Measures regarding church government

Lecture No. 10 on Russian history

At the last lecture we completed the great Northern War. We are approaching the end of Peter's reforms.

It was not the last place in the overall set of transformations. It marked the edge of time in the development of this institution, opened the so-called synodal period, which lasted about two centuries until 1917. This is a kind of new era in the history of the church, which meant a departure from old traditions and from the old legal basis of the Orthodox Church. The Westernized anti-theocratic spirit of the predominance of the state over the church was introduced. As a result of this reform, the Russian Church changed significantly, lost its style, flavor, i.e. was completely transformed.

What tasks did the reformer face? What were the prerequisites for church reform?

The Church represented the state within the state. It copied the state structure in a more modest, truncated version. The church had its orders, just like the state. If the state had about 40 of them, then the church had about 5 orders.

The church had its own hierarchy of ranks, not only spiritual ones, but there were also patriarchal nobles, i.e. the patriarch had a courtyard.

The church is another pyramid of power in the country. Although our patriarchs initially accepted the Byzantine theory of two powers, in harmony between them. And according to this theory, the church was formally considered more significant, a higher power. This is how Patriarch Nikon voiced this old position of the Byzantine philosophical school, that God is the sun, and from God the moon already shines with the rays of the sun. This is secondary, this is the state. Although the church proclaimed this, nevertheless everyone understood the reality of the church, that it was a secondary power, and tacitly acknowledged this.

However, when the rigid structure of an absolutist state took shape, such a large semi-independent institution of power meant a certain danger for the authorities. It could become an opposition structure. The authorities were afraid of this and wanted to integrate this autonomous institution of power into the general structure of Russian statehood, to make it a wheel and a cog of the general bureaucratic machine, to deprive it of independence. This was the goal of Peter I.

It was in keeping with the era. Absolutist monarchs acted approximately according to the same scheme.

One goal is political.

Another goal is economic. Because the church had a large number of land holdings. About 150 thousand peasant households.

Power always thinks primitively. They wanted to seize this property for the benefit of the state. Peter was no exception.

Absolutism in Europe grew largely due to the confiscation of church property. This created a free financial fund in the hands of the monarch, a path to absolute power.

Cultural and ideological background. The church represented the largest medieval iceberg in the country. It did not meet the new needs. This caused a wide range of unresolved problems.

What was characteristic of the cultural and ideological concept of the Russian Church?

1) She was a supporter of Orthodox isolationism in order to isolate the Orthodox from other pernicious Western and Eastern ones. northern and southern influences. She even confessed the external signs. Russians should have a beard in imitation of Jesus Christ, and not smoke tobacco, like in the West. They have smoke coming out of their noses like demons.

2) The Church certainly followed tradition. She didn't like changes or innovations.

3) Dogmatism, unconditional subordination to religious dogma of all forms of activities.

Many people tended to resist the process of knowledge and enlightenment. Prominent hierarchs argued that this was not necessary for the salvation of the soul, it was a sin.

The worldview concept of the Russian church corresponded to the early Middle Ages. Pray, go to church, sin less, and then there will be the kingdom of God.

But this concept did not correspond to the needs of the state and the worldview of the new time. New times awaken new values ​​that are born along with the bourgeois era.

This is the time when the self-worth of an individual begins to be comprehended. In the Middle Ages, you are a bug before the almighty God. And in modern times, new content is put into old forms.

The old concept did not suit the state, because it did not work to ensure that a person rose through the ranks and tried to provide services to the state. People were lacking initiative and did not strive to get rich, because it was a sin. Death is coming soon. Foreigners noted this. This is the ideological difference with Western people. The Dutch were unpleasant in their money-grubbing ways.

Such traditional Russian people were of little use to the new state. They had to awaken their ambitions and educate a new breed of people. Cultivate ambitions for education, career growth, and material well-being.

Professional success is the key to family happiness.

The church needed to be transformed. It was necessary to increase the educational level of the clergy, because right up to the time of Peter the Great's reforms it was believed that it was enough for a priest to be able to read and conduct services. But new times have shown that this is very little. Our clergy had only a few people who had the intellectual maturity to preach.

During the debate with the Old Believers in 1682, the Patriarch was intellectually powerless and could not expose them. Therefore, there was great political and ideological damage to the state that such a patriarch was weak intellectually and could not lead a debate. Basically, only Archbishop Athanasius of Kholmogory was highly intellectual. But mostly they were barely literate and could not conduct debates. Such a low intellectual level of the church no longer corresponds to the requirements of new times. This level lagged behind the west by about 150 years. Because in the West, since the Reformation, the low education of the clergy has been replaced by special educational institutions and a higher quality level of church education.

Russia needed to overcome this transformation, otherwise the authority of the church would decline. The first educational institution was created in 1685, the higher theological educational institution of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. This is the first university in the country that was theological. The date in the textbooks is 1687, but according to new data it is 1685.

Opportunities for transformation were opened by the death of Patriarch Adrian on October 16, 1700. This is the last patriarch until the 20th century. On the advice of Peter's associates, it was decided to postpone the election of a new patriarch, the head of the church, in order to facilitate its transformation. Because when the church has a head, it can actively resist these transformations. When Peter I died, the only ones who did not have tears in their eyes were the clergy. What Peter did to the church caused and still causes acute rejection in the church. Church hierarchs angrily condemn Peter's government reforms.

Adrian's death opened the way for transformation. A personal decree followed on the appointment of Ryazan Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky, a native of western Ukraine, as locum tenens of the patriarchal throne.

Peter, as a rule, elected people from Ukraine to carry out reforms; he believed that they were more flexible, could accept reforms, were politically more two-faced, because they had to receive an education in Jesuit colleges, they often converted to Catholicism, received an education, and then returned to Orthodoxy. They had a certain element of opportunism towards higher power. It suited Peter I that they were no longer thinking about God, but about maintaining their position. It was possible to work with such people.

Yavorsky was from the same category.

Starting from Peter I, the Ukrainization of the church has been going on. People of such a flexible nature were convenient for administrative structures, and the Russians had loyalty to principles.

A contemporary of Peter I, Dmitry Rostovsky, stated that one must accept the crown of martyrdom rather than violate the secret of confession. The Russian clergy were almost all in opposition to the reform of Peter I. This was natural.

Of the 127 bishops appointed in the Russian Orthodox Church, starting with Yavorsky, from 1700 to 1762 there were only 47 Russians. They were in opposition, it was dangerous to appoint them. The authorities were not happy with this. They needed people who could adapt, who could bend. Officials always value first of all the position, and not the business, so that everything is fine according to the reports.

They appointed mainly Ukrainians, Belarusians, Romanians, Serbs, Greeks, Georgians, most importantly, not Russians. Russians have a certain sense of sacrifice; they can also stand up for their faith. This did not suit the Russian absolutist state.

One of the elements is the Ukrainization of the church.

A few months before his appointment, Yavorsky was the rector of the small St. Nicholas Monastery in Ukraine, and became the Metropolitan of Ryazan, then, contrary to tradition, he became the locum tenens of the patriarchal throne. Usually the Krutitsa metropolitan became the patriarch. It was not the patriarch who was chosen, but the locum tenens of the patriarchal throne.

The same decree, which appointed Metropolitan Yavorsky, abolishes the main governing body of the church, the Patriarchal Discharge Order.

On January 4, 1701, a decree establishing the Monastic Order. This is a secular department that now governs the church. Instead of the Patriarchal Discharge Order, it was even located in its own chambers in the Kremlin. At the head of the Monastic Prikaz is a secular person, boyar Ivan Alekseevich Musin-Pushkin.

The functions of the Monastic Order were determined on January 31, 1701. By decree, Prikaz became the head of the administrative and economic management of the Russian church. Thus, spiritual and church issues, canonical issues, etc. were in the hands of the locum tenens.

According to the decree of January 31, all church estates, all church property, serfs, and lands became the property of the state. Secularization took place - the nationalization of church property.

A number of other events. It was determined that women under 40 years of age could not become nuns. To give birth. Purely practical approach.

It was forbidden to keep pen and paper in the cells. Because under the conditions of reform there are a lot of dissatisfied people. And a monk can write some kind of appeal. The state was afraid of educated people, especially historians. Because historians are the most intellectually developed. It is no coincidence that when difficult periods occur, history is either abolished in schools or shortened. Under Lenin it was abolished. History provides a luxurious liberal arts education. All the cunning of the government, its greed, pettiness, all sorts of anti-people things are immediately visible. Especially at universities.

The authorities, not only now, but also under Peter I, were afraid of educated people. Therefore, educated monks could not keep pen and paper in their cells. It was possible to write only in the refectory under the supervision of the abbot of the monastery.

All the results of the transformations were summed up in a decree on December 30, 1701. Everything was summarized there. Monasteries were forbidden to own their estates. All cash and grain incomes of the Monastic Prikaz were divided into certain and non-determined. Some went to the needs of the church. And certain ones were confiscated in favor of the secular state. No more than 10 rubles and 10 quarters of bread could be paid to the monks. All this was accompanied by notations. that at the beginning of Christianity the monks earned their own bread. And owning property is a sin.

If the monastery had small incomes, it could not provide 10 rubles and 10 quarters of bread a year, for example, 50 kopecks income, then that’s what you’ll get.

And in 1705, for the sake of the Swedish war, the maximum allowance of the clergy was reduced to 5 rubles and 5 quarters.

In 1711, in connection with the Prut campaign, which was given the features of a crusade against Islam, these estates were legally returned to the church. But the actual management of these estates remained in the hands of secular authorities.

The clergy demanded the restoration of the patriarchate. This created political demands.

In 1712, the Alexander Nevsky Monastery was created to train new personnel. If you read the sermons of Feofan Prokopovich, Theodosius Yanovsky, then you will not understand what is more there: doxology in favor of power or spirituality. All church and religious content is adapted to the praise of the absolutist monarchy. Lying to the authorities.

The decisive stage of church reform in 1721. By decree of February 14, 1721, the Spiritual College was established, which was renamed the Synod. This is a collective body. Stefan Yavorsky became the first president of the Synod. He wanted to be a patriarch, but he was made an official, dependent on the authorities. In 1722 he died from such experiences.

In the Synod, on the part of the secular authorities, there is the Chief Prosecutor, who supervises the Synod. The synodal office and church controllers were subordinate to the Synod. In essence, the church was filled with secular institutions. There were 2 vice presidents. The first were Feofan Prokopovich and Archbishop of Novgorod Theodosius Yanovsky. They were appointed by Peter I.

