The period of classicism in Russian literature of the 18th century. See what “Russian classicism” is in other dictionaries. Classicism in Russian literature. Main features

As a literary movement, Russian classicism was distinguished by its internal complexity and heterogeneity, due to the difference in ideological and literary-artistic features of the work of its founders. The leading genres that were developed by representatives of classicism during the period of establishment of this literary movement were, on the one hand, ode and tragedy, which in positive images propagated the ideals of enlightened absolutism, on the other, satirical genres that fought against political reaction, against enemies of enlightenment, against social vices and so on.

Russian classicism did not shy away from national folklore. On the contrary, in the perception of the tradition of folk poetic culture in certain genres, he found incentives for his enrichment. Even at the origins of the new direction, when undertaking a reform of Russian versification, Trediakovsky directly refers to the songs of the common people as a model that he followed in establishing his rules.

In the purely artistic field, Russian classicists faced such complex tasks that their European brothers did not know. French literature of the mid-17th century. already had a well-developed literary language and secular genres that had developed over a long time. Russian literature at the beginning of the 18th century. had neither one nor the other. Therefore, it was the share of Russian writers of the second third of the 18th century. The task fell not only of creating a new literary movement. They had to reform the literary language, master genres unknown until that time in Russia. Each of them was a pioneer. Kantemir laid the foundation for Russian satire, Lomonosov legitimized the ode genre, Sumarokov acted as the author of tragedies and comedies. In the field of literary language reform, the main role belonged to Lomonosov.

The creative activity of Russian classicists was accompanied and supported by numerous theoretical works in the field of genres, literary language and versification. Trediakovsky wrote a treatise entitled “A New and Brief Method for Composing Russian Poems,” in which he substantiated the basic principles of the new, syllabic-tonic system. Lomonosov, in his discussion “On the Use of Church Books in the Russian Language,” carried out a reform of the literary language and proposed the doctrine of “three calms.” Sumarokov in his treatise “Instructions for those who want to be writers” gave a description of the content and style of classicist genres.

Russian classicism of the 18th century. went through two stages in its development. The first of them dates back to the 30-50s. This is the formation of a new direction, when one after another genres unknown to that time in Russia are born, the literary language and versification are reformed. The second stage falls on the last four decades of the 18th century. and is associated with the names of such writers as Fonvizin, Kheraskov, Derzhavin, Knyazhnin, Kapnist. In their work, Russian classicism most fully and widely revealed its ideological and artistic possibilities.

The uniqueness of Russian classicism lies in the fact that in its formation era it combined the pathos of serving the absolutist state with the ideas of the early European Enlightenment. In France in the 18th century. absolutism had already exhausted its progressive possibilities, and society was facing a bourgeois revolution, which was ideologically prepared by the French enlighteners. In Russia in the first decades of the 18th century. absolutism was still at the head of progressive transformations for the country. Therefore, at the first stage of its development, Russian classicism adopted some of its social doctrines from the Enlightenment. These include, first of all, the idea of ​​enlightened absolutism. According to this theory, the state should be headed by a wise, “enlightened” monarch, who in his ideas stands above the selfish interests of individual classes and demands from each of them honest service for the benefit of the whole society. An example of such a ruler for Russian classicists was Peter I, a unique personality in intelligence, energy and broad political outlook.

Unlike French classicism of the 17th century. and in direct accordance with the Age of Enlightenment in Russian classicism of the 30s - 50s, a huge place was given to sciences, knowledge, and enlightenment. The country has made a transition from church ideology to secular one. Russia needed accurate knowledge useful to society. Lomonosov spoke about the benefits of science in almost all his odes. Cantemir’s first satire, “To Your Mind. On those who blaspheme the teaching." The very word “enlightened” meant not just an educated person, but a citizen, to whom knowledge helped to realize his responsibility to society. “Ignorance” implied not only a lack of knowledge, but at the same time a lack of understanding of one’s duty to the state. In Western European educational literature of the 18th century, especially at the later stage of its development, “enlightenment” was determined by the degree of opposition to the existing order. In Russian classicism of the 30-50s, “enlightenment” was measured by the measure of civil service to the absolutist state. The Russian classicists - Kantemir, Lomonosov, Sumarokov - were close to the struggle of the enlighteners against the church and church ideology. But if in the West it was about defending the principle of religious tolerance, and in some cases atheism, then Russian enlighteners in the first half of the 18th century. denounced the ignorance and rude morals of the clergy, defended science and its adherents from persecution by church authorities. The first Russian classicists were already aware of the educational idea about the natural equality of people. “The flesh in your servant is one-person,” Cantemir pointed out to the nobleman beating the valet. Sumarokov reminded the “noble” class that “born from women and from ladies / Without exception, the forefather of all is Adam.” But this thesis at that time had not yet been embodied in the demand for the equality of all classes before the law. Cantemir, based on the principles of “natural law,” called on the nobles to treat the peasants humanely. Sumarokov, pointing to the natural equality of nobles and peasants, demanded that the “first” members of the fatherland through education and service confirm their “nobility” and commanding position in the country.

