Mineral resources and patterns of their distribution. The largest mineral deposits in Russia and the world

The main types of mineral fuels include oil, natural gas, coal and uranium. Typically, fuel resources are taken into account in two main categories - general geological and explored (reliable, confirmed) resources.
General geological oil reserves are estimated at 270-300 billion tons, but reliable ones are 156 billion tons.

The richest oil and gas basins are located in the Persian Gulf basin. The Near and Middle East region concentrates more than 2/3 of the world's reserves. This is also due to the fact that more than half of the world’s 30 known giant (unique) oil fields are located here. This category includes those deposits whose initial reserves estimate is more than 500 million tons. The Ghawar deposit (Saudi Arabia) is considered the largest in the world, the reserves of which are estimated at 12 billion tons.
Oil fields are known in more than 100 countries around the world, but the concentration of oil resources in the Persian Gulf has determined the top ten countries in terms of proven oil reserves.

Natural gas is distributed in nature in a free state - in the form of gas deposits and fields, as well as in the form of “gas caps” above oil fields (associated gas).
General geological reserves are estimated at 400 billion cubic meters, and explored reserves are approximately 175 billion cubic meters
Almost 1/3 of the world's proven natural gas reserves are in Russia. Of the 20 giant deposits in the world (i.e. deposits with initial reserves of more than 1 trillion cubic meters), 9 are located in Russia. The largest is the Urengoy deposit, the reserves of which are estimated at 10.2 trillion cubic meters.

Country leaders in natural gas reserves: Reserves trillion m
Russia - 47.57, USA - 5.0, 2, Iran - 23.0, Algeria - 4.5, Qatar - 14.4, Saudi Arabia - 6.2, Venezuela - 4.52

Coal. About 4 thousand of its basins and deposits are known. In terms of proven reserves, large regions follow in this order: North America, foreign Asia, foreign Europe, the CIS, Australia and Oceania, Latin America.
Top 5 countries by proven coal reserves (billion tons)
USA - 445, China - 296, Russia - 202, South Africa - 116, Australia - 116

Uranium is very widespread in the earth's crust. However, it is profitable to develop those deposits that contain at least 0.1% uranium in the ore. According to the IAEA, proven reserves of such uranium amount to 2.3 million tons.
Australia ranks first in the world in terms of proven reserves. It is followed by Kazakhstan and Canada. About half of the world's uranium reserves are concentrated in these three states. In addition to them, the top ten includes (in descending order) South Africa, Brazil, Namibia, USA, Niger, Russia, Uzbekistan.

Natural resources are components of the natural environment used in the production process to meet the material and cultural needs of society.

Natural resources are inherently physical in origin, but through the process of their use they become an economic resource.

Natural resources are divided into inexhaustible (agroclimatic, geothermal, hydropower) and exhaustible. In turn, exhaustible resources are divided into non-renewable (mineral) and renewable (land, water, biological, recreational). Based on this classification and developing it, this textbook identifies the following types of natural resources: mineral (mineral resources), energy, water, biological, land, agroclimatic, recreational.

When considering natural resources, it is important to assess resource availability, i.e. the relationship between proven reserves of resources and the volume of their use. The resource availability of exhaustible non-renewable resources is estimated by the number of years for which these resources will last at the current level of production. For renewable resources, the value of these resources per capita is determined.

Mineral resources in the world

Mineral raw materials, according to their geological origin and purpose, can be divided into fuel, ore, chemical, construction and technical.

According to the degree of study, mineral reserves are divided into four categories - explored (industrial) - A, B and C1 and pre-estimated C2.

Category A (reliable reserves) includes thoroughly explored and studied reserves with precise definition boundaries of mineral bodies, industrial development is already underway on reserves of this category, and the permissible error in estimating reserves is up to 10% of their volume. Category B includes reserves that have been explored and studied in detail to provide clarification of the main features of the occurrence conditions, but without an accurate reflection of the spatial position of each type, and at the same time, reserves of this category are either not yet developed or are in the initial stage of development, and the permissible error in the estimate does not exceed 15%. Category C1 includes reserves that are either at the exploration stage, or for which exploration has been carried out and their partial assessment carried out, and the permissible error in the assessment of these reserves should not exceed 25%. Reserves of category C2 (potential) are classified as pre-estimated, when the boundaries of the deposits are not defined, exploration work is only planned, and the error in estimating the volume of reserves can reach 50%.

Fuel mineral resources

Fuel mineral raw materials are of sedimentary origin, therefore they are distributed unevenly and are confined to the sedimentary covers of platform structures. Fuel resources primarily include the “big three” - oil, natural gas and coal, which produce more than 80% of the energy produced in the world (see Table 11.5). The world's geological reserves of mineral fuel are estimated at approximately 13 trillion tons, i.e. The supply of mineral fuel to humanity is about 1000 years. Moreover, coal accounts for 60% of reserves (according to calorific value), and for hydrocarbon fuels - 27%. At the same time, the structure of global consumption of primary energy sources is different: in 2012, coal accounted for about 30%, oil - about 33%, gas - about 24%. The first place in the world in proven coal reserves is occupied by the United States, in oil reserves - Venezuela, and in natural gas reserves - Iran, which recently slightly overtook Russia.

Table 1
Top eight countries by proven reserves of fuel resources in 2012

Source: US Energy International Administration. International Energy Outlook, 2013.
Reliable coal reserves today are estimated at 860 billion tons, with more than half of them being hard coal and the rest being less high-calorie brown coal, and the planet's supply of coal is 400 years. The richest coal reserves are the USA (accounting for 28% of reliable world reserves), Australia (9%), Germany (5%), and from less developed countries - Russia (more than 18%), China (13%) and India (7 %). Thus, the USA, Russia, China and Australia account for about 70% of the world's proven coal reserves. If we evaluate the reserves of high-quality coking coals (they are needed for metal smelting), then Australia, Germany, China and the USA come out on top.

Today coal is mined in approximately 80 countries. About 3.5 billion tons of hard coal are mined, 1.2 billion tons of brown coal. In many developed countries, starting from the second half of the twentieth century, the coal mining industry was struck by a structural crisis, caused on the one hand by intense competition from the oil and gas industry, and on the other hand, unfavorable physical, geographical and environmental conditions of production. In particular, the production of coal with high sulfur content has decreased. As a result, many developed countries began to rely more on imported coal, which was also cheaper. Thus, coal mining has practically ceased in France and Belgium, and the oldest coal regions - the Ruhr and Saar in Germany, the Appalachian in the USA are experiencing a crisis. A somewhat more stable situation has developed with lignite and those coal basins where mining is carried out using cheaper open-pit methods.

The structural crisis did not affect less developed countries, where industry and energy are rapidly developing and at the same time labor costs are low: here the coal industry, on the contrary, is experiencing rapid growth. Currently, China is in first place in coal production. Just recently, the country produced 1 billion tons of coal, and in 2012, 3.5 billion tons were already produced. The largest coal producers also remain the United States (993 million tons, although production volumes are falling), India (590 million tons), Australia, Indonesia, Russia (354 million tons), Germany, South Africa, and Colombia. Coal production is growing particularly rapidly in Indonesia and Colombia. The world's largest coal exporters to last years steel Australia, Indonesia (2nd place in the world), Russia (exports 19% of mined coal), USA, Colombia, South Africa.

table 2
IN leading countries in production, export and consumption of fuel resources
(country location is indicated in brackets)

Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy, 2013

Reliable oil reserves in the world are estimated at 236 billion tons, and the resource availability of oil is estimated at 55 years. Since the beginning of the 1990s, the availability of oil and gas has increased by 60-65%, but production volumes have increased by only 25%, which indicates the rapid development of geological exploration work. However, exploration, as well as production, is increasingly moving to areas with harsh natural conditions with their higher production costs. Thus, more than 30% of oil reserves are located in shelf zones of seas and oceans, therefore in a number of countries, for example, Great Britain, Norway, Gabon, oil production occurs exclusively from the bottom of the sea. According to forecasts, huge reserves of hydrocarbons are concentrated in the shelf seas of the Arctic and Far East.

The vast majority of proven oil reserves are located, and Asia, in the Persian Gulf basin alone, contains more than 48% of the world's oil reserves. For a long time, the leader in oil reserves was Saudi Arabia (16% of world reserves), but recently it was surpassed by Venezuela (18%). Next come Canada Iran and Iraq (9-10% each), Kuwait, UAE, Russia (5%). Canada previously did not have large oil reserves, but after the discovery of unique “oil sands” in the province of Alberta, Canada became one of the leading countries in this indicator (10%).