The charter of life of the reformed church is the Spiritual Regulations, which were approved on January 25, 1721. According to him, the Tsar was proclaimed the spiritual shepherd of Russian Orthodox Christianity, the guardian of orthodoxy and the church's holy deanery. And the position of patriarch is abolished according to spiritual regulations. The justification was written by Prokopovich. The bottom line was that people can fall into temptations and temptations.

The Patriarch of Constantinople soon recognized the Synod as the patriarch's successor and equal brother. In terms of prestige, the Russian patriarch is 5th in the hierarchy after those of Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antiochea and Alexandria.

Seminaries are being established so that priests are not illiterate, so that they can conduct debates. Gradually, during the 18th century, seminaries were created. The goal was to create a seminary in each diocese. The level of the clergy has increased qualitatively.

Liturgical literature was published. The Synod had a printing house. Time days appeared in the church. Under Peter I, much appeared in these records that was unusual for the church. This turned the church into a handmaiden of the autocracy.

The Church was deprived of conscience, and legally. The priest was obliged to inform, not to observe the secret of confession, if he heard anything anti-government. This was also preserved during Soviet times. In Soviet times, if a student went to church, this immediately became known to the dean’s office and persecution began, because the priests would inform. Those who did not inform were expelled from the church.

There are service days in the church, a huge number are dedicated to secular holidays in honor of the victories of Russian weapons and navy. Often the sermons turned into such sycophancy to the authorities that ordinary believers felt sick.

Many people know that the changes carried out by Peter I radically changed the state. The transformations affected all spheres of life of Russian citizens, leaving a major mark on history.

The reforms were of great importance for the further development of the country and laid the foundation for numerous achievements in all spheres of life of the state and its citizens.

It is very difficult to cover all the innovations that revolutionized the structure of Russia at the beginning of the 18th century in one article, but we will try to briefly describe what transformations broke the old social structure.

Peter I, with his reforms, affected almost all spheres of life.

Transformations took place simultaneously in the most important areas of government activity:

• army;
• estates;
• public administration;
• church;
• economics and finance;
• science, culture and education.

The activities of most areas have changed fundamentally.

Most of all, the sovereign dreamed of creating a fleet and developing maritime trade relations with Europe. To achieve this goal, he went on a journey. Returning after visiting several European countries, the tsar saw how much Russia lagged behind in its development.

Moreover, backwardness from Europe was manifested in all spheres of activity. Peter understood that without reforms Russia would forever lose the opportunity to compare in terms of development with European states. The need for transformation is long overdue, and in all areas of life at once.

Thus, the Boyar Duma did not fulfill its intended function of governing the country. The training and armament of the Streltsy army was not suitable. If necessary, it is unlikely that the soldiers would cope with their task. The level of industrial production, education and culture was significantly lower than in Europe.

Although there have already been some shifts towards development. Cities were separated from villages, crafts and agriculture were separated, and industrial enterprises appeared.

The path of Russia's development took place in two directions: something was borrowed from the West, something developed independently. On such a basis, Peter I began global transformations in Russia.

The goals of the reforms are summarized in the table:

Military reforms

The most famous transformation of Peter I was the creation of a navy. Under Peter I, about 800 galleys and 50 sailing ships were built.

The army reform introduced regular regiments of the new system. These changes began under Mikhail Fedorovich and Alexei Mikhailovich. But then the regiments were assembled only for the duration of hostilities, and after the end they were disbanded.

The reorganization consisted in the fact that soldiers were specially recruited for the regular army. They were removed from their families and could not engage in anything other than military affairs. The Cossacks ceased to be a free ally. He was under an obligation to regularly supply a certain number of troops.

Social change

Thanks to Peter's reforms, the lives of all segments of society changed. The nobles were forced to serve on an equal basis with everyone else. They started, like everyone else, from the lower ranks. The rest could rise to higher ranks on a par with the nobility. The “Table of Ranks” was published. It appointed 14 service ranks.

Compulsory training was introduced to prepare for service. It included literacy, arithmetic (numbers at that time), and geometry. Completion of training was also mandatory for the nobility.

In addition, there was an exam after completion. If a nobleman did not pass it, he was forbidden to receive an officer rank and get married.

But changes could not happen instantly. In fact, the nobles still had privileges.

They were immediately appointed to the guards regiments and did not always begin their service with the lower ranks.

Despite this, there was a lot of discontent on the part of the nobility. But this did not change the reforms of Peter I.

Changes also occurred in the lives of peasants. Instead of house-to-house taxation, capitation taxation appeared.

An important decree on unified inheritance was issued. According to this decree, nobles had the right to leave their real estate to only one person. It could be the eldest child, or it could be another person in the will.

Governance reforms

A new government body has emerged - the Governing Senate. Its members were appointed by the king himself. The work of this body was supervised by the Prosecutor General. At first, the Governing Senate had only an administrative function; a little later a legislative function appeared.

The Boyar Duma finally lost its significance and influence on the Tsar. The sovereign discussed all matters with his entourage, of whom there were few.

There have been changes in the management of various areas. Orders were replaced by collegiums.

The last 12 were:

• church;
• marine;
• military;
• foreign affairs;
• trading;
• by income;
• by expenses;
• financial;
• mining industry;
• manufacturing industry;
• Justice;
• urban.

Note! Initially, the members of these boards were equal and consulted among themselves. The leadership of the boards by the minister appeared later.

Another transformation concerns the division of Russia. The country was divided into provinces, which, in turn, included provinces and districts. In the latter, the governor was appointed head, and in the provinces the governor was in charge.

One of the reforms of Peter I became key in history. It led to an era of palace coups. The king changed the law on succession to the throne. According to the new law, the sovereign himself could appoint an heir.

Economic changes are summarized in the table:

Financial reforms manifested themselves in the fact that the tax system changed. More and more so-called indirect taxes appeared. Taxes were assigned to such things as stamp paper, baths, and beards. Coins were minted lighter.

A new position was invented - profit maker. These people suggested to the king what else could be taxed. These measures led to a significant increase in the treasury.

The church reform of Peter I made the church dependent on the tsar. After the death of the last patriarch Hadrian, the patriarchate ceased to exist. The Holy Synod appeared. This board represented the clergy. Its members were elected not by the church, but by the sovereign. Monasteries were also under state control.

Science, culture and education also did not remain aloof from Peter’s transformations; the sovereign tried his best to give Russia a Western look.

Social receptions in the Western style began to be held among the nobility and nobility. The upper class was ordered to cut off their beards. European clothing was introduced into fashion, home furnishings were changed in imitation of London and Paris. Western literature was translated into Russian.

Significant changes were made in the field of education of noble offspring. Peter I opened several schools in which the humanitarian component of education faded into the background. Much attention was paid to the exact sciences. Changes also occurred in writing. The old letter was replaced with a modern one.

Important! Under Peter I, the first publicly accessible newspaper, Moskovskie Vedomosti, began to be published.

The table will help to briefly list the main directions of reforms and their achievements:

The most important transformation events with dates are reflected in the following chronological list:

• 1708–1710 – establishment of eight provinces;
• 1711 – establishment of the Senate;
• 1712 – emergence of companies in trade and industry;
• 1714 – decree on the transfer of real estate;
• 1718 – population census;
• 1718–1720 – emergence of colleges;
• 1718–1724 – reform of per capita taxation of peasants;
• 1719 – division of the country into governorates and provinces;
• 1721 – the beginning of the dependence of the church on the state;
• 1722 – “Table of Ranks”;
• 1722 – workshop organization;
• 1724 – introduction of large taxes on imported goods.

Features of the reforms

The transformations carried out by Peter I were among the most unusual in the history of Russia.

The features of the reforms of Peter I were that they:

• they covered all areas of life;
• transformations took place very quickly;
• Coercive methods were used most;
• all Peter's transformations were aimed at imitating Europe.

The main feature of the reforms of Peter I can be called his direct participation in all ongoing reforms.

What happened after the transformation was completed:

• centralized power;
• strong army and navy;
• stability in the economic sphere;
• abolition of the patriarchate;
• loss of independence by the church;
• a big step forward in the development of science and culture;
• creating the basis for Russian education.

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Let's sum it up

As a result of the reforms of Peter I in Russia there was a significant increase in all spheres of life. The transformations provided not only a huge leap in development, but also a good basis for further progress. The country began to develop at an accelerated pace.

Reforms of Peter I

Reforms of Peter I- transformations in state and public life carried out during the reign of Peter I in Russia. All state activities of Peter I can be divided into two periods: -1715 and -.

A feature of the first stage was haste and not always thought out, which was explained by the conduct of the Northern War. The reforms were aimed primarily at raising funds for the war, were carried out by force and often did not lead to the desired result. In addition to government reforms, extensive reforms were carried out at the first stage with the aim of modernizing the way of life. In the second period, reforms were more systematic.

Decisions in the Senate were made collegially, at a general meeting, and were supported by the signatures of all members of the highest state body. If one of the 9 senators refused to sign the decision, the decision was considered invalid. Thus, Peter I delegated part of his powers to the Senate, but at the same time imposed personal responsibility on its members.

Simultaneously with the Senate, the position of fiscals appeared. The duty of the chief fiscal under the Senate and the fiscals in the provinces was to secretly supervise the activities of institutions: cases of violation of decrees and abuses were identified and reported to the Senate and the Tsar. Since 1715, the work of the Senate was monitored by the Auditor General, who was renamed Chief Secretary. Since 1722, control over the Senate has been exercised by the Prosecutor General and Chief Prosecutor, to whom the prosecutors of all other institutions were subordinate. No decision of the Senate was valid without the consent and signature of the Prosecutor General. The Prosecutor General and his deputy Chief Prosecutor reported directly to the sovereign.