If in Western European versions of classicism, and especially in the system of genres of French classicism, the dominant place belonged to the dramatic genre - tragedy and comedy, then in Russian classicism the dominant genre shifts to the area of ​​lyricism and satire.

Common genres with French classicism: tragedy, comedy, idyll, elegy, ode, sonnet, epigram, satire.

Classicism(from Latin classicus - exemplary) - the artistic style of European art of the 17th-19th centuries, one of the most important features of which was the appeal to ancient art as the highest example and reliance on the traditions of the High Renaissance. The art of classicism reflected the ideas of the harmonious structure of society, but in many ways lost them in comparison with the culture of the Renaissance. Conflicts between personality and society, ideal and reality, feelings and reason testify to the complexity of the art of classicism. The artistic forms of classicism are characterized by strict organization, balance, clarity and harmony of images.

A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, the unchangeable - in each phenomenon it strives to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual characteristics. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art.

The direction is headed by the Parisian Academy of Arts, which created a set of artificial dogmatic rules and supposedly unshakable laws of drawing composition. This Academy also established rationalistic principles for the depiction of emotions (“passions”) and the division of genres into “high” and “low”. “High” genres included historical, religious and mythological genres, “low” genres included portrait, landscape, everyday life, and still life.

How a certain direction was formed in France, in the 17th century. French classicism freed man from religious and church influence, affirming personality as the highest value of existence. Russian classicism not only adopted Western European theory, but also enriched it with national characteristics.

Classicism was formed as an antagonistic movement in relation to the magnificent and virtuosic art of the Baroque. But when, in the second half of the 17th century, classicism became the official art of the absolutist monarchy, it absorbed elements of the Baroque. This was manifested in the architecture of Versailles, in the work of the painter C. Le Brun, the sculptures of F. Girardon, and A. Coyzevox.

In the mid-18th century, against the backdrop of the educational movement, on the eve of the French Revolution, a new direction of classicism arose, opposing itself to the art of Rococo and the work of its epigones - academicians. A feature of this direction was the manifestation of the features of realism, the desire for clarity and simplicity, a reflection of the enlightenment ideal of “natural humanity”.

The period of late classicism - Empire - falls on the first third of the 19th century. It is distinguished by its pomp and splendor, expressed in architecture and applied art. This period is distinguished as independent.

IN painting classicism, the logical development of the plot, a clear balanced composition, a clear transfer of volume, with the help of chiaroscuro the subordinate role of color, the use of local colors (N. Poussin, C. Lorrain) acquired the main importance.

The demarcation of plans in landscapes was also revealed with the help of color: the foreground had to be brown, the middle one must be green, and the distant one must be blue.

At the beginning of the 17th century, young foreigners flocked to Rome to get acquainted with the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance. The most prominent place among them was occupied by the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin, in his paintings, mainly on the themes of ancient antiquity and mythology, who provided unsurpassed examples of geometrically precise composition and thoughtful relationships between color groups. The themes of Poussin's paintings are varied: mythology, history, New and Old Testaments. Poussin's heroes are people of strong characters and majestic deeds, with a high sense of duty to society and the state. The social purpose of art was very important to Poussin. All these features are included in the emerging program of classicism. Another Frenchman, Claude Lorrain, in his antique landscapes of the environs of the “eternal city”, organized the pictures of nature by harmonizing them with the light of the setting sun and introducing peculiar architectural scenes.

The discovery of “genuine” ancient painting during the excavations of Pompeii, the deification of antiquity by the German art historian Winckelmann and the cult of Raphael, preached by the artist Mengs, who was close to him in views, breathed new breath into classicism in the second half of the 18th century (in Western literature this stage is called neoclassicism). The largest representative of the “new classicism” was Jacques-Louis David; his extremely laconic and dramatic artistic language served with equal success to promote the ideals of the French Revolution (“The Death of Marat”) and the First Empire (“The Dedication of Emperor Napoleon I”).