Until the early 1970s. World oil production grew at a rapid pace, but after the then energy crisis, the price of oil rose sharply, and the geography of oil production also changed - it began to move to hard-to-reach places. Accordingly, the level of global oil production began to grow more slowly and now amounts to more than 3.6 billion tons per year. However, if in OECD countries there is a fall or very slow growth in oil consumption, then in other countries there is an increase in oil consumption by 3.0-3.5%, which maintains the growth of its production around the world as a whole in the region of 1%.

In 2012, Russia was in 2nd place in oil production (10,600 million barrels per day) after Saudi Arabia (11,500 million barrels per day). The USA is in 3rd place (8.900 million barrels per day). In 2013, according to Russian data, Russia produced 10.800 million barrels. per day. However, the United States (8.4 million barrels per day) has every chance in the foreseeable future to become the world leader in oil production, leaving behind both Saudi Arabia and Russia: oil production here is growing at the fastest rate in the last 150 years. Such a sharp increase in production volumes in the United States is becoming possible due to active shale oil production in certain states. The largest oil developers are also Norway, Iran, China, Canada, Iraq, UAE, Mexico, Kuwait and a number of other countries. Of particular note is the role of OPEC member countries, which accumulate 73% of reliable oil reserves, although their share in production in 2012 decreased to 43%. Nevertheless, they remain the world's main oil exporters, primarily Saudi Arabia, Iran, and the UAE.

The world's proven reserves of natural gas are growing at a rapid pace and today they are estimated at 187 trillion. m 3 , and more and more thanks to deposits in hard-to-reach areas. As a result, gas production, just like oil production, is actively moving to the shelf zones of the seas and oceans, where 28% of all gas is now produced. The gas resource availability is estimated at 70 years.

Unlike oil production, the dynamics of gas production in recent decades has been characterized by rapid growth and has now reached 3.6 trillion. m 3 per year, increasing in recent years by 2-3%. The first place in the world is occupied by the United States, which produced 680 billion m3 in 2012, increasingly increasing shale gas production. Russia produces slightly less gas, which in 2012 slightly reduced production to 653 billion m 3 due to the slow growth of gas demand in the EU. Next, by a large margin, are Canada, Qatar, Iran, Norway, the Netherlands, China and other countries. The world's main exporters of natural gas are Russia, Norway, Qatar, Canada, the Netherlands, and in the coming years, the United States.

Ore and other mineral resources

Ore mineral raw materials, unlike sedimentary fuel, are, with rare exceptions, of igneous or metamorphic origin, and therefore are confined to folded tectonic structures, shields, and faults in the earth's crust.

Uranium ores are often classified as fuel mineral resources, since the main purpose of uranium is fuel for nuclear reactors installed at nuclear power plants. Estimates of geological reserves of uranium ores vary greatly, although reliable reserves, according to the IAEA, are determined quite accurately - 3.6 million tons and are concentrated in 44 countries of the world (2005). The first place undividedly belongs to Australia - about 30% of world reserves, followed by Kazakhstan - 17%, Canada - about 12%, South Africa - 10%, then Namibia, Brazil, Russia, etc. However, according to new Russian data, Russia came in 2nd place in the world, surpassing Kazakhstan - 18% of world reserves.

At the same time, the extraction of ores and the production of concentrate from them is characterized by a slightly different geography. Uranium ores are mined in 25 countries: Kazakhstan (33% of world production), Canada (18%), Australia (11%), as well as Namibia and Niger (8 each), Russia (7%), Uzbekistan, USA , South Africa, Gabon. At the same time, the volumes of uranium ore production are characterized by strong fluctuations: maximum volumes were reached in the late 1970s. during the energy crisis, then there was a decline in production volumes, especially after the Chernobyl accident, and from 2005 to 2009, uranium production volumes increased by more than 1.5 times, primarily due to Kazakhstan.

Iron ores are widespread in the earth's crust and their proven reserves are estimated at 160 billion tons. The iron content in them varies widely - from 20% to 68%. In terms of explored reserves of iron ore, Ukraine dominates (45% of world reserves), followed by Australia (20%), Brazil (17%), Russia (15%), China, India, and the USA. However, the iron content in the ores does not correspond to the indicated ranking - the richest ores are provided by Liberia, India, Australia, Brazil, Venezuela - the ores in these countries contain more than 60% of the useful component.

The largest developers of iron ore in 2012 were China (43% of world production), Australia (20%), Brazil (17%), India, Russia, Ukraine - in total, iron ore is mined in 43 countries, including for export. A number of countries that previously relied on their own iron ore are switching to importing it, and this primarily applies to the EU.

The most common metal in the earth's crust is aluminum, and it is concentrated in sedimentary rocks. Explored reserves of bauxite in the world are estimated at 30 billion tons. Ores of light non-ferrous metals, including bauxite, are distinguished by a high content of useful components - in bauxite its content is 30-60%. The largest reserves of bauxite are found in Guinea (27% of the world's proven reserves), Australia (25%), Brazil, Jamaica, China, India, and Vietnam, although the latter, thanks to new diluted reserves, may take first place in the ranking. The largest bauxite developers are Australia (33% of world production), China (19%), Brazil (15%), India, Guinea, Jamaica - about 30 countries in total. Some developed countries, such as the USA, France, Greece, Hungary, have either stopped bauxite mining altogether or significantly reduced it. Russia is also focusing on importing bauxite.

Ores of heavy non-ferrous metals contain significantly less useful components. Thus, the copper content in ores is usually less than 5%. The largest copper ore mining countries are Chile (36% of world production), the USA, Peru, China, Australia, Russia, Indonesia (about 50 countries in total).

In terms of reserves and production of other mineral resources, the leading positions are occupied by a small range of countries. Thus, more than 70% of world manganese production is concentrated in China, South Africa, Australia, Gabon, Kazakhstan and India; chromium - in South Africa, Kazakhstan, India, Zimbabwe, Finland; lead - in Australia, China, USA, Peru, Canada; zinc - in China, Australia, Peru, Canada, USA, Mexico; tin - in China, Peru, Indonesia, Brazil, Bolivia, Australia, Malaysia, Russia; nickel - in Russia (25% of world production), Canada, Australia, Indonesia, France (New Caledonia), Colombia; cobalt - in the DRC (53% of world production), Canada, China, Russia, Zambia; tungsten - in China (85% of world production), Russia, Canada, Austria.

Among non-metallic raw materials, chemical raw materials should be highlighted: phosphorites, apatites, salts, sulfur. Phosphorites are mined in almost 30 countries of the world, among which the USA, China, Morocco, and Tunisia are the leaders. In terms of sodium salt production, the following countries stand out: the USA, China, Germany, India, and Canada; potassium salt - Canada, Belarus, Germany, Russia, Israel.

12.2. Land, water, forest and recreational resources of the world
In the period just after 1960, world food production increased by 2.5 times, water consumption by 2 times, and deforestation by 3 times. All this has sharpened attention to the world's provision of land, water, and forest resources.

Table 3
Security number of countries in arable land, forest and water resources, per capita

Land resources
Land resources are the area of ​​land. Part of it does not have soil cover (for example, glaciers) and therefore cannot be the basis for the production of agricultural raw materials and food. The total land fund of the world (land area minus the glaciers of the Arctic and Antarctic) is equal to 13.4 billion hectares, or more than 26% of the total area of ​​our planet.

The structure of the land fund from the point of view of agricultural development does not look the most in the best possible way. Thus, cultivated land (arable land, gardens, plantations) accounts for 11%, meadows and pastures - another 26%, and the rest is occupied by forests and shrubs - 32%, land under settlements, industrial and transport facilities - 3%, unproductive and unproductive lands (swamps, deserts and areas with extreme climatic isotherms) - 28%.
Thus, agricultural land (arable land, gardens, plantations, meadows and pastures) makes up only 36% of the land fund (4.8 billion hectares) and their increase in recent years, although continuing, is slow. In terms of the size of agricultural land, China, Australia, the USA, Canada, and Russia stand out among the countries of the world. In the structure of agricultural land, the area of ​​arable land is 28% (1.3 billion hectares), pastures - 70% (3.3 billion hectares), and perennial plantings - 2%.

As the population grows, the availability of agricultural land decreases: if in 1980 there were 0.3 hectares of arable land per capita of the world population, then in 2011 it was 0.24 hectares. IN North America per capita there are 0.65 hectares of arable land, Western Europe - 0.28 hectares, Foreign Asia - 0.15 hectares, South America - 0.49 hectares, Africa - 0.30 hectares. There are also great contrasts between countries (see Table 12.3).