The Senate, as a government, could make decisions, but they required an administrative apparatus to carry them out. In -1721, a reform of the executive bodies of government was carried out, as a result of which, in parallel with the system of orders with their vague functions, 12 colleges were created according to the Swedish model - the predecessors of future ministries. In contrast to orders, the functions and spheres of activity of each board were strictly demarcated, and relations within the board itself were built on the principle of collegiality of decisions. The following were introduced:

• The Collegium of Foreign Affairs replaced the Ambassadorial Prikaz, that is, it was in charge of foreign policy.
• Military Collegium (Military) - recruitment, armament, equipment and training of the ground army.
• Admiralty Board - naval affairs, fleet.
• The Patrimonial Collegium - replaced the Local Order, that is, it was in charge of noble land ownership (land litigation, transactions for the purchase and sale of land and peasants, and the search for fugitives were considered). Founded in 1721.
• The chamber board is the collection of state revenues.
• The State Board of Directors was in charge of state expenditures,
• The Audit Board controls the collection and expenditure of government funds.
• Commerce Board - issues of shipping, customs and foreign trade.
• Berg College - mining and metallurgy (mining industry).
• Manufactory Collegium - light industry (manufactures, that is, enterprises based on the division of manual labor).
• The College of Justice was in charge of issues of civil proceedings (the Serfdom Office operated under it: it registered various acts - bills of sale, the sale of estates, spiritual wills, debt obligations). She worked in civil and criminal court.
• The Spiritual College or the Holy Governing Synod - managed church affairs, replaced the patriarch. Founded in 1721. This board/Synod included representatives of the highest clergy. Since their appointment was carried out by the tsar, and his decisions were approved by him, we can say that the Russian emperor became the de facto head of the Russian Orthodox Church. The actions of the Synod on behalf of the highest secular authority were controlled by the chief prosecutor - a civil official appointed by the tsar. By a special decree, Peter I (Peter I) ordered the priests to carry out an educational mission among the peasants: read sermons and instructions to them, teach children prayers, and instill in them respect for the king and the church.
• The Little Russian Collegium exercised control over the actions of the hetman, who held power in Ukraine, because there was a special regime of local government. After the death of Hetman I. I. Skoropadsky in 1722, new elections of a hetman were prohibited, and the hetman was appointed for the first time by royal decree. The board was headed by a tsarist officer.

The central place in the management system was occupied by the secret police: the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (in charge of cases of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery. These institutions were administered by the emperor himself.

In addition, there was a Salt Office, a Copper Department, and a Land Survey Office.

Control over the activities of civil servants

To monitor the implementation of local decisions and reduce endemic corruption, since 1711, the position of fiscals was established, who were supposed to “secretly inspect, report and expose” all abuses of both high and low officials, pursue embezzlement, bribery, and accept denunciations from private individuals . At the head of the fiscals was the chief fiscal, appointed by the king and subordinate to him. The chief fiscal was part of the Senate and maintained contact with subordinate fiscals through the fiscal desk of the Senate office. Denunciations were considered and reported monthly to the Senate by the Execution Chamber - a special judicial presence of four judges and two senators (existed in 1712-1719).

In 1719-1723 The fiscals were subordinate to the College of Justice, and with the establishment in January 1722, the positions of the Prosecutor General were supervised by him. Since 1723, the chief fiscal officer was the fiscal general, appointed by the sovereign, and his assistant was the chief fiscal, appointed by the Senate. In this regard, the fiscal service left the subordination of the Justice College and regained departmental independence. The vertical of fiscal control was brought to the city level.

Ordinary archers in 1674. Lithograph from a 19th century book.

Army and Navy reforms

Army reform: in particular, the introduction of regiments of a new system, reformed according to foreign models, began long before Peter I, even under Alexei I. However, the combat effectiveness of this army was low. Reforming the army and creating a fleet became necessary conditions for victory in the Northern War of 1721. In preparation for the war with Sweden, Peter ordered in 1699 to carry out a general recruitment and begin training soldiers according to the model established by the Preobrazhensky and Semyonovtsy. This first conscription yielded 29 infantry regiments and two dragoons. In 1705, every 20 households were required to send one recruit to lifelong service. Subsequently, recruits began to be taken from a certain number of male souls among the peasants. Recruitment into the navy, as into the army, was carried out from recruits.

Private army infantry. regiment in 1720-32 Lithograph from a 19th century book.

If at first among the officers there were mainly foreign specialists, then after the start of the work of the navigation, artillery, and engineering schools, the growth of the army was satisfied by Russian officers from the noble class. In 1715, the Maritime Academy was opened in St. Petersburg. In 1716, the Military Regulations were published, which strictly defined the service, rights and responsibilities of the military. - As a result of the transformations, a strong regular army and a powerful navy were created, which Russia simply did not have before. By the end of Peter's reign, the number of regular ground forces reached 210 thousand (of which 2,600 were in the guard, 41,560 in cavalry, 75 thousand in infantry, 14 thousand in garrisons) and up to 110 thousand irregular troops. The fleet consisted of 48 battleships; 787 galleys and other vessels; There were almost 30 thousand people on all ships.

Church reform

Religious politics

The era of Peter was marked by a trend toward greater religious tolerance. Peter terminated the “12 Articles” adopted by Sophia, according to which Old Believers who refused to renounce the “schism” were subject to burning at the stake. The “schismatics” were allowed to practice their faith, subject to recognition of the existing state order and payment of double taxes. Complete freedom of faith was granted to foreigners coming to Russia, and restrictions on communication between Orthodox Christians and Christians of other faiths were lifted (in particular, interfaith marriages were allowed).

Financial reform

Some historians characterize Peter's trade policy as a policy of protectionism, consisting of supporting domestic production and imposing increased duties on imported products (this was consistent with the idea of ​​mercantilism). Thus, in 1724, a protective customs tariff was introduced - high duties on foreign goods that could be produced or were already produced by domestic enterprises.

The number of factories and factories at the end of Peter's reign extended to, including about 90 that were large manufactories.

Autocracy reform

Before Peter, the order of succession to the throne in Russia was not regulated in any way by law, and was entirely determined by tradition. In 1722, Peter issued a decree on the order of succession to the throne, according to which the reigning monarch appoints a successor during his lifetime, and the emperor can make anyone his heir (it was assumed that the king would appoint “the most worthy” as his successor). This law was in force until the reign of Paul I. Peter himself did not take advantage of the law on succession to the throne, since he died without specifying a successor.

Class politics

The main goal pursued by Peter I in social policy is the legal registration of class rights and obligations of each category of the population of Russia. As a result, a new structure of society emerged, in which the class character was more clearly formed. The rights of the nobility were expanded and the responsibilities of the nobility were defined, and, at the same time, the serfdom of the peasants was strengthened.

Nobility

Key milestones:

1. Decree on Education of 1706: boyar children must receive either primary school or home education.
2. Decree on estates of 1704: noble and boyar estates are not divided and are equated to each other.
3. Decree on sole inheritance of 1714: a landowner with sons could bequeath all his real estate to only one of them of his choice. The rest were obliged to serve. The decree marked the final merger of the noble estate and the boyar estate, thereby finally erasing the difference between the two classes of feudal lords.
4. “Table of Ranks” () of the year: division of military, civil and court service into 14 ranks. Upon reaching the eighth grade, any official or military man could receive the status of hereditary nobility. Thus, a person’s career depended primarily not on his origin, but on his achievements in public service.

The place of the former boyars was taken by the “generals”, consisting of ranks of the first four classes of the “Table of Ranks”. Personal service mixed up representatives of the former family nobility with people raised by service. Peter's legislative measures, without significantly expanding the class rights of the nobility, significantly changed its responsibilities. Military affairs, which in Moscow times was the duty of a narrow class of service people, is now becoming the duty of all segments of the population. The nobleman of Peter the Great's times still has the exclusive right of land ownership, but as a result of the decrees on single inheritance and audit, he is made responsible to the state for the tax service of his peasants. The nobility is obliged to study in preparation for service. Peter destroyed the former isolation of the service class, opening access to the environment of the nobility to people of other classes through length of service through the Table of Ranks. On the other hand, with the law on single inheritance, he opened the way out of the nobility into merchants and clergy for those who wanted it. The nobility of Russia is becoming a military-bureaucratic class, the rights of which are created and hereditarily determined by public service, and not by birth.

Peasantry

Peter's reforms changed the situation of the peasants. From different categories of peasants who were not in serfdom from the landowners or the church (black-growing peasants of the north, non-Russian nationalities, etc.), a new unified category of state peasants was formed - personally free, but paying dues to the state. The opinion that this measure “destroyed the remnants of the free peasantry” is incorrect, since the population groups that made up the state peasants were not considered free in the pre-Petrine period - they were attached to the land (the Council Code of 1649) and could be granted by the tsar to private individuals and the church as serfs. State peasants in the 18th century had the rights of personally free people (they could own property, act in court as one of the parties, elect representatives to estate bodies, etc.), but were limited in movement and could be (until the beginning of the 19th century, when this category is finally approved as free people) transferred by the monarch to the category of serfs. Legislative acts concerning the serf peasantry themselves were of a contradictory nature. Thus, the intervention of landowners in the marriage of serfs was limited (a decree of 1724), it was forbidden to present serfs as defendants in court and to hold them on the right for the debts of the owner. The norm was also confirmed about the transfer into custody of the estates of landowners who ruined their peasants, and serfs were given the opportunity to enroll as soldiers, which freed them from serfdom (by decree of Emperor Elizabeth on July 2, 1742, serfs were deprived of this opportunity). By the decree of 1699 and the verdict of the Town Hall in 1700, peasants engaged in trade or craft were given the right to move to posads, freed from serfdom (if the peasant was in one). At the same time, measures against runaway peasants were significantly tightened, large masses of palace peasants were distributed to private individuals, and landowners were allowed to recruit serfs. By decree of April 7, 1690, it was allowed to cede for unpaid debts of “manorial” serfs, which was actually a form of trade in serfs. The imposition of a capitation tax on serfs (that is, personal servants without land) led to the merging of serfs with serfs. Church peasants were subordinated to the monastic order and removed from the authority of the monasteries. Under Peter, a new category of dependent farmers was created - peasants assigned to manufactories. These peasants in the 18th century were called possessions. A decree of 1721 allowed nobles and merchant manufacturers to buy peasants to manufactories to work for them. The peasants bought for the factory were not considered the property of its owners, but were attached to production, so that the owner of the factory could neither sell nor mortgage the peasants separately from the manufacture. Possession peasants received a fixed salary and performed a fixed amount of work.

Urban population

The urban population in the era of Peter I was very small: about 3% of the country's population. The only large city was Moscow, which was the capital before the reign of Peter the Great. Although Russia was much inferior to Western Europe in terms of urban and industrial development, during the 17th century. there was a gradual increase. The social policy of Peter the Great concerning the urban population was aimed at ensuring the payment of the poll tax. For this purpose, the population was divided into two categories: regular (industrialists, merchants, craftsmen) and irregular citizens (all others). The difference between the urban regular citizen of the end of Peter's reign and the irregular one was that the regular citizen participated in city government by electing members of the magistrate, was enrolled in the guild and workshop, or bore a monetary obligation in the share that fell on him according to the social scheme.

