to postmodernism. – M., 1994).

IKT is a strong rhythm-forming syllable in a verse.

QUATREIN – 1. The most common stanza in Russian poetry, consisting of four verses: “In the depths of Siberian ores” by A. Pushkin, “Sail” by M. Lermontov, “Why are you greedily looking at the road” by N. Nekrasov, “Portrait” by N. Zabolotsky, “It’s Snowing” by B. Pasternak and others. The rhyming method can be paired (aabb), circular (Abba), cross (abab); 2. Type of lyrics; a poem of four lines of predominantly philosophical content, expressing a complete thought:

Until convincing, until
Murder is simple:
Two birds built a nest for me:
Truth - and Orphanhood.

(M. Tsvetaeva)

CLAUSE - a group of final syllables in a line of poetry.

LIMERICK – 1. Solid stanza form; pentaverse with double consonance based on the rhyming principle aabba. The limerick was introduced into literature as a type of comic poem telling about an unusual incident by the English poet Edward Lear:

There lived an old man from Morocco,
He saw surprisingly poorly.
- Is this your leg?
- I doubt it a little, -
The old man from Morocco answered.

2. Literary game, which consists of composing similar comic poems; in this case, the limerick must necessarily begin with the words: “Once upon a time ...”, “Once upon a time there lived an old man ...”, etc.

LIPOGRAM - a poem in which no specific sound is used. Thus, in G. R. Derzhavin’s poem “The Nightingale in a Dream” there is no “r” sound:

I slept on a high hill,
I heard your voice, nightingale;
Even in the deepest sleep
It was clear to my soul:
It sounded and then echoed,
He groaned and grinned
In hearing from afar he, -
And in the arms of Callista
Songs, sighs, clicks, whistles
Enjoyed a sweet dream.<…>

MACARONICA POETRY - poetry of a satirical or parody nature; the comic effect is achieved in it by mixing words from different languages ​​and styles:

So I set off on the road:
Dragged to the city of St. Petersburg
And got a ticket
For myself, e pur Anet,
And pur Khariton le medic
Sur le pyroscaphe "Heir",
Loaded the crew
Prepared for a voyage<…>

(I. Myatlev(“Ms. Kurdyukova’s sensations and remarks abroad were given in L’Etrange”))

MESOSISH - a poem in which the letters in the middle of the vertical line form a word.

METER - a certain rhythmic ordering of repetitions within poetic lines. The types of meter in syllabic-tonic versification are two-syllable (see. Trochee, Iambic), trisyllabic (see Dactyl, Amphibrachium, Anapest) and other poetic meters.

METRICS is a section of poetry that studies the rhythmic organization of verse.

MONORYM - a poem using one rhyme:

When, children, are you students,
Don't rack your brains over the moments
Over the Hamlets, Lyres, Kents,
Over kings and over presidents,
Over the seas and over the continents,
Don't mingle with your opponents there,
Be smart with your competitors
How will you finish the course with eminents?
And you will go into service with patents -
Don't look at the service of assistant professors
And don’t disdain, children, gifts!<…>

(A. Apukhtin)

MONOSTYCH - a poem consisting of one verse.

I
All-expressiveness is the key to worlds and secrets.
II
Love is fire, and blood is fire, and life is fire, we are fiery.

(K. Balmont)

MORA - in ancient versification, a unit of time for pronouncing one short syllable.

MALE RHYME - a consonance in which the stress falls on the last syllable of the verse:

We are free birds; it's time, brother, it's time!
There, where the mountain turns white behind the clouds,
To where the sea edges turn blue,
To where we walk only the wind... yes me!

(A. Pushkin)

ODIC STROPHE - a stanza of ten verses with a rhyming method AbAbVVgDDg:

Oh you who are waiting
Fatherland from its depths
And he wants to see them,
Which ones are calling from foreign countries.
Oh, your days are blessed!
Be of good cheer now
It’s your kindness to show
What can Platonov's own
And the quick-witted Newtons
Russian land gives birth.

(M. V. Lomonosov(“Ode on the day of accession to the All-Russian throne of Her Majesty the Empress Elisaveta Petrovna. 1747”))

OCTAVE - a stanza of eight verses with triple consonance due to rhyming abababvv:

Verse harmonies divine secrets
Don't think about figuring it out from the books of the sages:
At the shore of sleepy waters, wandering alone, by chance,
Listen with your soul to the whispering of the reeds,

I say oak forests: their sound is extraordinary
Feel and understand... In the consonance of poetry
Involuntarily from your lips dimensional octaves
The oak groves flow, sonorous as music.