The decrease in land resources as a global trend occurs due to the alienation of productive lands for enterprises, cities and other settlements, and the development of the transport network. Huge areas of cultivated land are being lost as a result of erosion, salinization, waterlogging, desertification, and physical and chemical degradation. According to FAO, the total area of ​​potentially suitable land for agriculture in the world is about 3.2 billion hectares. However, to include this reserve in agricultural production requires a colossal investment of labor and funds.

In developed countries, private land ownership predominates. Most of The land fund is in the hands of large landowners (farmers and companies) and is rented out. Developing countries are characterized by a variety of forms of land relations. This includes large landownership, private, foreign, communal lands, rented, there are land-poor and landless peasant farms. In general, the private form of land ownership dominates in the world, but a significant proportion of peasant farms (28%) do not have their own land and are forced to rent it.

Water resources

Water is a necessary condition for the existence of all living organisms. Not only life, but also human economic activity is associated with the use of water resources.

Of the total amount of water on earth, fresh water, so necessary for humanity, makes up 2.5% of the total volume of the hydrosphere (the water shell of the earth, which is a combination of seas, oceans, land surface waters, groundwater, ice, snow of Antarctica and the Arctic, atmospheric waters), or approximately 35 million m 3, which exceeds the current needs of humanity by more than 10 thousand times, and the remaining 97.5% of the volume of the hydrosphere consists of the waters of the world ocean and the salty waters of surface and underground lakes.

The vast majority of fresh waters (70%) are located in polar and mountain ice and permafrost, which are practically not used. Only 0.12% of the total volume of the hydrosphere is made up of surface waters of rivers, freshwater lakes, and swamps. The supply of fresh water suitable for all types of uses is called water resources. The main source of meeting humanity's needs for fresh water is river water. Their one-time volume is extremely small - 1.3 thousand km 3, but since this volume is renewed 23 times during the year, the actual volume of available fresh water is 42 thousand km 3 (this is approximately two Baikals). This is our "water ration", although only half of this amount can realistically be used.

The distribution of fresh water around the globe is extremely uneven. Europe and Asia, where 70% of the world's population lives, contain only 39% of river waters. Many countries are on the verge of a crisis in terms of water resource availability - for example, the Persian Gulf countries, small island states. At the same time, countries with high degree security, including Russia (see Table 12.3).

Russia occupies a leading place in the world in terms of surface water resources. The average total river flow is 4270 km 3 per year, mainly due to rivers such as the Yenisei, Angara, Ob, Pechora, Northern Dvina, etc. The exploitable resources of groundwater are 230 km 3 per year. In general, in Russia there is 31.9 thousand m 3 of fresh water per inhabitant per year. However, in Russia, a number of regions are experiencing a shortage of fresh water (Volga region, Central Black Earth region, North Caucasus, Ural, Central areas), since its reserves are concentrated in the European North, Siberia and the Far East.

The volume of global water consumption accounts for 25% of the planet's water resources and, according to UN estimates, is 3973 m3. It can be stated that humanity as a whole is not threatened by a lack of clean drinking water. Nevertheless, if humanity’s “water ration” remains unchanged, then global water consumption increased by 20% every ten years from 1960 to 2000, although over the past decade it has only increased by 10%. In addition, according to the UN at the end of the 2000s, more than 1.2 billion people on Earth are deprived of quality drinking water, as they either live in countries with a shortage of fresh water or near water sources polluted by household and industrial waste .

The main consumer of water in the world remains agriculture (82%), followed by industry (8%), only 10% is consumed in everyday life. In Russia, the structure of water consumption is different. Water consumption for industrial needs is 40%, for agriculture - 24%, household expenses - 17%. This consumption structure has developed as a result of the high share of water-intensive industries and wasteful consumption of water in everyday life. The poor provision of water resources in the southern regions of Russia, which are the main agricultural regions of the country, increases the level of water use in agriculture. Nevertheless, the total water flow in Russia is only 3% of the average long-term flow of the country's rivers.

Water resources play an important role in the development of the world energy economy. The world's hydropower potential is estimated at 10 trillion. kW including possible electricity generation. About ½ of this potential comes from 6 countries: Russia, China, USA, DRC, Canada, Brazil.

Forest resources

One of the most important types of biological resources are forests. Like all other biological resources, they are exhaustible but renewable natural resources. Forest resources are assessed by the size of forest area, standing timber reserves, and forest cover.

The global average forest resource endowment is 0.6 hectares per capita, and this figure is also constantly declining, mainly due to anthropogenic deforestation. The highest provision of forest resources (as well as water) is in equatorial countries and northern countries of the temperate zone: in Suriname - 36 hectares per capita, in Venezuela - 11 hectares, in Brazil - 2.5 hectares, in Australia - 7 hectares, in Russia - 5.5 hectares, in Finland - 5 hectares, in Canada - 16 hectares per capita. Conversely, in tropical countries and southern temperate countries, the provision of forest is much lower and amounts to less than 0.1 hectares per person (see Table 12.3).

The total forest area in the world is 4.1 billion hectares, i.e. about 30% of the earth's landmass. However, over the past 200 years alone, forest areas have halved and continue to decline at a rate of 25 million hectares, or 0.6% per year, with tropical forests in the southern forest belt declining most rapidly. Thus, Latin America and Asia have already lost 40% of evergreen tropical forests, and Africa - 5%. At the same time, despite the intensive exploitation of forests in the northern zone in the USA, Canada, Scandinavian countries Thanks to reforestation and afforestation work, the total area of ​​forests in them has not decreased over the past decades.

The world's standing timber reserves are approximately 350 billion m 3 . Russia ranks first in terms of timber reserves in the world - 25% of the world, or 83 billion m 3, including it possesses almost half of the world's reserves of coniferous trees. The annual increase in wood, which determines the exploitation of forests without undermining their reproduction, is estimated to be 5.5 billion m 3. At the beginning of our decade, the volume of wood harvesting amounted to 5.5 billion m 3 per year (including illegal logging), i.e. the volume of harvesting was equal to the annual increase in wood. In Russia, about a third of the forests cut down annually are naturally restored, the rest require special measures for their renewal.

The indicator of forest cover of a territory is the ratio of forest area to the total territory of the country. Russia only ranks 21st in the world for this indicator due to the large area of ​​tundra and steppes.

Recreational resources

Recreational resources are understood as natural components and anthropogenic objects that have uniqueness, historical, artistic and aesthetic value, healing and health significance, intended for the organization various types recreation, tourism and treatment. They are divided into natural and anthropogenic recreational resources. Among natural recreational resources, geological and geomorphological, hydrological, climatic, energy, biological, and landscape resources are distinguished.

The first include the East African Rift, Vesuvius volcano, the Himalaya mountains, the Tibet plateau, the Great Barrier Reef off the northeastern coast of Australia, the red monoliths of Uluru-Kata Tjuta in the center of Australia, the fiords of Norway, the Grand Canyon in the USA, the Pillars Nature Reserve "in the Krasnoyarsk region.

Hydrological recreational resources include all types of surface and groundwater that have recreational properties: Lake Baikal, Angel Falls in Venezuela, Iguazu in Argentina and Brazil, Niagara in the USA and Canada, the Dead Sea in Israel and Jordan, the cascade of hot mountain lakes Pamuk-Kale in Turkey, the Fedchenko and Bear glacier in the Pamirs, valleys of geysers in Kamchatka, in Chile, in Iceland, temporarily flowing rivers in the Pamirs.

Climatic recreational resources include all resorts in the world (seaside, mountain, steppe, forest, desert, cave) and even some places with extreme climate and weather properties (the coldest place on Earth, the windiest, the wettest, the hottest).

Biological and landscape recreational resources combine elements of living and inanimate nature: soil, floristic and faunal resources, representing scientific, educational, medical-biological and aesthetic value. Among the unique biological resources and landscapes of the world, the following stand out: the island of Madagascar with its ecosystem of 10 thousand species of endemic plants and animals, the Amazon basin, the Ngoro-Ngoro caldera and national park Serengeti in Tanzania, Altai Mountains, Kamchatka volcanoes, virgin Komi forests, black soil and juniper groves of the Krasnodar Territory, cedar and fir taiga in Russia, regurs of the Deccan Plateau and the oldest Corbett National Park in India, Yosemite and Yellowstone national parks in the USA, polar bears of the Arctic and penguins of Antarctica, kangaroos, koalas, dingo dogs, Australian devils in the Australian national parks "Blue Mountains", "Cockatoo" and many others, fur seals of the Commander Islands, Belovezhskaya Pushcha, Galapagos Islands(Ecuador), reserves in Southern and Equatorial Africa.