Transformations in the sphere of culture

Peter I changed the beginning of the chronology from the so-called Byzantine era (“from the creation of Adam”) to “from the Nativity of Christ.” The year 7208 according to the Byzantine era became 1700 from the Nativity of Christ, and the New Year began to be celebrated on January 1. In addition, under Peter, uniform application of the Julian calendar was introduced.

After returning from the Great Embassy, ​​Peter I waged a struggle against the external manifestations of an “outdated” way of life (the ban on beards is most famous), but no less paid attention to introducing the nobility to education and secular Europeanized culture. Secular educational institutions began to appear, the first Russian newspaper was founded, and translations of many books into Russian appeared. Peter made success in service for the nobles dependent on education.

There have been changes in the Russian language, which included 4.5 thousand new words borrowed from European languages.

Peter tried to change the position of women in Russian society. By special decrees (1700, 1702 and 1724) he prohibited forced marriage. It was prescribed that there should be at least a six-week period between betrothal and wedding, “so that the bride and groom can recognize each other.” If during this time, the decree said, “the groom does not want to take the bride, or the bride does not want to marry the groom,” no matter how the parents insist on it, “there will be freedom.” Since 1702, the bride herself (and not just her relatives) was given the formal right to dissolve the betrothal and upset the arranged marriage, and neither party had the right to “beat the forfeit.” Legislative regulations 1696-1704. on public festivities, mandatory participation in celebrations and festivities was introduced for all Russians, including the “female sex.”

Gradually, a different system of values, worldview, and aesthetic ideas took shape among the nobility, which was radically different from the values ​​and worldview of the majority of representatives of other classes.

Peter I in 1709. Drawing from the mid-19th century.

Education

Peter clearly recognized the need for enlightenment, and took a number of decisive measures to this end.

According to the Hanoverian Weber, during the reign of Peter the Great, several thousand Russians were sent to study abroad.

Peter's decrees introduced compulsory education for nobles and clergy, but a similar measure for the urban population met fierce resistance and was cancelled. Peter's attempt to create an all-estate primary school failed (the creation of a network of schools ceased after his death; most of the digital schools under his successors were repurposed as estate schools for training the clergy), but nevertheless, during his reign the foundations were laid for the spread of education in Russia.

In the history of Peter's reforms, researchers distinguish two stages: before and after 1715. At the first stage, the reforms were mainly chaotic in nature and were caused primarily by the military needs of the state related to the conduct of the Northern War, were carried out mainly by violent methods and were accompanied by active government intervention in economic affairs. Many reforms were ill-conceived and hasty, which was caused both by failures in the war and by the lack of personnel, experience, and pressure from the old conservative apparatus of power. At the second stage, when military operations had already been transferred to enemy territory, the transformations became more systematic. The apparatus of power was further strengthened, manufactories no longer only served military needs, but also produced consumer goods for the population, state regulation of the economy weakened somewhat, and traders and entrepreneurs were given a certain freedom of action. Basically, the reforms were subordinated to the interests not of individual classes, but of the state as a whole: its prosperity, well-being and inclusion in Western European civilization. The goal of the reforms was for Russia to acquire the role of one of the leading world powers, capable of competing with Western countries militarily and economically. The main tool for carrying out reforms was consciously used violence.

Military reform

The main content of the military reform was the creation of a regular Russian army and a Russian navy, staffed on the basis of conscription. Previously existing troops were gradually abolished, and their personnel were used for new formations. The army and navy began to be supported by the state. To manage the armed forces, instead of orders, the Military Collegium and the Admiralty Collegium were established; The position of commander-in-chief was introduced (in wartime). A unified training system was established in the army and navy, military educational institutions were opened (navigation, artillery, engineering schools). The Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, as well as a number of newly opened special schools and the Naval Academy, served to train officers. The organization of the armed forces, the main issues of training, and methods of conducting combat operations were legislatively enshrined in the Military Charter (1716) and the Naval Charter Book (1720). In general, the military reforms of Peter I contributed to the development of military art and were one of the factors that determined the success of the Russian army and the fleet in the Northern War.

Reforms in the economy covered agriculture, large and small production, crafts, trade and financial policy. Agriculture under Peter I developed slowly, mainly in an extensive way. In the economic sphere, the concept of mercantilism dominated - encouraging the development of domestic trade and industry with an active foreign trade balance. The development of industry was dictated solely by the needs of warfare and was Peter's special concern. During the first quarter of the 18th century. 200 manufactories were created. The main attention was paid to metallurgy, the center of which moved to the Urals. The growth of industrial production was accompanied by increased feudal exploitation, the widespread use of forced labor in factories: the use of serfs, purchased (possession) peasants, as well as the labor of the state (black-growing) peasantry, which was assigned to the plant as a constant source of labor. In 1711, vocational schools were established at the manufactories. By decrees of 1722, a guild system was introduced in cities. The creation of workshops testified to the patronage of the authorities for the development of crafts and their regulation. In the field of domestic and foreign trade, a large role was played by the state monopoly on the procurement and sale of basic goods (salt, flax, hemp, furs, lard, caviar, bread, etc.), which significantly replenished the treasury. The creation of merchant “companies” and the expansion of trade relations with foreign countries were encouraged in every possible way. Peter's government paid great attention to the development of waterways - the main form of transport at that time. Active construction of canals was carried out: Volga-Don, Vyshnevolotsky, Ladoga, work began on the construction of the Moscow-Volga canal.

Financial policy state during the reign of Peter I was characterized by unprecedented tax oppression. The growth of the state budget, necessary for waging war, active domestic and foreign policy, was achieved through the expansion of indirect taxes and an increase in direct taxes. Special “profit-makers” led by A. Kurbatov were looking for ever new sources of income: bath, fish, honey, horse and other taxes were introduced, including a tax on beards. In total, indirect collections by 1724 numbered up to 40 species. Along with these levies, direct taxes were also introduced: recruitment, dragoon, ship and special “fees”. Considerable income was generated by minting coins of lighter weight and reducing the silver content in them. The search for new sources of income led to a radical reform of the entire tax system - the introduction of a poll tax, which replaced household taxation. As a result of this, firstly, the amount of tax revenue from peasants almost doubled. Secondly, the tax reform became an important stage of serfdom in Russia, extending it to those segments of the population that were previously free (“walking people”) or could gain freedom after the death of the master (bonded slaves). Thirdly, a passport system was introduced. Every peasant who went to work more than 30 miles from his place of residence was required to have a passport indicating the period of return.

Reorganization of public administration.

The strengthening of the absolute monarchy required a radical restructuring and extreme centralization of the entire system of public administration, its highest, central and local bodies. The king was at the head of the state. In 1721, Peter was proclaimed emperor, which meant a further strengthening of the power of the tsar himself. In 1711, instead of the Boyar Duma and the Council of Ministers, which had replaced it since 1701, the Senate was established. It included nine dignitaries closest to Peter I. The Senate was instructed to develop new laws, monitor the country's finances, and control the activities of the administration. In 1722, the leadership of the work of senators was entrusted to the prosecutor general, whom Peter I called “the eye of the sovereign.” In 1718 - 1721, the cumbersome and confusing system of command administration of the country was transformed. Instead of fifty orders, whose functions often overlapped and did not have clear boundaries, 11 boards were established. Each board was in charge of a strictly defined branch of management. The Collegium of Foreign Affairs - for external relations, the Military Collegium - for the land armed forces, the Admiralty Collegium - for the fleet, the Chamber Collegium - for revenue collection, the State Collegium - for state expenses, the Patrimonial Collegium - for noble land ownership, the Manufacturer Collegium - for industry, except for metallurgy, which was in charge of the Berg Collegium. . In fact, as a collegium, there was a Chief Magistrate in charge of Russian cities. In addition, the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (political investigation), the Salt Office, the Copper Department, and the Land Survey Office operated. Along with the strengthening of the central management apparatus, reform of local institutions. Instead of the voivodeship administration, a provincial management system was introduced in 1708 - 1715. Initially, the country was divided into eight provinces: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Kazan, Azov and Siberian. They were headed by governors who were in charge of the troops and administration of the subordinate territories. Each province occupied a huge territory and was therefore divided into provinces. There were 50 of them (headed by a governor). The provinces, in turn, were divided into counties. Thus, a single centralized administrative-bureaucratic system of management emerged for the entire country, in which the decisive role was played by the monarch, who relied on the nobility. The number of officials has increased significantly. The costs of maintaining the administrative apparatus have also increased. The General Regulations of 1720 introduced a uniform system of office work in the state apparatus for the entire country.

The Church and the liquidation of the patriarchate.

After the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, Peter I decided not to appoint a new patriarch. The Ryazan Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky was temporarily placed at the head of the clergy, although he was not vested with patriarchal powers. In 1721, Peter approved the “Spiritual Regulations”, developed by his supporter, Pskov Bishop Feofan Prokopovich. According to the new law, a radical church reform was carried out, eliminating the autonomy of the church and completely subordinating it to the state. The patriarchate in Russia was abolished, and a special Spiritual College was established to govern the church, which was soon transformed into the Holy Governing Synod to give greater authority. He was in charge of purely church affairs: interpretation of church dogmas, orders for prayers and church services, censorship of spiritual books, the fight against heresies, management of educational institutions and removal of church officials, etc. The Synod also had the functions of a spiritual court. All property and finances of the church, the lands assigned to it and the peasants were under the jurisdiction of the Monastic Order, subordinate to the Synod. Thus, this meant the subordination of the church to the state.

Social politics.

In 1714, the “Decree on Single Inheritance” was issued, according to which the noble estate was equal in rights to the boyar estate. The decree marked the final merger of the two classes of feudal lords. From that time on, secular feudal lords began to be called nobles. The decree on single inheritance ordered the transfer of estates and estates to one of the sons. The remaining nobles had to perform compulsory service in the army, navy or government bodies. In 1722, the “Table of Ranks” was published, dividing the military, civil and court services. All positions (both civilian and military) were divided into 14 ranks. It was possible to achieve each subsequent rank only by completing all the previous ones. An official who reached the eighth grade (collegiate assessor) or an officer received hereditary nobility (until the middle of the 19th century). The rest of the population, excluding the nobility and clergy, was obliged to pay taxes to the state.