In the 19th century, classicist painting entered a period of crisis and became a force holding back the development of art, not only in France, but also in other countries. David's artistic line was successfully continued by Ingres, who, while maintaining the language of classicism in his works, often turned to romantic subjects with an oriental flavor; his portrait works are marked by a subtle idealization of the model. Artists in other countries (like, for example, Karl Bryullov) also filled works that were classic in form with the spirit of reckless romanticism; this combination was called academicism. Numerous art academies served as its breeding grounds.

Sculpture The era of classicism is distinguished by severity and restraint, coherence of forms, calmness of poses, when even movement does not violate the formal closure (E. Falconet, J. Houdon).

The impetus for the development of classicist sculpture in the mid-18th century was the writings of Winckelmann and archaeological excavations of ancient cities, which expanded the knowledge of contemporaries about ancient sculpture. In France, such sculptors as Pigalle and Houdon vacillated on the verge of Baroque and Classicism. Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the field of plastic art in the heroic and idyllic works of Antonio Canova, who drew inspiration mainly from the statues of the Hellenistic era (Praxiteles). In Russia, Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, and Ivan Martos gravitated towards the aesthetics of classicism.

Public monuments, which became widespread in the era of classicism, gave sculptors the opportunity to idealize military valor and the wisdom of statesmen. Fidelity to the ancient model required sculptors to depict models naked, which conflicted with accepted norms

Morals. To resolve this contradiction, modern figures were initially depicted by classicist sculptors in the form of naked ancient gods: Under Napoleon, the issue was resolved by moving to depicting modern figures in ancient togas (such are the figures of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly in front of the Kazan Cathedral).

Private customers of the Classical era preferred to immortalize their names in tombstones. The popularity of this sculptural form was facilitated by the arrangement of public cemeteries in the main cities of Europe. In accordance with the classicist ideal, figures on tombstones are usually in a state of deep repose. The sculpture of classicism is generally alien to sudden movements and external manifestations of emotions such as anger.

Late, Empire classicism, represented primarily by the prolific Danish sculptor Thorvaldsen, is imbued with a dryish pathos. Purity of lines, restraint of gestures, and dispassionate expressions are especially valued. In choosing role models, the emphasis shifts from Hellenism to the archaic period. Religious images are coming into fashion, which, in Thorvaldsen’s interpretation, produce a somewhat chilling impression on the viewer. Tombstone sculpture of late classicism often bears a slight touch of sentimentality.

The main feature architecture classicism was an appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular city planning system.

The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi.

The most significant interiors in the classicist style were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In Adam’s interpretation, classicism was a style hardly inferior to rococo in the sophistication of its interiors, which gained it popularity not only among democratically minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of constructive function.

The architects of Napoleonic France drew inspiration from the majestic images of military glory left behind by imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of Napoleon, these images were transferred to Paris in the form of the triumphal arch of Carrousel and the Vendôme Column. In relation to monuments of military greatness from the era of the Napoleonic wars, the term “imperial style” is used - Empire style. In Russia, Carl Rossi, Andrei Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov proved themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style. In Britain, the empire style corresponds to the so-called. “Regency style” (the largest representative is John Nash).

The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban planning projects and led to the streamlining of urban development on the scale of entire cities. In Russia, almost all provincial and many district cities were redeveloped into

In accordance with the principles of classic rationalism. Cities such as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have turned into genuine open-air museums of classicism. A single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated throughout the entire space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia. Ordinary development was carried out in accordance with albums of standard projects.

Literature. The founder of the poetics of classicism is the Frenchman Francois Malherbe (1555-1628), who carried out a reform of the French language and verse and developed poetic canons. The leading representatives of classicism in drama were the tragedians Corneille and Racine (1639-1699), whose main subject of creativity was the conflict between public duty and personal passions. “Low” genres also achieved high development - fable (J. Lafontaine), satire (Boileau), comedy (Molière 1622-1673).

Classicism of the 18th century developed under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. The work of Voltaire (1694-1778) is directed against religious fanaticism, absolutist oppression, and is filled with the pathos of freedom. The goal of creativity is to change the world for the better, to build society itself in accordance with the laws of classicism. From the standpoint of classicism, the Englishman Samuel Johnson reviewed contemporary literature, around whom a brilliant circle of like-minded people formed.

In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, after the reforms of Peter I. Lomonosov carried out a reform of Russian verse, developed the theory of “three calms,” which was essentially an adaptation of French classical rules to the Russian language. The images in classicism are devoid of individual features, since they are designed primarily to capture stable generic characteristics that do not pass over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.