Recreational resources of anthropogenic origin can be divided into material (embodied in architectural monuments, museums, palace and park ensembles, etc.) and spiritual, reflected in science, education, literature, folk life etc. These are numerous museums of world significance, historical and cultural monuments of Russia, European countries, China, India, Japan, Iran, Mexico, Peru, Egypt.

Of particular note are the objects world heritage humanity. In 1972, UNESCO adopted the Convention on the World Natural and Cultural Heritage and began compiling a list of World Heritage Sites. Currently, the list compiled on its basis contains 911 heritage sites, including 704 cultural heritage, 180 - natural heritage and 27 - mixed heritage.

Recreational resources are the basis for tourism. In recent decades, there has been a “tourism boom” in the world. According to the World Tourism Organization, in 2012 the number of international tourists alone in the world reached 1 billion people, and revenues from international tourism exceeded 1 trillion. dollars. The leaders in world tourism in 2012 were France, the USA, China, and in terms of tourism income - the USA, Spain, France (see Table 11.10).

Natural resources of Russia

The mineral resources of our country are extremely diverse. On European territory and in Western Siberia, covered with a thick sedimentary cover, there are rich deposits of sedimentary, primarily fuel, minerals. 95% of the country's fuel resources are concentrated in its Asian part. On shields and in ancient folded zones, in the Kola-Karelian region, in Altai and the Urals, Eastern Siberia and the Far East, where numerous outcrops of magmatic intrusions occurred, there are rich deposits of ore minerals, gold, diamonds, chemical and construction raw materials.

As a result, Russia occupies a leading position in the world in terms of proven (explored) reserves of many minerals. Thus, it accounts for 18% of the world's gas resources and more than 5% of the world's oil reserves. The overwhelming majority of gas reserves are located in the West Siberian basin, as well as in the Barents-Pechora, Orenburg, Astrakhan, North Caucasus, Lena-Vilyui and Okhotsk basins of Russia. Most of the oil reserves are also located in the West Siberian basin and, in addition, oil reserves are available in the Volga-Ural, Barents-Pechora, North Caucasus, Caspian and Okhotsk basins. There are large potential hydrocarbon reserves on the shelves of the Arctic and Pacific seas, but production here is still minimal.

Russia also occupies a leading position in coal reserves (18% of the world's reliable reserves), where the undisputed leader is the giant basins - Tunguska and Lensky, but their proven reserves are small, and almost no mining is carried out here. Of the basins under development, the huge Kansk-Achinsk brown coal basin, the Kuznetsk coal basin and other coal basins located on the territory of Russia should be highlighted - Pechora, Donetsk, Irkutsk, South Yakutsk, Primorsky, Sakhalin, Moscow Region.

Russia has 18% of the world's uranium ore reserves. The main Russian deposits are located in Eastern Siberia and the Far East - Chita region, Buryatia and the Republic of Sakha. Russian uranium ores are poorer than foreign ones. In Russian underground mines, ores contain only 0.18% uranium, while Canadian underground mines produce ores with uranium contents of up to 1%. In terms of uranium ore production, Russia is in 6th place (6.6% of world production).

The most important component of the mineral resource base is the ores of ferrous and non-ferrous metals. Large iron ore deposits in Russia are, first of all, the Kursk magnetic anomaly, as well as the Ural, Kola-Karelian and Angara deposits. In terms of reliable iron ore reserves, Russia is one of the world leaders - 15% of world reserves. And in terms of iron ore production, Russia is in 5th place - more than 100 million tons. However, Russia’s supply of manganese and chromium ores necessary for metallurgy is small.

Aluminum ores are found in the European North (including the largest nepheline deposit on the Kola Peninsula), in the Northwestern region of Russia, in the Urals and Siberia. However, in general, reserves of aluminum ores in Russia are small.

Russia has large reserves of nickel ores, which are often mined together with copper ores. Russia occupies a leading place in the world in the production of nickel ores - more than 20% of world production.

Copper, cobalt, nickel, and platinum ores are mined in Russia in the Norilsk region, as well as in the Urals, on the Kola Peninsula. Ores are often complex in nature and contain simultaneously copper, nickel, cobalt and other components. Tungsten-molybdenum ores are found in the North Caucasus and Transbaikalia. Complex, mainly lead-zinc polymetallic deposits are found in Transbaikalia, Primorye, the North Caucasus, and the Altai region. There are rich deposits of tin ores in the Far East. Placer and primary gold deposits are found in the Far East, Transbaikalia, and the Altai Mountains.
After the collapse of the USSR, Russia has to begin developing deposits of manganese, titanium-zirconium, and chromium ores, the concentrates of which were previously completely imported from the union republics.

Among non-metallic deposits, salt deposits should be distinguished. Russia has large salt deposits in the Urals, in the lower Volga region, in the south of Western and Eastern Siberia. There are unique apatite deposits in the Khibiny Mountains on the Kola Peninsula. Phosphorites are mined in Central Russia. Sulfur deposits are known in the Volga region. Rich diamond deposits are available in the Republic of Sakha; deposits have also been discovered in the European North near Arkhangelsk.

At the same time, the majority of mineral deposits in Russia are of low quality, the content of useful components in them is 35-50% lower than the world average, in addition, in some cases they are difficult to access and are located in areas with extreme natural conditions. As a result, despite the presence of significant explored reserves, the degree of their industrial development is quite low: for bauxite - 33%, nepheline ores - 55%, copper - 49%, zinc - 17%, tin - 42%, molybdenum - 31%, lead - 9%, titanium - 1%.

Land resources in Russia are quite large, but agricultural land, as throughout the world, tends to decline. Over the past quarter century, their area has decreased by about 15%. Although arable land makes up only 7% of the structure of Russia's land fund and, moreover, its area is decreasing, the provision of arable land in Russia is one of the highest in the world - about 0.9 hectares per person, and Russia has huge reserves of the most fertile soils - chernozem soils.

Data analysis state monitoring lands for the state of the natural environment shows that the state of land quality in virtually all subjects Russian Federation deteriorates rapidly. The soil cover, especially arable land and other agricultural land, continues to be subject to degradation, pollution, littering and destruction, catastrophically losing its resistance to destruction, ability to restore properties, and reproduce fertility due to the exhaustive and consumptive use of land. In addition, approximately half of the (northern) territory of Russia is in conditions of excessive moisture, while the southern part of the European territory of Russia and southern Siberia are in a zone of insufficient moisture. Waterlogged and swampy lands occupy 12%, and saline, solonetzic lands and lands with solonetz complexes occupy 20% of the country's agricultural land area.

Forest resources in Russia are extremely rich. The provision of forest resources in Russia is one of the highest in the world - 5 hectares per person, therefore 26% of the world's timber reserves are in Russia. At the same time, Russia has more mature and productive forests than other countries, because Its forests are dominated by coniferous species. Therefore, almost half of the world's coniferous tree reserves are concentrated in our country.

Over the past 30 years, the condition of forests has continuously deteriorated. Deforestation exceeds reforestation. About a third of the forests cut down annually are restored naturally; the rest require special measures for their restoration. The forests of European territory are degrading especially quickly. Tremendous damage to forests is also caused by fires, industrial emissions and construction work. Timber reserves have decreased by 1.2 billion m3 in recent years, which indicates that Russian forests are “getting younger,” i.e. The most valuable ones - mature and productive forests - are cut down, and restoration is carried out at the expense of low-value small-leaved young forests.

Water resources are very large - Russia ranks second in the world in terms of volume of water resources after Brazil, with 32 thousand m 3 of fresh water per inhabitant per year. However, they are distributed very unevenly. Thus, the basins of the Arctic and Pacific oceans account for 80% of the runoff. As a result, a number of regions are experiencing a shortage of fresh water (Volga region, Central Black Earth region, North Caucasus, Ural, Central regions), since its reserves are mainly concentrated in the European North, Siberia and the Far East.

Fresh water intake is growing at an extremely fast pace: if in 1950 it was 80 km 3, now it is 400 km 3 per year. This is explained by the fact that in Russia there is a different structure of water consumption than in other countries. Water consumption for industrial needs is the largest and amounts to 57%, 16% of water is used for agriculture, 23% is used for domestic needs, and 4% of water resources are concentrated in reservoirs. This consumption structure (a lot of industrial and household consumption) has developed due to the high share of water-intensive industries and wasteful water consumption in public utilities. The aridity of southern Russia, which is the main agricultural region of the country, increases the level of water use in agriculture. Nevertheless, the total water flow in Russia is only 3% of the average long-term flow of the country's rivers.