(A. Maikov)

The octave is found in Byron, A. Pushkin, A.K. Tolstoy and other poets.

ONEGIN STROPHA - a stanza consisting of 14 verses (AbAbVVg-gDeeJj); created by A. Pushkin (novel “Eugene Onegin”). A characteristic feature of the Onegin stanza is the obligatory use of iambic tetrameter.

Let me be known as an Old Believer,
I don’t care – I’m even glad:
I am writing Onegin in size:
I sing, friends, in the old way.
Please listen to this tale!
Its unexpected ending
Perhaps you will approve
Let's bow our heads lightly.
Observing an ancient custom,
We are the beneficial wine
Let's drink unsmooth poems,
And they will run, limping,
For your peaceful family
To the river of oblivion for peace.<…>

(M. Lermontov(Tambov treasurer))

PALINDROM (Greek “palindromos” - running backwards), or INVERT - a word, phrase, verse, read equally both from left to right and from right to left. An entire poem can be built on a palindrome (V. Khlebnikov “Ustrug Razin”, V. Gershuni “Tat”, etc.):

The frailer the spirit, the thinner the dashing,
cunning (especially quiet in a quarrel).
Those are in Viya’s quarrel. Faith in the light.

(V. Palchikov)

PENTAMETER – pentameter dactyl. Used in combination with hexameter like elegiac distich:

I hear the silent sound of divine Hellenic speech.
I feel the shadow of the great old man with my troubled soul.

(A. Pushkin)

PENTON is a five-syllable foot consisting of one stressed and four unstressed syllables. In Russian poetry, “mainly the third penton is used, bearing stress on the third syllable:

Red flame
Dawn broke out;
Across the face of the earth
The fog is creeping...

(A. Koltsov)

PEON is a four-syllable foot consisting of one stressed and three unstressed syllables. Peons differ in place of stress - from the first to the fourth:

Sleep, half / dead and withered flowers / you,
So you are not bound / by the races / colors of beauty / you,
Near the paths beyond / traveled / nurtured by the creator,
Crumpled by the / yellow cola / catfish that didn’t / see you...

(K. Balmont(pentameter peon first))

Lanterns – / sudariki,
Tell me/you tell me
What you saw / what you heard
Are you in the night bus?…

(I. Myatlev(two-foot peon second))

Listening to the wind, / the poplar bends, / autumn rain pours from the sky,
Above Me / the measured knocking of the clock / of the wall owls is heard;
No one / smiles at me / and my heart beats anxiously /
And from the lips does not / freely burst / a monotonous / sad verse;
And like a quiet / distant stomp, / outside the window I / hear a murmur,
Incomprehensible / strange whisper / - whisper of drops / rain.

(K. Balmont(third tetrameter peon))

Let us use the third peon more in Russian poetry; peon of the fourth type does not occur as an independent meter.

TRANSFER – rhythmic mismatch; the end of the sentence does not coincide with the end of the verse; serves as a means of creating conversational intonation:

Winter. What should we do in the village? I meet
The servant bringing me a cup of tea in the morning,
Questions: is it warm? Has the snowstorm subsided?..

(A. Pushkin)

PYRRICHIUM – foot with missing accent:

The storm/haze/covers the sky/
Whirlwinds / snowy / steep / cha...

(A. Pushkin(the third foot of the second verse is pyrrhic))

PENTATHS – stanza-quatrains with double consonance:

How a pillar of smoke brightens in the heights! -
How the shadow below glides elusively!..
“This is our life,” you said to me, “
Not light smoke shining in the moonlight,
And this shadow running from the smoke..."

(F. Tyutchev)

A type of pentaverse is Limerick.

RHYTHM - repeatability, proportionality of identical phenomena at equal intervals of time and space. In a work of art, rhythm is realized at different levels: plot, composition, language, verse.

RHYME (Regional Agreement) - identical sounding clauses. Rhymes are characterized by location (paired, cross, ring), by stress (masculine, feminine, dactylic, hyperdactylic), by composition (simple, compound), by sound (accurate, root or assonance), monorhyme, etc.