Under Peter I, a new structure of society emerged, in which the principle of regulation by state legislation is clearly visible. Reforms in the field of education and culture. State policy was aimed at educating society and reorganizing the education system. At the same time, enlightenment acted as a special value, partly opposed to religious values. Theological subjects at school gave way to natural sciences and technology: mathematics, astronomy, geodesy, fortification, and engineering. The first to appear were the Navigation and Artillery schools (1701), the Engineering School (1712), and the Medical School (1707). To simplify the learning process, the complex Church Slavonic font was replaced with a civil one. The publishing business developed, printing houses were created in Moscow, St. Petersburg and other cities. The foundations for the development of Russian science were laid. In 1725, the Academy of Sciences was created in St. Petersburg. A lot of work has been done to study the history, geography and natural resources of Russia. The promotion of scientific knowledge was carried out by the Kunstkamera, opened in 1719, the first Russian natural history museum. On January 1, 1700, a new chronology according to the Julian calendar was introduced in Russia. As a result of the calendar reform, Russia began to live at the same time as Europe. There was a radical breakdown of all traditional ideas about the everyday way of life of Russian society. The Tsar, by order of command, introduced hair shaving, European clothing, and the compulsory wearing of uniforms for military and civil officials. The behavior of young nobles in society was regulated by Western European norms, set out in the translated book “The Honest Mirror of Youth.” In 1718, a Decree appeared on holding assemblies with the mandatory presence of women. Assemblies were held not only for fun and entertainment, but also for business meetings. Peter's reforms in the sphere of culture, life and morals were often introduced by violent methods and were of a clearly political nature. The main thing in these reforms was to respect the interests of the state.

Significance of reforms: 1. The reforms of Peter I marked the formation of an absolute monarchy, in contrast to the classical Western one, not under the influence of the genesis of capitalism, the balancing of the monarch between the feudal lords and the third estate, but on a serf-noble basis.

2. The new state created by Peter I not only significantly increased the efficiency of public administration, but also served as the main lever for the modernization of the country. 3. Based on some trends that emerged in the 17th century. in Russia, Peter I not only developed them, but also, in a minimal historical period of time, brought it to a qualitatively higher level, turning Russia into a powerful power.

The price for these radical changes was the further strengthening of serfdom, the temporary inhibition of the formation of capitalist relations and the strongest tax and tax pressure on the population. Multiple increases in taxes led to the impoverishment and enslavement of the bulk of the population. Various social uprisings - the revolt of the archers in Astrakhan (1705 -1706), the uprising of the Cossacks on the Don under the leadership of Kondraty Bulavin (1707 - 1708), in Ukraine and the Volga region - were directed not so much against the transformations as against the methods and means of their implementation.

21. Reforms of Peter the Great and their significance for Russian history: opinions of historians.

Foreign policy of Peter I. The main goal of Peter I's foreign policy was access to the Baltic Sea, which would provide Russia with a connection with Western Europe. In 1699, Russia, having entered into an alliance with Poland and Denmark, declared war on Sweden. The outcome of the Northern War, which lasted 21 years, was influenced by the Russian victory in the Battle of Poltava on June 27, 1709. and victory over the Swedish fleet at Gangut on July 27, 1714.

On August 30, 1721, the Treaty of Nystadt was signed, according to which Russia retained the conquered lands of Livonia, Estonia, Ingria, part of Karelia and all the islands of the Gulf of Finland and Riga. Access to the Baltic Sea was secured.

To commemorate the achievements in the Northern War, the Senate and Synod on October 20, 1721 awarded the Tsar the title of Father of the Fatherland, Peter the Great and Emperor of All Russia.

In 1723, after a month and a half of hostilities with Persia, Peter I acquired the western shore of the Caspian Sea.

Simultaneously with the conduct of military operations, the vigorous activity of Peter I was aimed at carrying out numerous reforms, the purpose of which was to bring the country closer to European civilization, increase the education of the Russian people, and strengthen the power and international position of Russia. The great tsar did a lot, here are just the main reforms of Peter I.

Peter I

Instead of the Boyar Duma, in 1700 the Council of Ministers was created, which met in the Near Chancellery, and in 1711 - the Senate, which by 1719 had become the highest state body. With the creation of provinces, numerous Orders ceased to operate and were replaced by Collegiums, which were subordinate to the Senate. The secret police also operated in the control system - the Preobrazhensky order (in charge of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery. Both institutions were administered by the emperor himself.

Administrative reforms of Peter I

Regional (provincial) reform of Peter I

The largest administrative reform of local government was the creation in 1708 of 8 provinces headed by governors, in 1719 their number increased to 11. The second administrative reform divided the provinces into provinces headed by governors, and the provinces into districts (counties) headed with zemstvo commissars.

Urban reform (1699-1720)

To govern the city, the Burmister Chamber was created in Moscow, renamed the Town Hall in November 1699, and magistrates subordinate to the Chief Magistrate in St. Petersburg (1720). Members of the Town Hall and magistrates were elected by election.

Estate reforms

The main goal of the class reform of Peter I was to formalize the rights and responsibilities of each class - the nobility, peasantry and urban population.

Nobility.

Decree on estates (1704), according to which both boyars and nobles received estates and estates.

Decree on Education (1706) - all boyar children are required to receive primary education.

Decree on single inheritance (1714), according to which a nobleman could leave an inheritance to only one of his sons.

Table of Ranks (1721): service to the sovereign was divided into three departments - army, state and court - each of which was divided into 14 ranks. This document allowed a lower-class person to earn his way into the nobility.

Peasantry

Most peasants were serfs. Serfs could enroll as soldiers, which freed them from serfdom.

Among the free peasants were:

state-owned, with personal freedom, but limited in the right of movement (i.e., by the will of the monarch, they could be transferred to serfs);

palace ones that belonged personally to the king;

possessional, assigned to manufactories. The owner had no right to sell them.

Urban class

Urban people were divided into “regular” and “irregular”. The regulars were divided into guilds: 1st guild - the richest, 2nd guild - small traders and wealthy artisans. Irregulars, or “mean people,” made up the majority of the urban population.

In 1722, workshops appeared that united masters of the same craft.

Judicial reform of Peter I

The functions of the Supreme Court were carried out by the Senate and the College of Justice. In the provinces there were court appeal courts and provincial courts headed by governors. Provincial courts dealt with the cases of peasants (except for monasteries) and townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, court cases of townspeople included in the settlement were conducted by the magistrate. In other cases, cases were decided by the zemstvo or city judge alone.

Church reform of Peter I

Peter I abolished the patriarchate, deprived the church of power, and transferred its funds to the state treasury. Instead of the position of patriarch, the tsar introduced a collegial highest administrative church body - the Holy Synod.

Financial reforms of Peter I

The first stage of Peter I's financial reform boiled down to collecting money for maintaining the army and waging wars. Benefits from the monopoly sale of certain types of goods (vodka, salt, etc.) were added, and indirect taxes were introduced (bath taxes, horse taxes, beard taxes, etc.).

In 1704 it was held currency reform, according to which the kopeck became the main monetary unit. The fiat ruble was abolished.

Tax reform of Peter I consisted of a transition from household taxation to per capita taxation. In this regard, the government included in the tax all categories of the peasant and townspeople, who had previously been exempt from tax.

Thus, during tax reform of Peter I a single cash tax (poll tax) was introduced and the number of taxpayers was increased.

Social reforms of Peter I

Education reform of Peter I

In the period from 1700 to 1721. Many civilian and military schools were opened in Russia. These include the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences; artillery, engineering, medical, mining, garrison, theological schools; digital schools for free education for children of all ranks; Maritime Academy in St. Petersburg.

Peter I created the Academy of Sciences, under which the first Russian university was established, and with it the first gymnasium. But this system began to operate after the death of Peter.

Reforms of Peter I in culture

Peter I introduced a new alphabet, which facilitated learning to read and write and promoted book printing. The first Russian newspaper Vedomosti began to be published, and in 1703 the first book in Russian with Arabic numerals appeared.

The Tsar developed a plan for the stone construction of St. Petersburg, paying special attention to the beauty of the architecture. He invited foreign artists, and also sent talented young people abroad to study “arts”. Peter I laid the foundation for the Hermitage.

Socio-economic reforms of Peter I

To boost industrial production and develop trade relations with foreign countries, Peter I invited foreign specialists, but at the same time encouraged domestic industrialists and traders. Peter I sought to ensure that more goods were exported from Russia than were imported. During his reign, 200 plants and factories operated in Russia.

Reforms of Peter I in the army

Peter I introduced annual recruitment of young Russians (from 15 to 20 years old) and ordered the training of soldiers to begin. In 1716, the Military Regulations were published, outlining the service, rights and responsibilities of the military.

As a result military reform of Peter I a powerful regular army and navy were created.

Peter's reform activities had the support of a wide circle of the nobility, but caused discontent and resistance among the boyars, archers and clergy, because the transformations entailed the loss of their leadership role in public administration. Among the opponents of Peter I's reforms was his son Alexei.

Results of the reforms of Peter I

A regime of absolutism has been established in Russia. During the years of his reign, Peter created a state with a more advanced management system, a strong army and navy, and a stable economy. There was a centralization of power.

Rapid development of foreign and domestic trade.

The abolition of the patriarchate, the church lost its independence and authority in society.

Tremendous progress has been made in the fields of science and culture. A task of national importance was set - the creation of Russian medical education, and the beginning of Russian surgery was laid.

Features of the reforms of Peter I

The reforms were carried out according to the European model and covered all spheres of activity and life of society.

Lack of a reform system.

Reforms were carried out mainly through harsh exploitation and coercion.

Peter, impatient by nature, innovated at a rapid pace.

Reasons for the reforms of Peter I

By the 18th century, Russia was a backward country. It was significantly inferior to Western European countries in terms of industrial output, level of education and culture (even in the ruling circles there were many illiterate people). The boyar aristocracy, which headed the state apparatus, did not meet the needs of the country. The Russian army, consisting of archers and noble militia, was poorly armed, untrained and could not cope with its task.