A serious problem of water resources is their pollution. Almost all major rivers are “polluted” or “heavily polluted”. About 57% of reservoirs from which drinking water is collected do not meet sanitary standards in terms of chemical and microbiological indicators. Approximately half of the population uses drinking water that does not meet hygienic requirements.

Hydropower resources in Russia are quite large. Russia's hydropower potential is estimated at 2.5 trillion. kW hours (12% of the world's hydropower potential), of which it is technically possible to use 1.7 trillion. kW hours of electricity. In terms of hydropower resources, Russia ranks second in the world after China. The Far East and Eastern Siberia have the largest total hydropotential.

Recreational resources in Russia are very rich, but, unfortunately, they are poorly and ineffectively used. Central Russia with a mild temperate climate, beautiful rivers, hills and mixed forests is very favorable for recreation and treatment. The mountainous regions of the Caucasus, Urals, Altai, Kamchatka are wonderful places for mountain recreation, tourism and skiing. Mineral healing springs in the Caucasus, Altai, Kamchatka and other areas are of great value for the treatment of the musculoskeletal system, gastric and other diseases. The Black Sea coast surpasses the sea coasts of many countries in its beauty.
Russia is also rich in cultural monuments. 24 of its sites are included in the World Heritage List, including the Moscow Kremlin and Red Square; historical centers St. Petersburg and Novgorod; architectural ensemble of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra; monuments of the Vladimir-Suzdal land; historical and cultural complex Solovetsky Islands; Kizhi churchyard.

Maksakovsky V.P. General economic and social geography. Course of lectures. M.: Infra-M, 2010. From….

Detailed solution to topic Topic 2 in geography for 10th grade students, authors V.P. Maksakovsky A basic level of 2017

• GDZ working Geography notebook for grade 10 can be found

Task 1. Based on knowledge from previous geography courses and additional sources of information, draw up a summary table of natural resource endowment with examples of resource-abundant, resource-sufficient and resource-insufficient countries.

Let's trace the resource availability of oil across the world. Taking into account the known oil reserves and the current level of its production, a number of resource-abundant countries can be identified by country in terms of oil reserves (OPEC countries, the Persian Gulf, in particular Saudi Arabia, Iraq, the UAE, Kuwait are provided with oil for more than 100 years). Resource-sufficient countries include Iran, Venezuela, and Mexico. Countries whose proven oil reserves will last for 20 years or less can be classified as resource-insufficient (Russia, China, USA).

Task 2. Analyze the data in the table. 1 in the text and tables 3, 4, 5 and 19 in the “Appendices”. Calculate how many years the world's proven reserves of coal, oil, natural gas and iron ore will last at the current level of their production (see instructions, p. 59). What problems arise from this?

It is difficult to calculate the exact number of years for which known reserves of mineral resources will last, since new deposits are discovered every year. Also, the indicator of mineral resource production may change from year to year.

Task 3. Using the text of the textbook, the map of the world’s mineral resources in the atlas and tables 3, 4, 5 in the “Appendices”, analyze the distribution of fuel minerals. Name the countries with significant reserves of coal, oil, and their largest basins. What conclusions can be drawn based on the analysis?

The bulk of coal resources are found in Asia, North America and Europe. Among the countries in terms of coal reserves, the United States, Russia, and China lead. The largest coal basins in the world: Appalachian (USA), Pennsylvania (USA), New South Wales (Australia), Donetsk (Ukraine), Tunguska (Russia), Lena and Kansk-Achinsk basins (Russia).

The main oil reserves are also located in the Northern Hemisphere and are concentrated in a relatively small number of major basins. In terms of the number of giant oil-bearing basins and reserves, the Persian Gulf region stands out. The world leaders are Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Iraq. The largest oil and gas basins in the world: the Persian Gulf, Lake Maracaibo, Western Siberia, Alaska, etc.

Thus, the attraction of fuel mineral reserves to the strata of the sedimentary cover within the internal and marginal troughs of ancient platforms is clearly visible.

Task 4. Analyze Fig. 2. Calculate how much mineral raw material was extracted from the bowels of the Earth in 1900, 1950, 1980 and 2005. on a per capita basis. Compare indicators, establish a trend and explain it.

(data on population taken from the textbook: 1900 - Fig. 7, p. 66, data for other years - Table 11 Appendix)

Thus, population growth is accompanied by an increase in the extraction of mineral raw materials, which are used in economic activity person.

Task 5. Analyze the figure. 4, map of world land resources in the atlas and table. 6 in Applications. Compare the provision of individual regions and countries with arable land. Give examples of land-rich and land-poor countries. Based on knowledge from the course on the geography of continents and oceans, explain the reasons for such differences. Justify your opinion.

The greatest supply of arable land is typical for Europe, the CIS countries, North America, and Asia (India, China). The amount of arable land is influenced natural conditions, in the tropical and equatorial zones the share of arable land is several times less than in the temperate zone. This indicator is also influenced by the number of population; the larger the country’s population, the more arable land is needed to provide it with food.

Task 6. Find on the Internet and look at satellite images of deserts: Sahara, Arabian, Gobi, Kalahari, Australian deserts. Use them to characterize the desertification process.

Anthropogenic desertification has affected more than 1 billion hectares and continues to increase. Severe desertification has become widespread in Asia, Africa, North and South America, and Australia. Desertification entails complete and irreversible degradation of the land. Restoring lands affected by severe desertification requires large investments and a long time.

Task 7. Using Fig. 5, compare the provision of large regions of the world with river flow resources. Give examples of countries that are most and least endowed with fresh water resources. Based on the map in the atlas, consider the location of the world's major reservoirs, draw conclusions and use them to support the text of the textbook.

The most abundant regions of the world in terms of river flow resources are Latin America, Equatorial Africa, South- East Asia, North America and CIS. Among the countries, the world leaders are Suriname (Latin America), Congo (Equatorial Africa), and Canada. Also in the top ten are Russia, Norway, New Zealand, Brazil, Liberia. It is in these regions that the largest reservoirs are located. The regions with the least provision of fresh water resources are: North Africa(Egypt, Libya, Algeria, etc.), Europe, South-West Asia (Saudi Arabia, UAE, Iraq, etc.), East Asia (China, India).

Task 8. Analyze the data in the table. 7 in the “Appendices” and give a comparative description of the hydropower potential of large regions of the world.

River flow is also widely used to generate hydropower. The world's usable hydropower potential is estimated at 8 trillion kWh of possible electricity generation. Among the regions of the world, Foreign Asia has the greatest potential (28.1% of the total potential), Latin America (20%) is in second place, followed by the CIS (15.6%), Africa (13.8%), North America ( 12.5%). Foreign Europe (8.8%), Australia and Oceania (1.2%) have the least potential. More than 1/2 of this potential lies in just six countries: China, Russia, Brazil, Canada, India, DR Congo.

Task 9. Analyze Fig. 6. Using this picture, as well as the main text, characterize the two main forest belts of the planet. Assess the endowment of individual countries, highlighting countries that are very rich and very poor in forest resources.

The forests of the world form two huge belts, the northern and southern ones. The northern forest belt is located in a zone of temperate and partly cold and subtropical climates. It accounts for 1/2 of all forest areas in the world. The southern forest belt is located mainly in the zone of tropical and equatorial climates. It accounts for 1/2 of all forests and the total wood supply.

The richest countries in timber reserves are: Russia, Canada, Brazil, and the countries of Equatorial Africa. Countries located in the tropical zone (Algeria, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, etc.) have the smallest reserves.

Task 10. Analyze the map of mineral resources of the World Ocean in the atlas. Give general characteristics these resources. Identify the areas of the continental shelf and deep ocean floor that are richest in mineral resources. Is it possible, based on the analysis carried out, to outline the prospects for the development of the offshore mining industry?