SEXTINE - a stanza of six verses (ababab). Rarely found in Russian poetry:

King Fire with Queen Water. -
World beauty.
Serves the day to them white-faced
At night there is darkness,
Twilight with the Moon-Maiden.
They have three pillars to support them.<…>

(K. Balmont)

SYLLABIC VERSE - a system of versification based on an equal number of syllables in alternating verses. When there are a large number of syllables, a caesura is introduced, which divides the line into two parts. Syllabic versification is used primarily in languages ​​that have constant stress. In Russian poetry it was used in the 17th–18th centuries. S. Polotsky, A. Kantemir and others.

SYLLAB-TONIC VERSE - a system of versification based on the ordered arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables in a verse. Basic meters (dimensions) – two-syllable (Iambic, Horey) and trisyllabic (Dactyl, Amphibrachium, Anapaest).

SONNET – 1. A stanza consisting of 14 verses with various ways of rhyming. Types of sonnet: Italian (rhyme method: abab//abab//vgv//gvg)\ French (rhyme method: abba/abba//vvg//ddg)\ English (rhyme method: abab//vgvg//dede//LJ). In Russian literature, “irregular” sonnet forms with unfixed rhyming methods are also being developed.

2. Type of lyrics; a poem consisting of 14 verses, mainly philosophical, love, elegiac content - sonnets by V. Shakespeare, A. Pushkin, Vyach. Ivanova and others.

SPONDE – foot with additional (super-scheme) stress:

Swede, rus/skiy ko/let, ru/bit, re/jet.

(A. Pushkin)

(iambic tetrameter – first spondee foot)

VERSE – 1. Line in a poem; 2. The set of features of the versification of a poet: verse by Marina Tsvetaeva, A. Tvardovsky, etc.

STOP is a repeated combination of stressed and unstressed vowels. The foot serves as a unit of verse in the syllabic-tonic system of versification: iambic trimeter, anapaest tetrameter, etc.

STROPHE - a group of verses united by repeating meter, method of rhyming, intonation, etc.

STROPHIC is a section of versification that studies the compositional techniques of verse structure.

TACTOVIK - a poetic meter on the verge of syllabic-tonic and tonic versification. Based on the rhythmic repetition of strong ones (see. ICT) and weak points, as well as variable pauses between stressed syllables. The range of interictal intervals ranges from 2 to 3 unstressed. The length of a verse is determined by the number of stresses in a line. The tactician came into widespread use at the beginning of the 20th century:

A black man was running around the city.
He turned off the flashlights, climbing the stairs.
Slow, white dawn approached,
Together with the man he climbed the stairs.

(A. Blok(four-beat tactician))

TERZETT – a stanza of three verses (ahh, bbb, eee etc.). Terzetto is rarely used in Russian poetry:

She is like a mermaid, airy and strangely pale,
A wave plays in her eyes, slipping away,
In her green eyes there is a depth - cold.

Come, and she will embrace you, caress you,
Not sparing myself, tormenting, perhaps ruining,
But still she will kiss you without loving you.

And he will instantly turn away, and his soul will be far away,
And will be silent under the Moon in golden dust
Watching indifferently as ships sink in the distance.

(K. Balmont)

TERZINA - a stanza of three verses (aba, bvb, vgv etc.):

And then we went - and fear embraced me.
Imp, tucking his hoof under himself
Twisted the moneylender by the fire of hell.

Hot fat dripped into the smoked trough,
And the moneylender baked on the fire
And I: “Tell me: what is hidden in this execution?

(A. Pushkin)

Dante's Divine Comedy was written in terzas.

TONIC VERSE - a system of versification based on the ordered arrangement of stressed syllables in a verse, while the number of unstressed syllables is not taken into account.

EXACT RHYME - a rhyme in which the sounds clause match up:

In the blue evening, in the moonlit evening
I was once handsome and young.
Unstoppable, unique
Everything flew... far... past...
The heart grew cold and the eyes faded...
Blue happiness! Moonlit nights!

(WITH. Yesenin)

TRIOLET – a stanza of eight verses (abbaabab) repeating the same lines:

I'm lying in the grass on the shore
I hear the splashing of the night river.
Having passed fields and copses,
I'm lying in the grass on the shore.
In a foggy meadow
Green sparkles flicker,
I'm lying in the grass on the shore
Night river and I hear splashes.