Classicism in Russia developed under the great influence of the Enlightenment - the ideas of equality and justice have always been the focus of attention of Russian classic writers. Therefore, in Russian classicism, genres that require the author’s obligatory assessment of historical reality have received great development: comedy (D. I. Fonvizin), satire (A. D. Kantemir), fable (A. P. Sumarokov, I. I. Khemnitser), ode (Lomonosov, G. R. Derzhavin).

In Russian literature of the 18th century, which underwent intensive development in the context of the general process of Europeanization of the country, begun by the reforms of Peter I, the leading direction became classicism(from Latin classicus - exemplary), which took shape in European literature already in the middle of the 17th century. Classicism is a pan-European phenomenon. But in different countries it had its own characteristics. The purpose of the report is to find out which features of European classicism were organically adopted by Russian literature and what in Russian classicism is due to its national specificity.

Classicism is not only a literary phenomenon, but also a general cultural one. He touched upon the most diverse aspects of the social and cultural life of European countries, architecture, painting, music, theater and, of course, literature. Modern researchers are unanimous in the opinion that classicism arises and is formed in certain historical and cultural conditions of the transition from feudal fragmentation to a single monarchical state. This largely explains the rather later, in comparison with European countries, the appearance of classicism in Russia. After all, its historical prerequisites could have been formed only after the era of Peter I; accordingly, signs of classicism as a literary movement in Russia were noted only in the 30s of the 18th century.

Elements of the poetics of French classicism apply to all other national literatures in which this literary movement is present. But in Russian classicism These general theoretical provisions found a unique refraction, since they were determined by the historical and national characteristics of the formation of the new Russian culture of the 18th century. As already noted, classicism came to Russia much later; it was influenced by the entire historical and cultural process of the general Europeanization of the country. Russian literature of that era is firmly connected with the best traditions of ancient Russian literature: its patriotism, reliance on folk art, and high spirituality. educational ideas, which began to penetrate Russia in the middle of the 18th century, contributed to an increase in interest in the human personality, posing the problem of the justice of laws, the need to spread education and develop science. At the same time, the decisive role in the transformation of the state on this kind of basis was assigned to the enlightened monarch, whose ideal the Russian classicists saw in Peter I. But in modern times they did not find such a person, therefore, great importance was attached in their works to the social and moral education of autocrats: an explanation of their duties towards their subjects, a reminder of their duty to the state, etc. On the other hand, the negative phenomena of Russian reality of this era were subjected to satirical ridicule and exposure, which further strengthened the connection of Russian classicism with modernity and gave it satirical wit. Unlike European classicism, Russian classicism is associated with folk traditions and oral folk art. He often uses the material Russian history, not antiquity. The ideal of Russian classicists is a citizen and patriot who strives to work for the good of the Fatherland. He must become an active creative person, fight social vices and, in the name of duty, give up personal happiness.

Theoretical Classicism in Russia was conceptualized in the works M. V. Lomonosova And V. K. Trediakovsky . In all countries, the important contribution of classicism to the development of literature was not only the streamlining of the system of genres and artistic forms, but also the development of a harmonious and clear language of works. Boileau noted: “So choose your language carefully. / Can’t speak like a young man, an old man.” It is not without reason that both in France and in Russia the formation of classicism began with reforms of the language and versification system. In Russia, the systematization of the rules and norms of the literary language was carried out by Trediakovsky and Lomonosov (the theory of “three calms”). The first stage of the reform of verse composition was carried out by Trediakovsky in the treatise “A New and Brief Method for Composing Russian Poems with Definitions of Previously Appropriate Titles,” published in 1735. The second stage of the reform of Russian versification was carried out by Lomonosov in the “Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry,” which he, then studying in Germany, sent from Marburg to St. Petersburg with the text of his first solemn ode “To the Capture of Khotin” in 1739. Like Trediakovsky , Lomonosov is convinced that “Russian poetry should be composed according to the natural property of our language; and what is very unusual for him should not be brought in from other languages.” Combining the syllabic and tonic principles of versification in the concept of foot, Trediakovsky comes to the discovery and scientific justification syllabic-tonic system of versification. Lomonosov, developing Trediakovsky’s ideas, came to the idea of ​​the need to introduce another rhythmic determinant of verse: not only by the type of rhythm (iamb, trochee, etc.), but also by length. So in his “Letter...” the concept is formed size, although Lomonosov does not use the term “size” itself, but only lists existing sizes, denoting them in Greek terms. Thus, in Russian poetry, the syllabic-tonic principle of versification was established, which best corresponds to the characteristics of the Russian language and is still the fundamental principle of Russian versification. In this reform, Trediakovsky is the discoverer, the author of the theoretical justification and the first experience in the practical application of the principle, Lomonosov is the systematizer who extended the scope of its application to all poetic practice without exception.