The mineral resources of the World Ocean floor include the resources of the continental shelf (oil and natural gas) and ferromanganese ores of the deep sea bed

The mineral resources of the World Ocean are divided into those of the continental shelf and the deep seabed. The resources of the continental shelf include: oil and gas, tin ores, amber, phosphorites, etc. Iron-manganese ores gravitate to the deep-sea part of the World Ocean. The largest oil and gas basins on the Atlantic shelf have been explored off the coasts of Europe (North Sea), Africa (Guinea), Central America (Caribbean), smaller ones - off the coasts of Canada and the USA, Brazil. Tin ore is actively mined in the offshore region of Southeast Asia. Around the “tin islands” of this area, they can be traced at a distance of 10–15 km from the coast and to a depth of 35 m. Large deposits of phosphorites have been discovered on the shelf of the western and eastern coasts of the USA, in the Atlantic coast of Africa, along the Pacific coast South America. The largest accumulations of ferromanganese nodules are located in the Pacific Ocean, where they are divided into three zones - northern, middle and southern.

Task 11. Using the text of the textbook, draw up a classification scheme “Natural resources of the World Ocean” in your notebook. Use it to prove the point that the World Ocean is a storehouse of various natural resources.

Natural resources of the World Ocean:

1 – sea water (serves as an important source of magnesium, bromine, iodine and other chemical elements);

2 – mineral resources of the bottom of the World Ocean (resources of the continental shelf: oil and natural gas, ferromanganese ores of the deep sea bed;

3 – energy resources of the World Ocean (contained in daily tidal movements, in the energy of sea waves and temperature gradient);

4 – biological resources (animals and plants).

Task 12. Based on knowledge of the physical, economic and social geography of your republic, region, region, give examples: 1) recreational and medicinal; 2) recreational and health; 3) recreational and sports; 4) recreational and educational territories. Whenever possible, use your own observations and impressions. Prepare an album (banner) dedicated to this territory. Are there any World Heritage sites in your republic, region, or region?

Recreational potential of the Altai Republic. Altai is a unique natural complex rich in recreational resources. First of all, these include: natural and climatic conditions, a large number of sunny days, presence of mountain climatic zones, etc. About a quarter of the region's territory has the status of a specially protected area included in the World Heritage List under the auspices of UNESCO. Also tourist attractions are Lake Teletskoye, Altai and other nature reserves, Mount Belukha, the Ukok plateau, caves, mounds, the Ulalinskaya Paleolithic site - the oldest site of primitive man, etc.

Task 13. In April 2010, a fire occurred on an oil platform in the Gulf of Mexico, which led to a large-scale environmental disaster. Using the Internet and a geographic information system, prepare a report on this environmental disaster.

In April 2010, an accident occurred on the Deepwater Horizon oil platform located in the Gulf of Mexico, which led to the explosion of the platform and the release of a huge amount of oil into the Gulf of Mexico. The oil spill lasted 152 days from April 20 to September 19, 2010, until the well from which the leak occurred was completely plugged. During this time, more than 5 million barrels of oil entered the Gulf. This accident led to the massive death of flora and fauna in the bay, a sharp reduction, and in some regions a complete ban on marine fishing. The oil spill also reached the US coast, causing damage to the coastline (death of plants and animals, contamination of soil and groundwater), an increase in the number of people suffering from skin diseases, and damage to the tourism and fishing industries.

Task 14. Using the Internet and other media, give several examples of: a) positive results of environmental activities and the implementation of environmental policy; b) the negative impact of anthropogenic interventions in the natural environment.

A) Creation of environmental areas (reserves, reserves and parks), reduction of carbon dioxide emissions in cities as a result of a partial ban on the use of cars in the city center, installation of purification filters in factories, etc.

B) Deforestation, water and soil pollution as a result of excessive use of mineral fertilizers, emissions of carbon and sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere and, as a result, acid rain, etc.

Task 15.

15.1. Based on the acquired knowledge, name the reasons for the following phenomena: a) in the second half of the 20th century. the degree of “humanization” of the geographic environment has increased sharply; b) when developing mineral resources, it is most profitable to use their territorial combinations; c) in our time, the “load” on the land is increasing, and the provision of land resources is decreasing; d) the increase in water consumption creates a real threat of fresh water shortage.

A) The geographical environment is that part of the earth’s nature with which human society directly interacts in its life. That is why its condition plays an important role for a person.

B) A significant part of minerals is presented in the form of ores, which combine several types of minerals. Their joint extraction reduces production costs and negative impacts on the environment.

C) As the world's population grows, more arable land is required to grow crops. With irrational use (pollution, erosion), the amount of suitable land decreases.

D) In ​​recent years, water consumption has increased both in the housing and communal services sector and for agriculture. At the same time, part of the fresh water, as a result of its use and pollution, becomes unsuitable for further use, which leads to a reduction in the volume of clean drinking water.

15.2. Formulate at least three problematic questions based on the text of the topic. Offer answers to them and discuss them with your friends.

Causes of fresh water shortage? What possible solutions can you suggest?

Oil production on the continental shelf, pros and cons?

Alternative energy sources, their pros and cons?

15.3. Study text maps and atlas maps describing the world's natural resources. Determine by what cartographic methods they are compiled.

Cartographic methods of representation, graphic methods used on maps to show the spatial distribution of phenomena, their combinations, connections and development. When compiling maps of the natural resources of the world, the following are most often used: the method of quantitative background, the method of signs, map diagrams, traffic signs, etc.

Self-control and mutual control block

How would you explain:

1. What are the similarities and differences between the concepts of “nature” and “geographical environment”?

The geographical environment is that part of the earth's nature with which human society directly interacts in its life and production activities at a given stage of historical development. The concepts of “nature” and “geographical environment” are fundamentally similar. However, the first is broader.

2. Why can’t resource availability be judged only by the size of reserves?

Resource availability is the relationship between the amount of natural resources and the extent of their use. It is expressed by the number of years for which a given resource should last (for non-renewable ones), or its reserves per capita (for renewable ones). The resource availability indicator is influenced by the scale of resource extraction (consumption), so it is impossible to judge only by data on reserves.

3. What are the changes taking place in the structure of the world land fund?

The share of arable land in the structure of the land fund is increasing, as a result of a constant increase in the area of ​​land used in agriculture. At the same time, the share of depleted lands and lands susceptible to desertification is increasing as a result of irrational use of land in agriculture.

4. What are the reasons for the worsening water problem of humanity?

Fresh water resources account for only 3% of the total volume of the hydrosphere. A significant part of them is preserved in glaciers, thus limiting human access to them. At the same time, water consumption is growing every year. The main consumer of water is agriculture, where irrecoverable water consumption is high. It is also worth considering the uneven distribution of water resources across countries.

5. What are the negative effects of acid precipitation?

As a result of acid precipitation, water bodies and soil are polluted, which leads to the death of flora and fauna in the area.

6. Why for the solution environmental problems Is international cooperation needed?

In nature, there is a constant cycle of substances that affects all regions of the world. Thus, emissions of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide from the UK fall in the form of acid precipitation over the territory of other countries (located to the east of Great Britain, on the path of the western transfer of air masses). In this way, all countries are connected to each other, which is why measures taken by individual countries are not enough to carry out environmental activities. The efforts of the entire world community are needed.

How do you think:

1. Why should the interaction between society and nature be considered not as a biological, but, first of all, as a public, social problem?

Because the interaction between society and nature today has become one of the main universal problems.

2. What is the rational use of non-renewable and renewable natural resources?

The rational use of non-renewable resources consists in their consistent use with the expectation of providing them for the near future. When using renewable resources, it is necessary to take into account the time that will be spent on their restoration and, based on this, use them.

3. What do the words of the great German geographer Alexander Humboldt mean: “Forests precede man, and deserts accompany him”?

As a result of human economic activity, the proportion of lands that are susceptible to erosion and desertification and are no longer suitable for agricultural use is increasing.

4. What role does it play? geographical science in solving problems of environmental management and ecology?

With its help, you can study the causes of environmental problems and find ways to solve them.

Did you know:

1. What are the world's largest basins of which of the following types of minerals are indicated on the map: 1) coal; 2) oil; 3) iron ore?

The map shows iron ore deposits: Lorraine iron ore basin (Europe), Kirunavara (Sweden), Krivoy Rog (Ukraine), Lake Superior deposit (USA), Carajas and Itabira (Brazil), etc.

2. Which of the following countries are among the countries with the greatest and least availability of arable land: Australia, Japan, Germany, China, Argentina?

The greatest supply of arable land is Australia, Argentina, Germany; the smallest - Japan, China.

3. Which of the following countries are the countries with the greatest and least endowment of water resources: Canada, Brazil, Congo, Saudi Arabia, Egypt?

The greatest availability of water resources is Canada, Brazil, Congo; the smallest are Saudi Arabia and Egypt.