(V. Bryusov)

FIGURED POEMS - poems whose lines form the outline of an object or geometric figure:

I see
Dawn
Rays
How with things
I shine in the darkness,
I delight my whole soul.
But what? - Is there only a sweet shine in it from the sun?
No! – The pyramid is a memory of good deeds.

(G. Derzhavin)

PHONICS is a section of versification that studies the sound organization of verse.

TROCHEA (Tracheus) – two-syllable size with emphasis on the 1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, etc. syllables:

The fields are / compressed, / the groves are / bare,
From the water / mana and / dampness.
Kole / catfish for / blue / mountains
The sun / was / quietly / setting.

(WITH. Yesenin(tetrameter trochee))

CAESURA - a pause in the middle of a line of poetry. Typically the caesura appears in verses of six feet or more:

Science is torn, // trimmed in rags,
From almost all the houses // knocked down with a curse;
They don’t want to know her, // her friendships are running away,
How, who suffered at sea, // ship service.

(A. Cantemir(Satire 1. On those who blaspheme the teaching: To your own mind))

HEXA - a six-line stanza with triple consonance; The rhyming method can be different:

This morning, this joy, A
This power of both day and light, A
This blue vault b
This scream and strings IN
These flocks, these birds, IN
This talk of water... b

(A. Fet)

The type of six-line is Sextine.

JAMB is the most common two-syllable meter in Russian poetry with emphasis on the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th, etc. syllables:

Friend / ga do / we are idle / noah
Ink / niya / mine!
My century / rdno / image / ny
You / stole / strength I.

(A. Pushkin(iambic trimeter))

AVANT-GARDISM is the general name for a number of movements in the art of the 20th century, which are united by a rejection of the traditions of their predecessors, primarily the realists. The principles of avant-gardeism as a literary and artistic movement were implemented in different ways in futurism, cubism, Dada, surrealism, expressionism, etc.

ACMEISM is a movement in Russian poetry of the 1910-1920s. Representatives: N. Gumilyov, S. Gorodetsky, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, M. Kuzmin and others. In contrast to symbolism, Acmeism proclaimed a return to the material world, the subject, the exact meaning of words. va. The Acmeists formed the literary group “The Workshop of Poets” and published an almanac and the magazine “Hyperborea” (1912–1913).

UNDERGROUND (English “underground” - underground) is the general name for works of Russian unofficial art of the 70-80s. XX century

BAROQUE (Italian “Bagosso” - pretentious) is a style in the art of the 16th–18th centuries, characterized by exaggeration, pomp of form, pathos, and a desire for opposition and contrast.

ETERNAL IMAGES - images whose artistic significance has gone beyond the framework of a specific literary work and the historical era that gave birth to them. Hamlet (W. Shakespeare), Don Quixote (M. Cervantes), etc.

DADAISM (French “dada” - wooden horse, toy; figuratively - “baby talk”) is one of the directions of the literary avant-garde, which developed in Europe (1916–1922). Dadaism preceded surrealism And expressionism.

DECADENTITY (Latin “decadentia” - decline) is a general name for crisis phenomena in the culture of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, marked by moods of hopelessness and rejection of life. Decadence is characterized by the rejection of citizenship in art, the proclamation of the cult of beauty as the highest goal. Many motifs of decadence have become the property of artistic movements modernism.

IMAGINISTS (French “image” - image) - a literary group of 1919–1927, which included S. Yesenin, A. Mariengof, R. Ivnev, V. Shershenevich and others. The Imagists cultivated the image: “we who polish the image who cleans the form from the dust of content better than a street bootblack, we affirm that the only law of art, the only and incomparable method is to reveal life through the image and rhythm of images...” In literary work, the Imagists relied on complex metaphor, play of rhythms, etc. .

IMPRESSIONISM is a movement in art of the late 19th – early 20th centuries. In literature, impressionism sought to convey fragmentary lyrical impressions, designed for the associative thinking of the reader, capable of ultimately recreating a complete picture. A. Chekhov, I. Bunin, A. Fet, K. Balmont and many others resorted to the impressionistic style. etc.