The main result of the entire set of Peter's reforms was the establishment of a regime of absolutism in Russia, the crown of which was the change in 1721. The title of the Russian monarch - Peter declared himself emperor, and the country became

be called the Russian Empire. Thus, what Peter was aiming for all the years of his reign was formalized - the creation of a state with a coherent system of governance, a strong army and navy, a powerful economy, influencing international politics. As a result of Peter's reforms, the state was not bound by anything and could use any means to achieve its goals. As a result, Peter came to his ideal of government - a warship, where everything and everyone is subordinated to the will of one person - the captain, and managed to take this ship out of the swamp into the stormy waters of the ocean, bypassing all the reefs and shoals. Russia became an autocratic, military-bureaucratic state, in which the central role belonged to the nobility. At the same time, Russia's backwardness was not completely overcome, and reforms were carried out mainly through brutal exploitation and coercion. The complexity and inconsistency of Russia's development during this period also determined the inconsistency of Peter's activities and the reforms he carried out. On the one hand, they had enormous historical meaning, since they contributed to the progress of the country and were aimed at eliminating its backwardness. On the other hand, they were carried out by serf owners, using serfdom methods and were aimed at strengthening their dominance. Therefore, the progressive transformations of Peter the Great’s time from the very beginning contained conservative features, which, in the course of the further development of the country, became more and more pronounced and could not ensure the elimination of socio-economic backwardness. As a result of Peter's reforms, Russia quickly caught up with those European countries where the dominance of feudal-serf relations remained, but it could not catch up with those countries that embarked on the capitalist path of development. Peter's transformative activity was distinguished by indomitable energy, unprecedented scope and purposefulness, courage in breaking down outdated institutions , laws, foundations and way of life. The family of Peter the Great in the history of Russia is difficult to overestimate. No matter how you feel about the methods and style of his reforms, one cannot help but admit that Peter the Great is one of the most prominent figures in world history.

Table "Reforms of Peter 1" (briefly). The main reforms of Peter 1: table, summary

The table “Reforms of Peter 1” briefly outlines the features of the transformative activities of the first emperor of Russia. With its help, it is possible to concisely, concisely and clearly outline the main directions of his steps to change all spheres of life of Russian society in the first quarter of the 18th century. Perhaps this is the best way for middle-level students to learn this complex and quite voluminous material, which is very important for the analysis and correct understanding of the features of the historical process in our country in the following centuries.

Features of the emperor's activities

One of the most complex, difficult and at the same time interesting topics is the “Reforms of Peter 1”. A brief table on this topic demonstrates all the data students need.

In the introductory lesson, it should immediately be noted that the activities of Pyotr Alekseevich affected all layers of society and determined the further history of the country. This is precisely the uniqueness of the era of his reign. At the same time, he was a very practical person and introduced innovations based on specific needs.

This can be clearly demonstrated with a more detailed coverage of the topic “Reforms of Peter 1”. A brief table on the problem posed clearly shows the wide scope with which the emperor acted. It seemed that he managed to have a hand in everything: he reorganized the army, government bodies, made significant changes in the social structure, economic sphere, diplomacy and, finally, contributed to the spread of Western European culture and way of life among the Russian nobility.

Transformations in the army

At the middle level, it is very important that schoolchildren learn the basic facts of the topic “The Reforms of Peter 1.” A brief table on this problem helps students familiarize themselves with the data and systematize the accumulated material. For almost his entire reign, the emperor waged a war with Sweden for access to the Baltic Sea. The need for strong and powerful troops arose with particular urgency at the very beginning of his reign. Therefore, the new ruler immediately began to reorganize the army.

One of the most interesting sections in the topic being studied is “The Military Reforms of Peter 1”. Briefly, the table can be depicted as follows.

The importance of military innovations

It shows that the emperor’s steps were dictated by the specific needs of his time, however, many of his innovations continued to exist for a very long time. The main goal of the reforms was to create a permanent and regular army. The fact is that previously there was a so-called local system of recruiting troops: i.e. the landowner appeared at the inspections along with several servants, who also had to serve with him.

However, by the beginning of the 18th century this principle had become obsolete. By this time, serfdom had already taken final shape, and the state began to recruit soldiers for service from peasants. Another very important measure was the creation of professional military schools for the training of officers and command personnel.

Transformations of power structures

Practice shows that one of the most difficult topics is “Political reforms of Peter 1”. Briefly, the table on this problem clearly demonstrates how deep the transformative activity of the emperor was in the governing bodies. He completely changed the central and local administration. Instead of the Boyar Duma, which previously performed advisory functions under the tsar, he created a Senate modeled on Western European countries. Instead of orders, boards were created, each of which performed a specific function in management. Their activities were strictly controlled by the Prosecutor General. In addition, a special secret fiscal body was created to control the bureaucratic apparatus.

New administrative division

The topic “State reforms of Peter 1” is no less complex. Briefly, the table on this problem reflects the fundamental changes that have occurred in the organization of local government. Governorates were created that were in charge of the affairs of a certain area. The provinces were divided into provinces, and those, in turn, into counties. This structure was very convenient for management and met the challenges of the time in question. At the head of the provinces was the governor, and at the head of the provinces and districts was the voivode.

Changes in industry and trade

Particular difficulty is often caused by studying the topic “Economic reforms of Peter 1.” Briefly, the table on this problem reflects the complexity and ambiguity of the emperor’s activities in relation to merchants and merchants, who, on the one hand, sought to create the most favorable conditions for the development of the country’s economy, but at the same time acted almost serf-like methods, which could in no way contribute to the development of market relations in our country. Pyotr Alekseevich's economic activity was not as effective as transformations in other areas. At the same time, this was the first experience in developing trade according to the Western European model.

Transformations in the social structure

The topic “Social reforms of Peter 1” seems simpler. A brief table on this issue clearly demonstrates the fundamental changes that occurred in Russian society of the time being studied. Unlike his predecessors, the emperor introduced the principle of distinction in the military and government spheres depending not on clan affiliation, but on personal merit. His famous “Table of Ranks” introduced a new principle of service. From now on, in order to receive a promotion or rank, a person had to achieve some success.

It was under Peter that the social structure of society was finally formalized. The main support of the autocracy was the nobility, which replaced the clan aristocracy. The emperor's successors also relied on this class, which indicates the effectiveness of the measures taken.

The study of this problem can be completed by summing up the results. What significance did the reforms of Peter 1 have in the history of Russia? A table or summary on this topic can serve as an effective means of summing up. Regarding social transformations, it should be noted that the measures of the ruler corresponded to the demands of his time, when the principle of localism was outdated, and the country needed new personnel who would have the necessary qualities to carry out the new tasks that faced the country in connection with the Northern War and Russia’s entry into the international arena

The role of the emperor's transformative activities

The topic “The Main Reforms of Peter 1”, a table whose summary is an important component in studying the history of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century, should be divided into several lessons so that schoolchildren have the opportunity to properly consolidate the material. At the final lesson, it is necessary to summarize the material covered and indicate what role the transformations of the first emperor played in the future fate of Russia.

The measures taken by the ruler brought our country onto the European stage and included it among the leading European states. The topic “The main reforms of Peter 1”, table, summary clearly shows how the country reached the world level of development, gaining access to the sea and becoming one of the main members of the European concert of powers.

Reforms of Peter 1.

Zhanna Gromova

Public Administration Reform
1699-1721

Judicial reform
1697, 1719, 1722

Military reforms
since 1699

Church reform
1700-1701 ; 1721

Financial reforms

The introduction of many new (including indirect) taxes, monopolization of the sale of tar, alcohol, salt and other goods. Damage (reduction in weight) of a coin. Kopek became

Tatyana Shcherbakova

Regional reform
In 1708-1715, a regional reform was carried out in order to strengthen the vertical power structure at the local level and better provide the army with supplies and recruits. In 1708, the country was divided into 8 provinces headed by governors vested with full judicial and administrative power: Moscow, Ingria (later St. Petersburg), Kyiv, Smolensk, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk and Siberian. The Moscow province provided more than a third of revenues to the treasury, followed by the Kazan province.

Governors were also in charge of the troops stationed on the territory of the province. In 1710, new administrative units appeared - shares, uniting 5,536 households. The first regional reform did not solve the set tasks, but only significantly increased the number of civil servants and the costs of their maintenance.

In 1719-1720, a second regional reform was carried out, eliminating shares. The provinces began to be divided into 50 provinces headed by governors, and the provinces into districts headed by zemstvo commissars appointed by the Chamber Board. Only military and judicial matters remained under the governor's jurisdiction.
Judicial reform
Under Peter, the judicial system underwent radical changes. The functions of the Supreme Court were given to the Senate and the College of Justice. Below them were: in the provinces - the Hofgerichts or court courts of appeal in large cities, and the provincial collegial lower courts. Provincial courts conducted civil and criminal cases of all categories of peasants except monasteries, as well as townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, court cases of the townspeople included in the settlement were conducted by the magistrate. In other cases, the so-called single court acted (cases were decided individually by the zemstvo or city judge). However, in 1722 the lower courts were replaced by provincial courts headed by the voivode
Church reform
One of the transformations of Peter I was the reform of church administration that he carried out, aimed at eliminating the church jurisdiction autonomous from the state and subordinating the Russian church hierarchy to the Emperor. In 1700, after the death of Patriarch Adrian, Peter I, instead of convening a council to elect a new patriarch, temporarily placed Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan at the head of the clergy, who received the new title of Guardian of the Patriarchal Throne or “Exarch”.

To manage the property of the patriarchal and bishop's houses, as well as monasteries, including the peasants belonging to them (approximately 795 thousand), the Monastic Order was restored, headed by I. A. Musin-Pushkin, who again began to be in charge of the trial of the monastic peasants and control income from church and monastic landholdings. In 1701, a series of decrees were issued to reform the management of church and monastic estates and the organization of monastic life; the most important were the decrees of January 24 and 31, 1701.

In 1721, Peter approved the Spiritual Regulations, the drafting of which was entrusted to the Pskov bishop, the Tsar's close Little Russian Feofan Prokopovich. As a result, a radical reform of the church took place, eliminating the autonomy of the clergy and completely subordinating it to the state. In Russia, the patriarchate was abolished and the Spiritual College was established, soon renamed the Holy Synod, which was recognized by the Eastern patriarchs as equal in honor to the patriarch. All members of the Synod were appointed by the Emperor and took an oath of loyalty to him upon taking office. Wartime stimulated the removal of valuables from monastery storages. Peter did not agree to the complete secularization of church and monastic properties, which was carried out much later, at the beginning of his reign.
Army and Navy reforms
Army reform: in particular, the introduction of regiments of a new system, reformed according to foreign models, began long before Peter I, even under Alexei I. However, the combat effectiveness of this army was low. Army reform and the creation of a fleet became necessary conditions for victory in the Northern War of 1700-1721 years.