Can you:

1. Place on a contour map of the world from memory the following countries mentioned in the text and on text maps: Great Britain, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, India, Egypt, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, South Africa, Mexico, Argentina?

2. Define the concepts “geographical environment”, “resource availability”, “geographical resource science”?

The geographical environment is that part of the earth's nature with which human society directly interacts in its life and production activities at a given stage of historical development.

Resource availability is the relationship between the amount of natural resources and the extent of their use. It is expressed by the number of years for which a given resource should last (for non-renewable ones), or its reserves and per capita (for renewable ones).

Geography of resources - the science that studies placement and structure individual species natural resources, the issue of their protection, reproduction and rational use.

3. Explain the main patterns of distribution of fuel and ore resources of the world?

Fuel minerals are of sedimentary origin and are located in areas where sedimentary cover accompanies the internal and marginal troughs of ancient platforms. Thus, the bulk of coal resources are located in the Northern Hemisphere - Asia, North America and Europe. The main oil reserves are also located in the Northern Hemisphere and are concentrated in a relatively small number of major basins. In terms of the number of giant oil-bearing basins and reserves, the Persian Gulf region stands out; Western Siberia in Russia is the leader in the number of gas-bearing basins.

Ore minerals usually accompany the foundations and overhangs (shields) of ancient platforms, as well as folded areas. In such areas they often form huge ore (metallogenic) belts. The largest reserves of iron ore are found in Brazil, Australia, Russia, Ukraine, China, bauxite in Guinea, Australia, Brazil, Jamaica, and copper ore in Chile, USA, and Canada.

4. Name the seas and bays in whose waters the main offshore oil and natural gas deposits are concentrated?

Answer: North Sea, Baltic Sea, Caspian Sea, Sea of ​​Okhotsk, Gulf of Mexico, Persian Gulf, etc.

5. Tell us about the size and structure of the world land fund?

The global land fund is 13.4 billion hectares. It refers to the entire land surface suitable for human economic activity. The structure of the land fund includes: agricultural lands (primarily arable land), lands occupied by settlements, environmental lands, forest lands, etc.

6. Give quantitative characteristics land water resources and the planet’s “water ration”?

Fresh water (land) resources account for only 3% of the total volume of the hydrosphere. The overwhelming majority of fresh water is “conserved” in the glaciers of Antarctica, Greenland, in the ice of the Arctic and in mountain glaciers. The main source of meeting humanity's needs for fresh water has been and remains river water (the planet's "water ration"). The main consumer of fresh water is agriculture, where irrecoverable water consumption is very high, especially for irrigation. Industrial, energy and municipal water consumption is also growing all the time. Fresh water reserves on Earth are distributed extremely unevenly. In the equatorial zone and in the northern part of the temperate zone, it is available in abundance and even in excess, and in the arid zone of the Earth, which covers about 1/3 of the land area, the water shortage is especially acute.

7. Explain how deforestation affects the planet’s gene pool and biodiversity?

Forests provide habitat for a huge number of plants, insects, birds and animals. By destroying their habitat, we are accelerating the rate of extinction different types, which can lead to complete extinction of the species, which affects the reduction of the planet’s biodiversity.

8. Give brief description recreational resources?

Recreational resources include both natural and anthropogenic objects and phenomena that can be used for recreation, tourism and treatment. Recreational resources are divided into: recreational and therapeutic (mineral waters), recreational and health (beaches), recreational and sports (ski resorts) and recreational and educational ( historical monuments). Vacationers and tourists are most attracted to countries such as Italy, Spain, France, Switzerland, Bulgaria, India, China, Turkey, Mexico, Egypt, etc., where rich natural and recreational resources are combined with cultural and historical attractions.

9. Assess how true the following statements are and, if necessary, give the correct answer:

a) the world's geological coal reserves far exceed oil reserves - TRUE;

b) the structure of the world land fund is dominated by arable land - FALSE (the structure of the land fund is dominated by unproductive and unproductive (deserts, glaciers, etc.) lands);

c) fresh water reserves on Earth account for only 10% of the planet’s total water resources – FALSE (fresh water resources account for 3% of the planet’s total water resources);

G) Main way solving environmental problems lies in the transition to a fundamentally new production technology - FALSE (solving environmental problems requires an integrated approach, which includes both the search for new production technologies and the search for new energy sources, water, air, soil purification technologies, as well as technologies for agriculture etc.)

Main types of natural resources. Mineral resources, their location, the largest deposits and countries distinguished by reserves of the main types of mineral resources.

Natural resources are natural resources or natural substances and types of energy that serve as the means of subsistence of human society and are used in the economy. The concept of “natural resources” is changing with the development of science and technology: substances and types of energy, the use of which was previously impossible, become natural resources. There are several classifications of natural resources. According to the belonging to different geospheres of natural resources, resources are distinguished: lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and climatic resources. Based on their applicability in various sectors of the economy, they are grouped into energy, metallurgical, chemical natural resources, etc. Based on the possible duration and intensity of use, they are divided into recoverable and practically inexhaustible natural resources, renewable and non-renewable natural resources.

Practically inexhaustible natural resources are resources, the decrease of which is imperceptible even during very long use: energy from solar radiation, wind, sea ​​tides, climate resources, etc. Recoverable natural resources are resources that decrease as they are used; Most types of natural resources are classified as exhaustible natural resources, which are divided into renewable (or renewable) and non-renewable natural resources. Renewable natural resources are resources whose recovery rate is comparable to the rate at which they are consumed. Renewable natural resources include resources of the biosphere, hydrosphere, and land resources. Non-renewable natural resources are resources that are not self-renewing or artificially restored. These include mainly minerals. The process of ore formation and formation of rocks occurs continuously, but its speed is so much less than the speed of extraction of minerals from the bowels of the earth that practically this process can be neglected.

In general, there are noticeable differences in the level and nature of the natural resource endowment of different countries. Thus, the Middle East is distinguished by large oil and gas resources. The Andean countries are rich in copper and polymetallic ores. Countries with large tracts of tropical forests have valuable timber resources. There are several states in the world that have almost all known types of natural resources. These are Russia, the USA and China. India, Brazil, Australia and some other countries are highly endowed in terms of natural resources. Many states have large reserves of world significance of one or more resources. Thus, Gabon stands out for its reserves of manganese, Kuwait for oil, and Morocco for phosphorites. The complexity of available natural resources is of great importance for each country. For example, to organize ferrous metallurgy in a single country, it is desirable to have resources not only of iron ore, but also of manganese, chromites and coking coal.

Most countries have some set of natural resources. However, there are states with very meager volumes. But this does not always condemn this country to a miserable existence, and on the contrary, having a large number and quantity of them, you can use them irrationally. For example. Japan, being a highly developed country, has a limited amount of mineral resources. In contrast to Japan, we can cite examples of many states that have rich resources, but have not achieved great success in socio-economic development.

The demand for mineral raw materials, which form the basis for the production of industrial products, is increasing from year to year. Every year, more than 100 billion tons of various mineral raw materials and fuels are extracted from the depths of the world. The size of reserves and the scale of extraction of mineral resources from the bowels of the earth are different - from thousands of tons per year (gold, uranium, tungsten, cobalt) to more than 1 billion tons (iron ore, coal, oil).

Primary energy resources are oil, natural gas, hard and brown coal, oil shale, peat (which are practically non-renewable resources of the lithosphere), wood (renewable resource), and hydropower (inexhaustible). The energy reserves of atomic decay are also physically inexhaustible.

Until the beginning of the 20th century. The main energy resource on the planet was wood. Then coal began to be widely used. It was replaced by oil and natural gas, and nuclear energy.

Geological reserves of coal in the world are estimated at 14.8 trillion tons. The largest reserves of all types of coal are in the USA, China, Russia, Poland, South Africa, Australia, and Germany.

Oil reserves are estimated at 400 billion tons. The main oil and gas basins are located in the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Mexico, and Western regions. Siberia and the Caspian Sea basin. Russia and the USA have the largest reserves of natural gas.

Mineral resources are minerals extracted from the subsoil. In turn, minerals are understood as natural mineral substances of the earth's crust, which, at a certain level of technological development, can be extracted and used in the national economy in their natural form or after preliminary processing with a positive economic effect. The scale of use of mineral resources is constantly growing. While in the Middle Ages only 18 chemical elements were extracted from the earth's crust, today this number has increased to more than 80. Since 1950, mineral extraction has increased 3 times. Every year, more than 100 billion tons of various mineral raw materials and fuels are extracted from the bowels of the Earth. Modern farming uses about 200 types of mineral raw materials. When using mineral resources, it is necessary to take into account that almost all of them are classified as non-renewable. In addition, the reserves of their individual species are far from identical. For example, the total geological reserves of coal in the world are estimated at 14.8 trillion. tons, and oil - 400 billion tons. However, it is necessary to take into account the constantly growing needs of humanity.