CLASSICISM is a literary movement of the 17th–18th centuries that arose in France and proclaimed a return to ancient art as a role model. The rationalistic poetics of classicism is set out in N. Boileau’s essay “Poetic Art.” The characteristic features of classicism are the predominance of reason over feelings; the object of the image is the sublime in human life. The requirements put forward by this direction are: rigor of style; depiction of a hero at fateful moments in life; unity of time, action and place - most clearly manifested in drama. In Russia, classicism emerged in the 30-50s. XVIII century in the works of A. Kantemir, V. Trediakovsky, M. Lomonosov, D. Fonvizin.

CONCEPTUALISTS - a literary association that arose at the end of the 20th century, denies the need to create artistic images: an artistic idea exists outside of the material (at the level of an application, project or commentary). Conceptualists are D. A. Prigov, L. Rubinstein, N. Iskrenko and others.

LITERARY DIRECTION – characterized by the commonality of literary phenomena over a certain time. A literary direction presupposes a unity of worldview, aesthetic views of writers, and ways of depicting life in a certain historical period. The literary direction is also characterized by a common artistic method. Literary movements include classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, etc.

LITERARY PROCESS (evolution of literature) - reveals itself in a change in literary trends, in updating the content and form of works, in establishing new connections with other types of art, with philosophy, with science, etc. The literary process proceeds according to its own laws and is not directly connected with the development of society.

MODERNISM (French “modern” - modern) is a general definition of a number of trends in the art of the 20th century, characterized by a break with the traditions of realism. The term "modernism" is used to refer to a variety of non-realistic movements in the art and literature of the 20th century. – from symbolism at its beginning to postmodernism at the end.

OBERIU (Association of Real Art) - a group of writers and artists: D. Kharms, A. Vvedensky, N. Zabolotsky, O. Malevich, K. Vaginov, N. Oleinikov and others - worked in Leningrad in 1926–1931. The Oberiuts inherited the futurists, professing the art of the absurd, the rejection of logic, the usual calculation of time, etc. The Oberiuts were especially active in the field of theater. great art and poetry.

POSTMODERNISM is a type of aesthetic consciousness in the art of the late 20th century. In the artistic world of a postmodernist writer, as a rule, either causes and effects are not indicated, or they are easily interchanged. Here the concepts of time and space are blurred, the relationship between the author and the hero is unusual. Essential elements of style are irony and parody. The works of postmodernism are designed for the associative nature of perception, for the active co-creation of the reader. Many of them contain detailed critical self-assessment, that is, literature and literary criticism are combined. Postmodernist creations are characterized by specific imagery, so-called simulators, i.e., copy images, images without new original content, using what is already known, simulating reality and parodying it. Postmodernism destroys all sorts of hierarchies and oppositions, replacing them with allusions, reminiscences, and quotations. Unlike avant-gardeism, it does not deny its predecessors, but all traditions in art are of equal value for it.

Representatives of postmodernism in Russian literature are Sasha Sokolov (“School for Fools”), A. Bitov (“Pushkin House”), Ven. Erofeev (“Moscow – Petushki”) and others.

REALISM is an artistic method based on an objective depiction of reality, reproduced and typified in accordance with the author’s ideals. Realism depicts the character in his interactions (“links”) with the surrounding world and people. An important feature of realism is the desire for verisimilitude, for authenticity. In the process of historical development, realism acquired specific forms of literary movements: ancient realism, Renaissance realism, classicism, sentimentalism, etc.

In the 19th and 20th centuries. realism successfully assimilated certain artistic techniques of romantic and modernist movements.

ROMANTICISM – 1. An artistic method based on the subjective ideas of the author, relying mainly on his imagination, intuition, fantasies, dreams. Like realism, romanticism appears only in the form of a specific literary movement in several varieties: civil, psychological, philosophical, etc. The hero of a romantic work is an exceptional, outstanding personality, depicted with great expression. The style of the romantic writer is emotional, rich in visual and expressive means.

2. A literary movement that arose at the turn of the 18th–19th centuries, when freedom of society and human freedom were proclaimed as ideals. Romanticism is characterized by an interest in the past and the development of folklore; his favorite genres are elegy, ballad, poem, etc. (“Svetlana” by V. Zhukovsky, “Mtsyri”, “Demon” by M. Lermontov, etc.).