Regulation genre system Russian literature carried out A. P. Sumarokov , who in 1748 published a didactic message “Two Epistles” based on the traditions of Horace and Boileau (the first is about the Russian language, and the second about poetry), subsequently united by him under the title “Instruction for those who want to be a writer.” Despite its orientation towards the European tradition of classicism, Sumarokov’s aesthetic code was quite original in its description of literary genres, since it was oriented towards the Russian literary process. Moreover, in a number of cases, his theoretical descriptions of genres preceded their actual appearance in Russian literature, which, of course, also contributed to its development.

It is significant that the theorists of Russian classicism also acted as recognized leaders of its artistic practice. To a lesser extent this applies to Trediakovsky, but the significance of Lomonosov’s poetic activity, especially in the genre of ode and Sumarokov in the genre of tragedy, comedy and fable, is undeniable. In the genre of satire, the work of A. D. Kan-temir stands out, and in the genre of the epic poem, focused on Virgil’s Aeneid, M. M. Kheraskov, the creator of Rossiyada, stands out. Material from the site

The later period of the development of classicism in Russia is marked by the work of such outstanding figures of Russian literature, who had a significant influence on its further development, such as G. R. Derzhavin, D. I. Fonvizin, I. A. Krylov. But their work testifies, rather, to overcoming the strict regulatory rules of classicism and preparation for a new stage in the development of Russian literature. Thus, remaining in the position of classicism, the famous comedy-graphic D. I. Fonvizin and the great fabulist I. A. Krylov widely introduce realistic elements into their works. G. R. Derzhavin, introducing a personal element into his poetry, destroys the usual genre norms, creating, as he himself defined, new genres of “mixed” or “angry” ode, as well as anacreontic poems written on an odic plot, messages with features of ode and elegy.

Later, at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries and especially in the first quarter of the 19th century, classicism was already perceived as an outdated phenomenon, slowing down the development of Russian literature. Romantics entered into a fierce struggle with its strict rules, and in Pushkin’s work it is ridiculed as an obvious anachronism. And yet it should be noted that in the history of Russian literature, classicism played an important role, making it possible to introduce Russian art into the circle of the pan-European cultural process and streamlining and systematizing those artistic phenomena that had been accumulated in previous periods. And in this the achievements of classicism remain indisputable.

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In recent years, the number of questions on culture in Unified State Examination tests has increased. In particular, many questions arose regarding fine arts and architecture. Tests test knowledge of basic artistic styles, personalities of painters, sculptors, architects and other cultural figures, as well as their works.

You can download all images of works from the Classical era in one folder at the end of this article.

Students have difficulty with tasks in which questions are accompanied by images of works of art. Typically, such tasks check the authorship of the work, the artist’s affiliation with one or another movement in art, or his commitment to any artistic style. The question may be related, for example, to a historical event to which the creation of a painting, sculpture or architectural structure is dedicated.

In order for you to successfully cope with such tasks, you need to know the basics of art history. To do this, you need to learn the main features of artistic styles and movements. It's not as difficult as it might seem. For example, we can consider the topic “Classicism in Russian culture” .

Classicism (French classicisme, from Latin classicus - exemplary) in the very first approximation is a style that focuses on the artistic heritage of ancient Greece and Rome as a role model or source of inspiration.

Classicism in Russia is characterized by clarity and precision of lines, rationality, proportionality and balance, manifested in various types of art. In order to recognize these features, you need to turn to the study of the primary source - ancient art, and try to understand what that ancient aesthetic ideal is in relation to sculpture, painting and architecture. Later, these ideals were revived and embodied in their works by artists of the era of classicism.

First, we will look at the origins of classicism, and then consider how this style was embodied in Russian culture

Ancient origins of classicism

So, in Ancient Greece in the V-IV centuries. BC e. After the victory of the Greeks over the Persians, an era of unprecedented flowering of culture began, which gave birth to masterpieces that are still considered unsurpassed and classic. It was these ancient Greek classics that were imitated later in Ancient Rome, and then in Renaissance Italy, enriching and developing artistic techniques.