Maxim Lyubimov

Public Administration Reform
Of all the transformations of Peter I, the central place is occupied by the reform of public administration, the reorganization of all its links.
The main goal of this period was to provide a solution to the most important problem - victory in the Northern War. Already in the first years of the war, it became clear that the old state management mechanism, the main elements of which were orders and districts, did not meet the growing needs of the autocracy. This manifested itself in a shortage of money, provisions, and various supplies for the army and navy. Peter hoped to radically solve this problem with the help of regional reform - the creation of new administrative entities - provinces, uniting several counties. In 1708, 8 provinces were formed: Moscow, Ingermanland (St. Petersburg), Kiev, Smolensk, Arkhangelsk, Kazan, Azov, Siberian.
The main goal of this reform was to provide the army with everything it needed: a direct connection was established between the provinces and the army regiments, which were distributed among the provinces. Communication was carried out through a specially created institution of Kriegskomissars (the so-called military commissars).
An extensive hierarchical network of bureaucratic institutions with a large staff of officials was created locally. The former “order - district” system was doubled: “order (or office) - province - province - district.”
In 1711 the Senate was created. Autocracy, which strengthened significantly in the second half of the 17th century, no longer needed the institutions of representation and self-government.
At the beginning of the 18th century. Meetings of the Boyar Duma actually cease, management of the central and local state apparatus passes to the so-called “Concilia of Ministers” - a temporary council of heads of the most important government departments.
Particularly important was the reform of the Senate, which occupied a key position in Peter’s state system. The Senate concentrated judicial, administrative and legislative functions, was in charge of colleges and provinces, and appointed and approved officials. The unofficial head of the Senate, consisting of the first dignitaries, was the Prosecutor General, endowed with special powers and subordinate only to the monarch. The creation of the post of prosecutor general laid the foundation for an entire institution of the prosecutor's office, the model for which was the French administrative experience.
In 1718 - 1721 The system of command administration of the country was transformed. 10 boards were established, each of which was in charge of a strictly defined industry. For example, the Collegium of Foreign Affairs - with foreign relations, the Military Collegium - with the ground armed forces, the Admiralty Collegium - with the fleet, the Chamber Collegium - with revenue collection, the State Office Collegium - with state expenses, and the Commerce Collegium - with trade.
Church reform
The Synod, or Spiritual Collegium, established in 1721, became a kind of collegium. The destruction of the patriarchate reflected the desire of Peter I to eliminate the “princely” system of church power, unthinkable under the autocracy of Peter’s time. By declaring himself the de facto head of the church, Peter destroyed its autonomy. Moreover, he made extensive use of church institutions to carry out his policies.
Monitoring the activities of the Synod was entrusted to a special government official - the chief prosecutor.
Social politics
Social policy was pro-noble and serfdom in nature. The decree of 1714 on single inheritance established the same procedure for inheritance of real estate, without distinction between estates and estates. The merger of two forms of feudal land ownership - patrimonial and local - completed the process of consolidation of the feudal class into a single class - the class of nobles and strengthened its dominant position (often, in the Polish manner, the nobility was called the gentry).
To force the nobles to think about service as the main source of well-being, they introduced primogeniture - it was forbidden to sell and mortgage land

Oleg Sazonov

Military Collegium
The Military Collegium was established by Peter I instead of a number of military institutions in order to centralize military administration. The formation of the Military Collegium began with the appointment in 1717 of the first president, Field Marshal A. D. Menshikov and vice-president A. A. Weide.
On June 3, 1719, the staff of the College was announced. The board consisted of a presence, headed by the president (vice-president) and the Chancellery, which was divided into divisions in charge of cavalry and infantry, garrisons, fortifications and artillery, as well as keeping logs of incoming and outgoing documents. The Collegium consisted of a notary, an auditor general and a fiscal general. Supervision over the legality of decisions was carried out by the prosecutor, subordinate to the prosecutor general. The organization of the ground army service was under the jurisdiction of the Military Collegium.
The Kriegskomissariat and the Provision Master General, who were involved in the clothing and food supply of the army, were formally subordinate to the Military Collegium, but had significant independence.
In relation to the artillery and engineering departments, headed by the Artillery Chancellery and the Field Chief General, the Collegium exercised only general leadership.
In the 1720s - 1730s. The Military Collegium was subject to reorganization aimed at subordinating all branches of military administration to it.
In 1721, the management of the Don, Yaik and Greben Cossacks was transferred from the Collegium of Foreign Affairs to the newly created Cossack district.
In 1736, the Commissariat, which had existed since 1711 as an independent institution for supplying the army, became part of the Military Collegium. The staff of 1736 consolidated the new composition of the Collegium: the presence, the Chancellery, which was in charge of recruiting, organizing, inspecting and serving troops, as well as cases of fugitives, recruiting minors and some other issues, and a number of offices (later renamed expeditions) for branches of management. The offices were headed by directors who took part in the meetings of the Board. The offices resolved cases independently, submitting only complex and controversial issues to the Board for consideration. During this period, there were the General Kriegs Commissariat, Chief Tsalmeister, Amunich (Mundirnaya), Provisions, Accounting, Fortification Offices and the Artillery Office. The body of the Collegium in Moscow was the Military Office.
With the accession of Elizabeth there was a return to the decentralization of military administration. In 1742, independent departments were restored - commissariat, provisions, artillery and fortification management. The counting expedition was abolished. After this, the importance of the Military Collegium as a governing body fell.
The increasing importance of the Military Collegium began in 1763, when its president became Catherine II’s personal rapporteur on military affairs; new staff of the Collegium were introduced.
In 1781, the Accounting Expedition was restored in the Military Collegium, exercising control over the expenses of the military department.
In 1791 the College received a new organization. The commissariat, provisions, artillery and engineering departments became part of the Military Collegium as independent expeditions (departments since 1796).
In 1798, new staff of the College were approved. According to them, it consisted of the Office, divided into expeditions (Army, Garrison, Order, Foreign, Recruitment, School Establishment and Repair), independent expeditions (Military, Accounting, Inspector, Artillery, Commissariat, Provisions, Military Orphan Institutions) and the General Auditorium.
With the formation of the Ministry of Military Ground Forces in 1802, the Military College became part of it and was finally abolished in 1812. The functions of its expeditions were transferred to the newly formed departments of the Ministry.

Yuri Kek

Public Administration Reform
1699-1721
Creation of the Near Chancellery (or Council of Ministers) in 1699. It was transformed in 1711 into the Governing Senate. Creation of 12 boards with a specific scope of activity and powers.
The public administration system has become more advanced. The activities of most government bodies became regulated, and the boards had a clearly defined area of ​​activity. Supervisory authorities were created.

Regional (provincial) reform
1708-1715 and 1719-1720
At the first stage of the reform, Peter 1 divided Russia into 8 provinces: Moscow, Kyiv, Kazan, Ingria (later St. Petersburg), Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Azov, Siberian. They were controlled by governors who were in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province, and also had full administrative and judicial power. At the second stage of the reform, the provinces were divided into 50 provinces governed by governors, and they were divided into districts led by zemstvo commissars. Governors were deprived of administrative power and resolved judicial and military issues.
There was a centralization of power. Local governments have almost completely lost influence.

Judicial reform
1697, 1719, 1722
Peter 1 created new judicial bodies: the Senate, the Justice Collegium, the Hofgerichts, and the lower courts. Judicial functions were also performed by all colleagues except Foreign. The judges were separated from the administration. The court of kissers (an analogue of the jury trial) was abolished, and the principle of the inviolability of an unconvicted person was lost.
A large number of judicial bodies and persons carrying out judicial activities (the emperor himself, governors, governors, etc.) introduced confusion and confusion into legal proceedings, the introduction of the possibility of “knocking out” testimony under torture created the ground for abuse and bias. At the same time, the adversarial nature of the process and the need for the sentence to be based on specific articles of the law corresponding to the case under consideration were established.

Military reforms
since 1699
The introduction of conscription, the creation of a navy, the establishment of a Military Collegium in charge of all military affairs. Introduction, using the “Table of Ranks,” of military ranks, uniform for all of Russia. Creation of military-industrial enterprises, as well as military educational institutions. Introduction of army discipline and military regulations.
With his reforms, Peter 1 created a formidable regular army, which by 1725 numbered up to 212 thousand people and a strong navy. Units were created in the army: regiments, brigades and divisions, and squadrons in the navy. Many military victories were won. These reforms (although assessed ambiguously by different historians) created a springboard for further successes of Russian weapons.

Church reform
1700-1701 ; 1721
After the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, the institution of the patriarchate was virtually liquidated. In 1701, the management of church and monastic lands was reformed. Peter 1 restored the Monastic Order, which controlled church revenues and the court of monastic peasants. In 1721, the Spiritual Regulations were adopted, which actually deprived the church of independence. To replace the patriarchate, the Holy Synod was created, the members of which were subordinate to Peter 1, by whom they were appointed. Church property was often taken away and spent on the needs of the emperor.
The church reforms of Peter 1 led to the almost complete subordination of the clergy to secular power. In addition to the elimination of the patriarchate, many bishops and ordinary clergy were persecuted. The Church could no longer pursue an independent spiritual policy and partially lost its authority in society.

Financial reforms
Almost the entire reign of Peter 1
Introduction of many new (including indirect) taxes,

Mikhail Basmanov

Completing the destruction of the empire of Great Tartary, he set about military reform in the Western style. Established a mechanism for obtaining material income from the Christian church. He introduced serfdom, while in Europe they were getting rid of it. He allowed many foreigners (including military personnel) into the Russian Empire with privileges. Previously, few of them were allowed into the empire. And their theft and corruption. The beginning of a large-scale rewriting of the history of the empire of Great Tartaria.

Olya Kireeva

As you know, Peter I cut a window to Europe, forced the boyars to shave their beards and enlightened the dark Russian people. This emperor was immensely respected during the Soviet period, but in recent history his role in the life of the country is assessed very ambiguously. A relatively objective assessment of what Peter I did for Russia can be done by his completed reforms.
Under Peter I, the Russian Tsardom became the Russian Empire as a result of the victory in the Northern War and gaining access to the Baltic Sea. Since that time (1721), the country has been actively involved in foreign policy games.
The Byzantine chronology was replaced by the era “from the Nativity of Christ”, the New Year began to be celebrated on January 1.
The conservative Boyar Duma was replaced by the Governing Senate, to which the collegiums (ministries) were subordinate, all document flow was standardized, and office work was brought to a unified scheme.
The fiscal department was called upon to control the activities of the bureaucratic apparatus.
The territory of the country was divided into 8 provinces, in each of which a local power vertical was created, and then each province into 50 provinces.
The country's regular army was replenished first with foreign officers, and then with Russian nobles - graduates of navigation, engineering and artillery schools. A powerful navy was created and a Maritime Academy was opened.
The church hierarchy came under the complete subordination of the Senate; instead of the patriarch, the management of the church vertical was handled by the Holy Synod, which swore allegiance to the emperor.
The land and peasants assigned to the estate became the full property of the nobles and landowners, free peasants became the property of the state.
Primary education became compulsory for all children of the boyars.
All representatives of the nobility were required to perform public service.
A “Table of Ranks” appeared, allowing one to build a career regardless of class origin: an official who reached the 8th grade could receive personal nobility.
Instead of household taxes, capitation taxes began to be collected, and for the first time a capitation census was carried out.
The kopeck became the main monetary unit.
Petersburg was built (founded in 1703).
233 industrial enterprises were built.