SENTIMENTALISM (French “sentimental” - sensitive) is a literary movement of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. The manifesto of Western European sentimentalism was L. Stern’s book “A Sentimental Journey” (1768). Sentimentalism, in contrast to the rationalism of the Enlightenment, proclaimed the cult of natural feelings in human everyday life. In Russian literature, sentimentalism originated at the end of the 18th century. and is associated with the names of N. Karamzin (“Poor Liza”), V. Zhukovsky, Radishchev poets, etc. The genres of this literary movement are epistolary, family and everyday novel; confessional story, elegy, travel notes, etc.

SYMBOLISM is a literary movement of the late 19th – early 20th centuries: D. Merezhkovsky, K. Balmont, V. Bryusov, A. Blok, I. Annensky, A. Bely, F. Sologub and others. Based on associative thinking, subjective reproduction reality. The system of paintings (images) proposed in the work is created through the author’s symbols and is based on the personal perception and emotional feelings of the artist. An important role in the creation and perception of works of symbolism belongs to intuition.

SOC-ART is one of the characteristic phenomena of Soviet unofficial art of the 70-80s. It arose as a reaction to the pervasive ideologization of Soviet society and all types of art, choosing the path of ironic confrontation. Also parodying European and American pop art, he used the techniques of grotesque, satirical shocking, and caricature in literature. Sots art achieved particular success in painting.

SOCIALIST REALISM is a movement in the art of the Soviet period. As in the system of classicism, the artist was obliged to strictly adhere to a certain set of rules regulating the results of the creative process. The main ideological postulates in the field of literature were formulated at the First Congress of Soviet Writers in 1934: “Socialist realism, being the main method of Soviet fiction and literary criticism, requires from the artist a truthful, historically specific image of reality in its revolutionary development. At the same time, the truthfulness and historical specificity of the artistic depiction must be combined with the task of ideological remodeling and education of working people in the spirit of socialism.” In fact, socialist realism took away the freedom of choice from the writer, depriving art of research functions, leaving him only the right to illustrate ideological guidelines, serving as a means of party agitation and propaganda.

STYLE is the stable features of the use of poetic techniques and means, serving as an expression of the originality and uniqueness of the phenomenon of art. It is studied at the level of a work of art (the style of “Eugene Onegin”), at the level of the individual style of the writer (N. Gogol’s style), at the level of a literary movement (classicism style), at the level of the era (Baroque style).

SURREALISM is an avant-garde movement in art of the 20s. XX century, which proclaimed the human subconscious (his instincts, dreams, hallucinations) as a source of inspiration. Surrealism breaks logical connections, replaces them with subjective associations, and creates fantastic combinations of real and unreal objects and phenomena. Surrealism manifested itself most clearly in painting - Salvador Dali, Joan Miro, etc.

FUTURISM is an avant-garde movement in art of the 10-20s. XX century Based on the denial of established traditions, the destruction of traditional genre and language forms, on the intuitive perception of the rapid flow of time, a combination of documentary material and fiction. Futurism is characterized by self-sufficient form-creation and the creation of an abstruse language. Futurism received its greatest development in Italy and Russia. Its prominent representatives in Russian poetry were V. Mayakovsky, V. Khlebnikov, A. Kruchenykh and others.

EXISTENTIALISM (Latin “existentia” - existence) is a direction in the art of the mid-20th century, consonant with the teachings of philosophers S. Kierkegaard and M. Heidegger, and partly N. Berdyaev. The personality is depicted in a closed space where anxiety, fear, and loneliness reign. The character comprehends his existence in borderline situations of struggle, disaster, and death. By gaining insight, a person comes to know himself and becomes free. Existentialism denies determinism and affirms intuition as the main, if not the only, way of understanding a work of art. Representatives: J. - P. Sartre, A. Camus, W. Golding and others.

EXPRESSIONISM (Latin “expressio” - expression) is an avant-garde movement in the art of the first quarter of the 20th century, which proclaimed the spiritual world of the individual as the only reality. The basic principle of depicting human consciousness (the main object) is boundless emotional tension, which is achieved by violating real proportions, up to giving the depicted world a grotesque fracture, reaching the point of abstraction. Representatives: L. Andreev, I. Becher, F. Dürrenmat.

ADEQUATE – equal, identical.

ALLUSION is the use of a word (combination, phrase, quotation, etc.) as a hint that activates the reader’s attention and allows one to see the connection of what is depicted with some known fact of literary, everyday or socio-political life.