Types of mineral resources

There is no single generally accepted classification. However, the following division is often used: fuel (combustible), metallic (ore) and non-metallic (non-metallic) minerals. On the basis of this classification, a map of mineral resources in the educational atlas was constructed. The distribution of minerals in the earth's crust is subject to geological laws.

Fuel (combustible) minerals are contained primarily in coal (there are 3.6 thousand in total and they occupy 15% of the land) and oil and gas basins (more than 600 of them have been explored, 450 are being developed) basins, which are of sedimentary origin, accompany the cover of ancient platforms and their internal and marginal deflections. The bulk of the world's coal resources are in Asia, North America and Europe and lie in the 10 largest coal basins located in Russia, the USA, and Germany. The main oil and gas resources are concentrated in Asia, North America, and Africa. The richest basins include the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Mexico, and West Siberian basins. Sometimes this group is called “fuel and energy” and then, in addition to coal, oil and gas, it includes uranium, which is fuel for nuclear power plants. Otherwise, uranium ores are included in the next group.

Ore (metallic) minerals typically accompany the foundations and overhangs (shields) of ancient platforms, as well as folded areas. In such areas they often form huge ore (metallogenic) belts, for example, the Alpine-Himalayan and Pacific. Countries located within such belts usually have favorable conditions for the development of the mining industry. Within this group there are ferrous, alloying and refractory metals (ores of iron, manganese, chromium, nickel, cobalt, tungsten, etc.), non-ferrous metals (ores of aluminum, copper, lead, zinc, mercury, etc.), noble metals ( gold, silver, platinum group metals). Large reserves of iron ore raw materials are concentrated in the USA and China. India, Russia. IN Lately some countries of Asia (India), Africa (Liberia, Guinea, Algeria), and Latin America (Brazil) were added to them. Large reserves of aluminum raw materials (bauxite) are available in France, Italy, India, Suriname, the USA, West African countries, Caribbean countries, and Russia. Copper ores are concentrated in Zambia, Zaire, Chile, the USA, Canada, and lead-zinc ores are concentrated in the USA, Canada, and Australia.

In addition, non-metallic minerals are almost ubiquitous. This group includes chemical and agronomic raw materials (potassium salts, phosphorites, apatites, etc.), technical raw materials (diamonds, asbestos, graphite, etc.), fluxes and refractories, cement raw materials, etc.

Territorial combinations of mineral resources are most beneficial for economic development. The scientific concept of such combinations, developed by geographers, is of great practical importance, especially in the formation of large territorial production complexes.

Currently, the search for minerals is carried out in two ways. If there is a poorly explored territory, then the area of ​​study expands and due to this there is an increase in explored minerals. This method prevails in the Asian part of Russia, Canada, Australia, and Brazil. In the second case, deeper deposits are being studied. This is due to the long-term development of the territory and the strong development of deposits located close to the surface. This path is typical for countries Foreign Europe, for the European part of Russia, for Ukraine, USA.

Many scientists around the world talk about the movement of society towards a system of recycling resources, when waste will become the main raw material in the economy. At the present stage, many developed countries use deep recycling of industrial and household waste. First of all, these are the states of Western Europe, the USA and, especially, Japan.

Taxes. Principles and methods of taxation. Main types of taxes in Russia.

Prototype modern system taxes and taxation arose already in the early stages of human development.

The emergence of the taxation system is connected, rather, not with the process of the emergence of a surplus product and the class stratification of society, but with the objectively urgent need for the division of labor and the professionalization of labor activity.

Tax is a mandatory, individually gratuitous payment levied on organizations and individuals in the form of alienation of funds belonging to them by right of ownership, economic or operational management for the purpose of financial support for the activities of the state or municipalities.

Signs of tax payments are:

Mandatory allocation of the share received by individual or group labor that goes to the maintenance of individual social groups carrying out specialized activities;

Free transfer of material assets;

Lack of a clear relationship between the transfer of material assets and the performance of certain actions by public authorities of government and public protection.

Tax - necessary condition existence of the state, therefore the obligation to pay taxes, enshrined in Russia in Article 57 of the Constitution, applies to all taxpayers as an unconditional requirement of the state.

Collection of a tax cannot be regarded as an arbitrary deprivation of the owner of his property; it represents a legal seizure of part of the property arising from a constitutional – legal obligation.

The equal tax method means that all taxpayers pay the same amount of tax regardless of their income or assets.

The proportional taxation method determines the tax rate, the same for all payers, and the amount of tax payment depending on the size of the taxable object.

The progressive taxation method involves the use of several tax rates, while larger size object of taxation, the higher the tax rate.

The regressive taxation method also involves the use of several tax rates, but the larger the size of the taxable object, the lower the applied tax rate.

The division of taxes into direct and indirect was established in taxation practice back in the 17th century. It was carried out depending on the method of withdrawing tax or income from the taxpayer.

Three-tier system government structure The Russian Federation is predetermined by its three-level taxation system. All taxes are divided into:

federal – national taxes and fees established by federal legislation and valid throughout the country;

regional - taxes of constituent entities of the Russian Federation, operating on the territory of a given constituent entity of the Russian Federation;

local – taxes of municipalities (districts and cities) operating on the territory of a given municipality.

Mineral resources are natural substances of mineral origin, used to obtain energy, raw materials, materials and serve as the mineral resource base of the economy. Mineral resources are characterized by: sharp uneven distribution, non-renewability of specific deposits, the possibility of replenishment through exploration and development of new deposits. Currently, more than 200 types of mineral resources are used. The stocks of individual species are not the same. Production volumes are constantly growing and new deposits are being developed.

Patterns of distribution of mineral resources. The distribution of mineral resources is subject to geological laws. Minerals of sedimentary origin are found within the sedimentary cover of platforms, in foothills and marginal troughs. Igneous minerals - in folded areas, where the crystalline basement of ancient platforms exposed (or was close to the surface). Fuel are of sedimentary origin, forming coal and oil and gas basins (the cover of ancient platforms, their internal and marginal troughs). The largest coal basins are located in Russia, the USA, Germany and other countries. Oil and gas are intensively produced in the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Mexico, and Western Siberia.

Ore minerals include metal ores; they are confined to the foundations and shields of ancient platforms; they also occur in folded areas. Countries that stand out in terms of iron ore reserves are Russia, Brazil, Canada, the USA, Australia, etc. Often the presence of ore minerals determines the specialization of regions and countries.

Among the natural resources of the Earth that are actually involved by society in economic activities, mineral resources used in production as mineral raw materials or energy sources are of the most importance for people’s livelihoods.

Silver ore. Photo: Staffan Vilcans

Russia (gas, oil, coal, iron ore, diamonds, nickel, platinum, copper)
USA (oil, copper, iron ore, coal, phosphate rocks, uranium, gold)
China (coal, iron ore, tungsten, oil, gold)
South Africa (platinum, vanadium, chromium, manganese, diamonds, gold, coal, iron ore)
Canada (nickel, asbestos, uranium, oil, coal, polymetals, gold)
Australia (iron ore, oil, uranium, titanium, manganese, polymetals, bauxite, diamonds, gold)
Brazil (iron ore, non-ferrous metals)

Industrialized countries account for about 36% of the world's non-fuel mineral resources and 5% of oil.
Developing countries contain up to 50% of non-fuel mineral resources, almost 65% of oil reserves and 50% of natural gas, 90% of phosphate reserves, 86–88% of tin and cobalt, more than 50% of copper ore and nickel. There is significant differentiation in the supply and distribution of mineral resources: the vast majority of them are concentrated in approximately 30 developing countries. Among them are: the Persian Gulf countries (about 60% of oil reserves), Brazil (iron and manganese ores, bauxite, tin, titanium, gold, oil, rare metals), Mexico (oil, copper, silver), Chile (copper, molybdenum ), Zaire (cobalt, copper, diamonds), Zambia (copper, cobalt), Indonesia (oil, gas), Algeria (oil, gas, iron ore), Central Asian countries (oil, gas, gold, bauxite).

Of the countries with economies in transition, Russia has mineral reserves of global importance, where about 8% of the world's oil reserves, 33% of natural gas, 40% of coal, 30% of iron ore, 10% of diamonds and platinum are concentrated.