At the center of ancient art is the image of a harmonious, beautiful, strong person performing feats or winning sports competitions. Even the gods of the ancient world are anthropomorphic (human-like), they were depicted as beautiful and powerful men and women.

Antiquity sculpture

These ideals of antiquity were especially clearly manifested in sculpture. For the ancient Greeks, the standard of beauty was an athletic, proportionally built body. At the same time, Greek artists presented the canons of beauty very clearly, based on a mathematically verified ratio of body and face proportions. Without going into the details of the canons, we will show a number of images of those masterpieces that served as a model for many generations of artists and formed the basis of classicism.

Please note that the faces of the ancient Greek statues of gods and heroes are very similar to each other (both men and women). This is the same “Greek profile” with a straight line of the forehead and nose, large eyes and small plump lips.

And all because the artists of the Greek classics did not strive to individualize images, but depicted the ideal of beauty they generalized. The faces of the statues are almost always impassive, they bear the stamp of “Olympic calm” (because the gods who lived on Mount Olympus were alien to the vanity of the mortal world, and they, according to the ideas of the ancient Greeks, were calm and majestic).

The bodies of ancient sculptures are often naked or slightly covered with drapery. The poses of the statues are solemn, calm and balanced, even if they are depicted in motion.

Most of the ancient Greek statues have not survived. They have come down to us in Roman copies, which often do not convey the full perfection of the original. The ancient Romans also made a significant contribution to the development of sculpture: unlike the Greek sculptors, who depicted an abstract ideal of beauty, Roman authors sought to convey portrait likeness that reached the point of naturalism.

Roman sculptors most often depicted their real characters (politicians, generals, emperors) in armor or draped in ancient Roman attire - a toga. Such statues were called togatus. The Romans also created equestrian monuments.

Antique painting

Ancient Greek vase painting or preserved ancient Roman frescoes and mosaics give us ideas about ancient painting.

Favorite subjects of painting are illustrations to myths and ancient epics, dedicated to the exploits of gods and heroes. In the ancient Roman era, the plots were replenished with the deeds of great commanders and emperors. Painters followed the same canons of depicting people as sculptors.

Antique architecture

The achievements of ancient architecture, which also became a model for architects of other eras, also have lasting value. Let's get acquainted with those elements of ancient architecture that were widely used by the followers of classicism.

This is primarily a system of so-called orders developed in Ancient Greece. In its briefest form, an order is a certain relationship between the load-bearing and non-supporting parts of the building. There are Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders. Their most visible difference is in the design of the columns and their capitals - the upper decorating parts of the column.

Ancient Greek architecture is harmonious and proportionate to human growth; it does not gravitate toward gigantism, like, for example, ancient Egyptian architecture (remember the pyramids). In Ancient Greece, a type of temple-peripterus (“feathered” with columns on all sides) appeared.

Such temples, as a rule, were rectangular in plan and had a gable roof. And between the gable roof and the ceiling, a triangle was formed - a pediment. It was filled with sculptural compositions. Porticoes appeared - open galleries with a colonnade that framed temples or were independent structures.

In the architecture of Ancient Rome, semicircular arches were widely used, for example, in the form of triumphal arches. They were built in honor of significant events or military victories.

The Romans also learned to build domes over stone buildings.

All these features of ancient art were fully studied, assimilated and creatively reworked by artists of the era of classicism, which originated as an artistic style in France in the 17th century.

Classicism in Russian culture

Classicism came to Russia in the second half of the 18th century and was further developed in the first half of the 19th century. This artistic style flourished based on the ideas of the Enlightenment.

The ideals of patriotism and public benefit were drawn from the era of ancient Greek classics, which seemed to be a time of free development of a harmonious human personality under the auspices of a just state. Catherine II's proclamation of rule in the spirit of enlightened absolutism gave a powerful impetus to the development of classicism in Russian culture.

Classicism architecture

During the era of Catherine II, the growth of the power of the Russian Empire was accompanied by large-scale construction of palaces, estates and socially significant buildings. The appearance of Russian cities changed: the baroque style was replaced by classicism. The ancient aesthetic ideals of solemn austerity in architecture visibly embodied the increased prestige of Russia.

M. F. Kazakov, V. I. Bazhenov, A. F. Kokorinov, Zh.B.M. Vallin-Delamot, J. Quarenghi - this is not a complete list of the names of Russian and foreign architects with whom the development of classicism in Russian architecture in the 18th century is associated. In the first quarter of the 19th century. new names of architects began to appear: A.N. Voronikhin, T. de Thomon, A. D. Zakharov, O. I. Bove, A. A. Mikhailov, D. Gilardi, C. Rossi, O. Montferrand.