ALMANAC is a non-periodic collection of works selected according to thematic, genre, territorial, etc. characteristics: “Northern Flowers”, “Physiology of St. Petersburg”, “Poetry Day”, “Tarusa Pages”, “Prometheus”, “Metropol”, etc.

“ALTER EGO” – second “I”; reflection of a part of the author’s consciousness in a literary hero.

ANACREONTICA POETRY - poems celebrating the joy of life. Anacreon is an ancient Greek lyricist who wrote poems about love, drinking songs, etc. Translations into Russian by G. Derzhavin, K. Batyushkov, A. Delvig, A. Pushkin and others.

ANNOTATION (Latin “annotatio” – note) is a brief note explaining the contents of the book. The abstract is usually given on the back of the title page of the book, after the bibliographic description of the work.

ANONYMOUS (Greek “anonymos” - nameless) is the author of a published literary work who did not give his name and did not use a pseudonym. The first edition of “Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow” was published in 1790 without indicating the author’s surname on the title page of the book.

DYSTOPIA is a genre of epic work, most often a novel, that creates a picture of the life of a society deceived by utopian illusions. – J. Orwell “1984”, Eug. Zamyatin “We”, O. Huxley “O Brave New World”, V. Voinovich “Moscow 2042”, etc.

ANTHOLOGY – 1. A collection of selected works by one author or group of poets of a certain direction and content. – Petersburg in Russian poetry (XVIII – early XX century): Poetic anthology. – L., 1988; Rainbow: Children's Anthology / Comp. Sasha Cherny. – Berlin, 1922, etc.; 2. In the 19th century. Anthological poems were those written in the spirit of ancient lyric poetry: A. Pushkin “The Tsarskoye Selo Statue”, A. Fet “Diana”, etc.

APOCRYPH (Greek “anokryhos” - secret) - 1. A work with a biblical plot, the content of which does not completely coincide with the text of the holy books. For example, “Limonar, that is, Dukhovny Meadow” by A. Remizov and others. 2. An essay attributed to any author with a low degree of reliability. In ancient Russian literature, for example, “Tales of Tsar Constantine”, “Tales of Books” and some others were supposed to have been written by Ivan Peresvetov.

ASSOCIATION (literary) is a psychological phenomenon when, when reading a literary work, one idea (image) by similarity or contrast evokes another.

ATTRIBUTION (Latin “attributio” - attribution) is a textual problem: identifying the author of a work as a whole or its parts.

APHORISM - a laconic saying that expresses a capacious generalized thought: “I would be glad to serve, but it’s sickening to be served” (A.S. Griboyedov).

BALLAD - a lyric-epic poem with a historical or heroic plot, with the obligatory presence of a fantastic (or mystical) element. In the 19th century the ballad was developed in the works of V. Zhukovsky (“Svetlana”), A. Pushkin (“Song of the Prophetic Oleg”), A. Tolstoy (“Vasily Shibanov”). In the 20th century the ballad was revived in the works of N. Tikhonov, A. Tvardovsky, E. Yevtushenko and others.

A FABLE is an epic work of an allegorical and moralizing nature. The narrative in the fable is colored with irony and in the conclusion contains the so-called moral - an instructive conclusion. The fable traces its history back to the legendary ancient Greek poet Aesop (VI–V centuries BC). The greatest masters of the fable were the Frenchman Lafontaine (XVII century), the German Lessing (XVIII century) and our I. Krylov (XVIII-XIX centuries). In the 20th century the fable was presented in the works of D. Bedny, S. Mikhalkov, F. Krivin and others.

BIBLIOGRAPHY is a section of literary criticism that provides a targeted, systematic description of books and articles under various headings. Reference bibliographic manuals on fiction prepared by N. Rubakin, I. Vladislavlev, K. Muratova, N. Matsuev and others are widely known. The multi-volume bibliographic reference book in two series: “Russian Soviet prose writers” and “Russian Soviet poets” provides detailed information on how about publications of literary texts, as well as about scientific and critical literature for each of the authors included in this manual. There are other types of bibliographic publications. Such are, for example, the five-volume bibliographic dictionary “Russian Writers 1800–1917,” “Lexicon of Russian Literature of the 20th Century,” compiled by V. Kazak, or “Russian Writers of the 20th Century.” and etc.