Nevrev N.V. Peter I in foreign attire
before his mother, Queen Natalya,
Patriarch Andrian and teacher Zotov.
1903

Since its inception in 1589, the institution of the patriarchate has become the second political center of the Moscow state after secular power. The relationship of the Church to the state before Peter was not precisely defined, although at the church council of 1666-1667. the supremacy of secular power was fundamentally recognized and the right of hierarchs to interfere in secular affairs was denied. The Moscow sovereign was considered the supreme patron of the Church and took an active part in church affairs. But church authorities were also called upon to participate in public administration and influenced it. Rus' did not know the struggle between church and secular authorities, familiar to the West (strictly speaking, it did not exist under Patriarch Nikon either). The enormous spiritual authority of the Moscow patriarchs did not seek to replace the authority of state power, and if a voice of protest was heard from the Russian hierarch, it was solely from a moral position.

Peter did not grow up under such a strong influence of theological science and not in such a pious environment as his brothers and sisters grew up. From the very first steps of his adult life, he became friends with the “German heretics” and, although he remained an Orthodox man by conviction, he was more free about Church Orthodox rituals than ordinary Moscow people. Peter was neither a scolder of the Church, nor a particularly pious person - in general, “neither cold nor hot.” As expected, he knew the circle of church services, loved to sing in the choir, sing the “Apostle” at the top of his lungs, ring the bells at Easter, celebrate Victoria with a solemn prayer service and many days of church ringing; at other moments he sincerely called on the name of God and, despite the obscene parodies of the church rank, or, rather, the church hierarchy he did not like, at the sight of church disorder, in his own words, “he had on his conscience the fear that he would not be unresponsive and ungrateful If the Most High neglects the correction of the spiritual rank.”

In the eyes of the Old Testament zealots of piety, he seemed infected with foreign “heresy.” It is safe to say that Peter, from his mother and the conservative patriarch Joachim (d. 1690), more than once faced condemnation for his habits and acquaintance with heretics. Under Patriarch Adrian (1690-1700), a weak and timid man, Peter met with no more sympathy for his innovations. And although Adrian did not clearly prevent Peter from introducing certain innovations, his silence, in essence, was a passive form of opposition. Insignificant in itself, the patriarch became inconvenient for Peter as the center and unifying principle of all protests, as a natural representative of not only church, but also social conservatism. The Patriarch, strong in will and spirit, could have been a powerful opponent of Peter if he had taken the side of the conservative Moscow worldview, which condemned all public life to immobility.

Understanding this danger, Peter, after the death of Adrian in 1700, was in no hurry to elect a new patriarch. Ryazan Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky, a learned Little Russian, was appointed “Locum Tenens of the Patriarchal Throne.” Management of the patriarchal household passed into the hands of specially appointed secular persons. It is unlikely that Peter decided to abolish the patriarchate immediately after the death of Adrian. It would be more accurate to think that Peter then simply did not know what to do with the election of the patriarch. Peter treated the Great Russian clergy with some distrust, because many times he was convinced of their rejection of reforms. Even the best representatives of the old Russian hierarchy, who were able to understand the entire nationality of Peter’s foreign policy and helped him as best they could (Mitrofaniy of Voronezh, Tikhon of Kazan, Job of Novgorod), even they rebelled against Peter’s cultural innovations. For Peter, choosing a patriarch from among the Great Russians meant risking creating a formidable opponent for himself. The Little Russian clergy behaved differently: they themselves were influenced by European culture and science and sympathized with Western innovations. But it was impossible to install a Little Russian as patriarch because during the time of Patriarch Joachim, Little Russian theologians were compromised in the eyes of Moscow society, as people with Latin errors. For this they were even persecuted. The elevation of a Little Russian to the patriarchal throne would therefore cause a wave of protest. In such circumstances, Peter decided to leave church affairs without a patriarch.

The following order of church administration was temporarily established: at the head of the church administration were the locum tenens Stefan Yavorsky and a special institution, the Monastic Prikaz, with secular persons at the head. The Council of Hierarchs was recognized as the supreme authority in religious matters. Peter himself, like previous sovereigns, was a patron of the church and took an active part in its governance. But he was extremely attracted by the experience of the Protestant (Lutheran) church in Germany, based on the primacy of the monarch in spiritual matters. And in the end, shortly before the end of the war with Sweden, Peter decided to carry out the Reformation in the Russian Church. This time too, he expected a healing effect on the confused church affairs from the colleges, intending to establish a special spiritual college - the Synod.

Peter made the Little Russian monk Feofan Prokopovich the domestic, tame Luther of the Russian Reformation. He was a very capable, lively and energetic person, inclined to practical activity and at the same time very educated, having studied theology not only at the Kyiv Academy, but also at the Catholic colleges of Lvov, Krakow and even Rome. The scholastic theology of Catholic schools instilled in him hostility towards scholasticism and Catholicism. However, Orthodox theology, then poorly and little developed, did not satisfy Theophan. Therefore, from Catholic doctrines he moved on to the study of Protestant theology and, being carried away by it, adopted some Protestant views, although he was an Orthodox monk.

Peter made Theophan bishop of Pskov, and later he became archbishop of Novgorod. A completely secular man in his mind and temperament, Feofan Prokopovich sincerely admired Peter and - God be his judge - enthusiastically praised everything indiscriminately: the personal courage and dedication of the tsar, the work of organizing the fleet, the new capital, colleges, fiscals, as well as factories, factories, mint, pharmacies, silk and cloth factories, paper mills, shipyards, decrees on wearing foreign clothing, barbering, smoking, new foreign customs, even masquerades and assemblies. Foreign diplomats noted in the Pskov bishop “immense devotion to the good of the country, even to the detriment of the interests of the Church.” Feofan Prokopovich never tired of reminding in his sermons: “Many believe that not all people are obliged to obey state authority and some are excluded, namely the priesthood and monasticism. But this opinion is a thorn, or, better said, a thorn, a serpent's sting, a papal spirit, unknown how it reaches us and touches us. The priesthood is a special class in the state, and not a special state.”

It was to him that Peter instructed him to draw up regulations for the new administration of the Church. The tsar was in a hurry to the Pskov bishop and kept asking: “Will your patriarch be in time soon?” - “Yes, I’m finishing my cassock!” - Feofan answered in the same tone as the king. “Okay, I have a hat ready for him!” - Peter noted.

On January 25, 1721, Peter published a manifesto on the establishment of the Holy Governing Synod. In the regulations of the Theological College published a little later, Peter was quite frank about the reasons that forced him to prefer synodal government to the patriarchal one: “From the conciliar government, the Fatherland need not be afraid of rebellions and embarrassment, which come from its only spiritual ruler.” Having listed examples of what the lust for power of the clergy led to in Byzantium and other countries, the tsar, through the mouth of Feofan Prokopovich, concluded: “When the people see that the conciliar government has been established by a royal decree and a Senate verdict, they will remain meek and lose hope of the help of the clergy in riots. " Essentially, the Synod was conceived by Peter as a special spiritual police. Synodal decrees imposed heavy duties on priests that were not characteristic of their rank - they not only had to glorify and extol all reforms, but also help the government in identifying and catching those who were hostile to innovations. The most blatant order was the violation of the secrecy of confession: having heard from the person confessing that he had committed a state crime, his involvement in a rebellion or malicious intent on the life of the sovereign, the confessor was obliged to report such a person to the secular authorities. In addition, the priest was charged with identifying schismatics.

However, Peter was tolerant of the Old Believers. They say that their merchants are honest and diligent, and if so, let them believe what they want. To be martyrs for stupidity - neither they are worthy of this honor, nor will the state benefit. Open persecution of Old Believers ceased. Peter only imposed double government taxes on them and, by decree of 1722, dressed them in gray caftans with a high glued “trump card” of red color. However, calling on the bishops to verbally exhort those who were stuck in schism, the tsar sometimes still sent a company or two of soldiers to help the preachers for greater persuasion.

Among the Old Believers, the news spread more and more widely that far in the east, where the sun rises and “the sky is close to the earth” and where the Rahman-Brahmans live, who know all worldly affairs, about which the angels who are always with them tell them, lies on the sea- Okiyans, on seventy islands, the wonderful country of Belovodye, or the Opon kingdom; and Marko, a monk of the Topozersky monastery, was there and found 170 churches of the “Asir language” and 40 Russian ones, built by the elders who fled from the Solovetsky monastery from the royal massacre. And following the happy Marco, thousands of hunters rushed to the Siberian deserts in search of Belovodye to see with their own eyes all the ancient beauty of the church.

By establishing the Synod, Peter emerged from the difficulty in which he had been for many years. His church-administrative reform preserved an authoritative body of power in the Russian Church, but deprived this power of the political influence that the patriarch could use.

But from a historical perspective, the nationalization of the Church had a detrimental effect on both itself and the state. Seeing in the Church a simple servant of the state, who had lost her moral authority, many Russian people began to openly and secretly leave the bosom of the church and seek satisfaction of their spiritual needs outside of Orthodox teaching. For example, out of 16 graduates of the Irkutsk seminary in 1914, only two expressed a desire to remain in the clergy, while the rest intended to go to higher education. In Krasnoyarsk the situation was even worse: none of its 15 graduates wanted to take the priesthood. A similar situation occurred in the Kostroma seminary. And since the Church has now become part of the state system, criticism of church life or complete denial of the Church, according to the logic of things, ended in criticism and denial of the state order. That is why there were so many seminarians and priests in the Russian revolutionary movement. The most famous of them are N.G. Chernyshevsky, N.A. Dobrolyubov, I.V. Dzhugashvili (Stalin), A.I. Mikoyan, N.I. Podvoisky (one of the leaders of the seizure of the Winter Palace), S.V. Petliura, but the full list is much longer.