After the victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 and the foreign campaign of the Russian army, the aesthetics of late classicism - Empire style - was introduced into the architecture of Russia. Empire style (from the French style Empire - “empire style”) originated in France during the reign of Emperor Napoleon I.

The artistic means of the Empire style gravitated towards the examples of imperial Rome and Ancient Egypt and were distinguished by greater pomp and show. The buildings in the Empire style were intended to emphasize the military power of the Russian Empire and perpetuate its triumph. Empire style remained the leading style in architecture until 1830-1840.

You need to learn to recognize the most famous creations of architects of the era of classicism “by sight.” It may not be immediately possible to remember which of them designed which of the following buildings. But this is not the most important thing. It is necessary to remember the names of the architects and associate them with the architecture of classicism. As a rule, tasks in the Unified State Examination tests ask you to determine the style of buildings or correlate them with the era of the reign of a particular prince, king, emperor, general secretary, etc.

We can only guess which architectural monuments you will come across in the Unified State Exam tests in history, so it is important to be able to identify the stylistic features of architectural structures. Even if you see a building for the first time (after all, it’s impossible to know everything!), you can easily distinguish the architecture of classicism from, for example, Baroque or Art Nouveau, by finding familiar elements.

Using photographs of buildings built in Russia by architects in the style of classicism in the 18th-19th centuries, you need to practice finding elements of ancient architecture characteristic of this style: porticos with columns, triangular pediments, domes, semicircular arches. Please note that most architectural monuments of the Classical era have symmetrical and strict facades with a minimum of decor. The exception is buildings in the Empire style, enriched with sculptural decoration, usually in the style of Rome during the imperial era.

Classical sculpture

The sculpture of classicism vividly reminds us of ancient examples with their characteristic heroization and grandeur, turning into a certain pathos, which, however, is inherent in most monuments. F.I. Shubin, M.I. Kozlovsky, I.P. Martos, B.I. Orlovsky, V.I. Demut-Malinovsky and S.S. Pimenov are the names of leading Russian sculptors who worked under the influence of the aesthetics of classicism.

They need to be remembered. They captured images of rulers, great commanders and statesmen in their monumental works. However, foreign authors also worked in Russia and made a serious contribution to the development of Russian monumental sculpture. Among them we should note M. E. Falcone, one of the authors of the famous monument to Peter I, known as the “Bronze Horseman”.

Classical painting

Russian painting of the era of classicism almost did not appear in its “pure form”, actively mixing with other styles of that time. Classicism manifested itself most visibly in the historical genre of painting, and among the artists who worked in this genre, one can single out the names of A. P. Losenko, G. I. Ugryumov, I. A. Akimov.

In the paintings of these artists we see heroic subjects, very unnatural poses and pathetic gestures of the characters, characteristic of classicist painting. Even in paintings dedicated to Russian history, heroes are most often depicted in antique or fantasy robes and armor. Artificiality and artificiality are clearly visible in the compositions of the paintings.

The canvases look like fragments of theatrical productions and, in general, are quite far from the historical realities of the depicted era. However, in those years when these works were created, such a very conventional artistic language was considered the norm and aroused approval from the public.

Classicist techniques in painting, mixed with romanticism, were cultivated for a long time within the walls of the Imperial Academy of Arts. This kind of painting was called academicism. For decades, Russian fine art was almost completely confined to the illustration of biblical and mythological subjects, as well as events of ancient and ancient Russian history.

In the end, this led to an open revolt within the walls of the Academy of Arts, when contenders for the gold medal refused to paint pictures on the already rather boring themes of antiquity and mythology. But that's a completely different story...

- ...maybe our own Platonov
And the quick-witted Newtons
Russian land gives birth.
M.V. Lomonosov

Russian writers of the 18th century

There was that troubled time
When Russia is young,
Straining strength in struggles,
She was married to the genius of Peter.
A.S. Pushkin

Old Russian literature left a rich heritage, which, however, was mostly unknown to the 18th century, because Most of the monuments of ancient literature were discovered and published at the end of the 18th and 19th centuries(for example, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”). In this regard, in the 18th century, Russian literature was based on the Bible and European literary traditions.