Current information about new products is provided by a special monthly newsletter “Literary Studies”, published by the RAI Institute of Scientific Information. The newspaper “Book Review”, the magazines “Questions of Literature”, “Russian Literature”, “Literary Review”, “New Literary Review”, etc. are also systematically reported on new works of fiction, scientific and critical literature.

BUFF (Italian “buffo” - buffoonish) is a comic, mainly circus genre.

WREATH OF SONNETS - a poem of 15 sonnets, forming a kind of chain: each of the 14 sonnets begins with the last line of the previous one. The fifteenth sonnet consists of these fourteen repeated lines and is called the "key" or "turnpike." A wreath of sonnets is represented in the works of V. Bryusov (“Lamp of Thought”), M. Voloshin (“Sogopa astralis”), Vyach. Ivanov (“Wreath of Sonnets”). It is also found in modern poetry.

VAUDEVILLE is a type of sitcom. A light entertaining play of everyday content, built on an entertaining, most often love affair with music, songs, and dances. Vaudeville is represented in the works of D. Lensky, N. Nekrasov, V. Sologub, A. Chekhov, V. Kataev and others.

VOLYAPYUK (Volapyuk) – 1. An artificial language that they tried to use as an international language; 2. Gibberish, meaningless set of words, abracadabra.

DEMIURG – creator, creator.

DETERMINISM is a materialistic philosophical concept about objective laws and cause-and-effect relationships of all phenomena of nature and society.

DRAMA – 1. A type of art that has a synthetic nature (a combination of lyrical and epic principles) and belongs equally to literature and theater (cinema, television, circus, etc.); 2. Drama itself is a type of literary work that depicts acute conflict relations between man and society. – A. Chekhov “Three Sisters”, “Uncle Vanya”, M. Gorky “At the Depth”, “Children of the Sun”, etc.

DUMA – 1. Ukrainian folk song or poem on a historical theme; 2. Lyric genre; poems of a meditative nature, dedicated to philosophical and social problems. – See “Dumas” by K. Ryleev, A. Koltsov, M. Lermontov.

SPIRITUAL POETRY - poetic works of different types and genres containing religious motifs: Y. Kublanovsky, S. Averintsev, Z. Mirkina, etc.

GENRE is a type of literary work, the features of which, although they have developed historically, are in the process of constant change. The concept of genre is used at three levels: generic - the genre of epic, lyric or drama; specific – the genre of novel, elegy, comedy; genre itself - historical novel, philosophical elegy, comedy of manners, etc.

IDYLL - a type of lyric or lyric poetry. An idyll, as a rule, depicts the peaceful, serene life of people in the lap of beautiful nature. – Ancient idylls, as well as Russian idylls of the 18th – early 19th centuries. A. Sumarokov, V. Zhukovsky, N. Gnedich and others.

HIERARCHY is the arrangement of elements or parts of a whole according to the criteria from higher to lower and vice versa.

INVECTIVE - angry denunciation.

HYPOSTASE (Greek “hipostasis” - person, essence) - 1. The name of each person of the Holy Trinity: The One God appears in three hypostases - God the Father, God the Son, God the Holy Spirit; 2. Two or more sides of one phenomenon or object.

HISTORIOGRAPHY is a branch of literary criticism that studies the history of its development.

HISTORY OF LITERATURE is a branch of literary criticism that studies the features of the development of the literary process and determines the place of a literary movement, a writer, a literary work in this process.

TALKING - a copy, an exact translation from one language to another.

CANONICAL TEXT (correlates with the Greek “kapop” - rule) - is established in the process of textual verification of publishing and handwritten versions of the work and corresponds to the last “author’s will”.

CANZONA is a type of lyric poetry, mainly love. The heyday of the canzone was the Middle Ages (the work of the troubadours). It is rare in Russian poetry (V. Bryusov “To the Lady”).

CATharsis is the purification of the soul of the viewer or reader, experienced by him in the process of empathizing with literary characters. According to Aristotle, catharsis is the goal of tragedy, which ennobles the viewer and reader.

COMEDY is one of the types of literary creativity that belongs to the dramatic genre. Action and characters In comedy, the goal is to ridicule the ugly in life. Comedy originated in ancient literature and is actively developing right up to our time. There is a distinction between sitcoms and character comedies. Hence the genre diversity of comedy: social, psychological, everyday, satirical.