Monument to Peter the Great ("Bronze Horseman"), sculptor Matteo Falcone

The 18th century is age of enlightenment in Europe and Russia. In one century, Russian literature travels a long way in its development. The ideological basis and prerequisites for this development were prepared by economic, political and cultural reforms Peter the Great(reigned 1682 - 1725), thanks to which backward Rus' turned into a powerful Russian Empire. Since the 18th century, Russian society has been studying world experience in all areas of life: in politics, economics, education, science, and art. And if until the 18th century Russian literature developed in isolation from European literature, now it is mastering the achievements of Western literatures. Thanks to the activities of the companion Peter Feofan Prokopovich, poets Antioch Cantemir And Vasily Trediakovsky, encyclopedist scientist Mikhail Lomonosov works on the theory and history of world literature are being created, foreign works are being translated, and Russian versification is being reformed. This is how things began to happen the idea of ​​Russian national literature and Russian literary language.

Russian poetry, which emerged in the 17th century, was based on the syllabic system, which is why Russian poems (verses) did not sound entirely harmonious. In the 18th century M.V. Lomonosov and V.K. Trediakovsky is being developed syllabic-tonic system of versification, which led to the intensive development of poetry, and the poets of the 18th century relied on Trediakovsky’s treatise “A New and Brief Method of Composing Russian Poems” and Lomonosov’s “Letter on the Rules of Russian Poetry.” The birth of Russian classicism is also associated with the names of these two prominent scientists and poets.

Classicism(from the Latin classicus - exemplary) is a movement in the art and literature of Europe and Russia, which is characterized by strict adherence to creative norms and rules And focus on antique designs. Classicism arose in Italy in the 17th century, and as a movement developed first in France and then in other European countries. Nicolas Boileau is considered the creator of classicism. In Russia, classicism originated in the 1730s. in the works of Antioch Dmitrievich Kantemir (Russian poet, son of the Moldavian ruler), Vasily Kirillovich Trediakovsky and Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov. The work of most Russian writers of the 18th century is associated with classicism.

Artistic principles of classicism are like that.

1. A writer (artist) must depict life in ideal images(ideally positive or “ideally” negative).
2. In works of classicism good and evil, high and low, beautiful and ugly, tragic and comic are strictly separated.
3. Heroes of classic works clearly divided into positive and negative, in this case, the surnames of the characters, as a rule, are “talking”, that is, they contain characteristics of the hero.
4. Genres in classicism are also divided into “high” and “low”:

5. Dramatic works were subject to the rule of three unities - time, place and action: the action took place over the course of one day in the same place and was not complicated by side episodes. In this case, a dramatic work necessarily consisted of five acts (actions).

The genres of ancient Russian literature are becoming a thing of the past. From now on, Russian writers use genre system of Europe, which still exists today.

M.V. Lomonosov

The creator of the Russian ode was Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov.

A.P. Sumarokov

The creator of Russian tragedy is Alexander Petrovich Sumarokov. His patriotic plays were dedicated to the most notable events of Russian history. The traditions laid down by Sumarokov were continued by playwright Yakov Borisovich Knyazhnin.

HELL. Cantemir

The creator of Russian satire (satirical poem) is Antioch Dmitrievich Kantemir.

DI. Fonvizin

The creator of Russian comedy is Denis Ivanovich Fonvizin, thanks to which satire became educational. Its traditions were continued at the end of the 18th century by A.N. Radishchev, as well as comedian and fabulist I.A. Krylov.

A crushing blow to the system of Russian classicism was dealt by Gavrila Romanovich Derzhavin, who began as a classicist poet, but broke in the 1770s. canons (creative laws) of classicism. He mixed high and low, civic pathos and satire in his works.

Since the 1780s the leading place in the literary process is occupied by a new direction - sentimentalism (see below), in line with which M.N. worked. Muravyov, N.A. Lvov, V.V. Kapnist, I.I. Dmitriev, A.N. Radishchev, N.M. Karamzin.

The first Russian newspaper "Vedomosti"; number dated June 18, 1711

Beginning to play a significant role in the development of literature journalism. Until the 18th century, there were no newspapers or magazines in Russia. The first Russian newspaper called "Vedomosti" Peter the Great released it in 1703.

In the second half of the century, literary magazines also appeared: "All sorts of things" (publisher: Catherine II), "Drone", "Painter" (publisher N.I. Novikov), "Hell Mail" (publisher F.A. Emin). The traditions they established were continued by the publishers Karamzin and Krylov.

In general, the 18th century is an era of rapid development of Russian literature, an era of universal enlightenment and the cult of science. In the 18th century, the foundation was laid that predetermined the beginning of the “golden age” of Russian literature in the 19th century.