Psychological defense mechanisms

The purpose of psychological protection is to reduce emotional tension and prevent disorganization of behavior, consciousness and psyche as a whole. Psychological defense mechanisms provide regulation and direction of behavior, reduce anxiety and emotional behavior (Berezin F.B.).

Negation

A psychological defense mechanism through which a person either denies some frustrating, anxiety-inducing circumstances, or denies some internal impulse or aspect of himself. As a rule, the action of this mechanism is manifested in the denial of those aspects of external reality that, although obvious to others, are nevertheless not accepted or recognized by the person himself. In other words, information that is disturbing and could lead to conflict is not perceived. This refers to a conflict that arises when motives are manifested that contradict the basic attitudes of an individual or information that threatens his self-preservation, self-respect, or social prestige.

As an outward-directed process, “denial” is often contrasted with “repression,” as a psychological defense against internal, instinctive demands and impulses. It is noteworthy that the authors of the ILS (Lifestyle Index) methodology explain the presence of increased suggestibility and gullibility in hysterical individuals by the action of precisely the mechanisms of denial, with the help of which undesirable, internal unacceptable traits, properties or negative feelings towards the subject of the experience are denied from the social environment. “Denial” as a mechanism of psychological defense, as experience shows, is realized in conflicts of any kind and is characterized by an outwardly distinct distortion of the perception of reality.

Repression

Sigmund Freud considered this mechanism (its analogue is “suppression”) to be the main way of protecting the infantile “I”, unable to resist temptation. In other words, “repression” is a defense mechanism through which impulses that are unacceptable to the individual: desires, thoughts, feelings that cause anxiety, become unconscious. According to most researchers, this mechanism underlies the action of other protective mechanisms of the individual. Repressed (suppressed) impulses, without finding resolution in behavior, nevertheless retain their emotional and psycho-vegetative components. For example, a typical situation is when the meaningful side of a psychotraumatic situation is not realized, and a person represses the very fact of some unseemly act, but the intrapsychic conflict persists, and the emotional stress caused by it is subjectively perceived as outwardly unmotivated anxiety. That is why repressed drives can manifest themselves in neurotic and psychophysiological symptoms. As research and clinical experience show, many properties, personal qualities and actions that do not make a person attractive in the eyes of himself and others are most often repressed, for example, envy, ill will, ingratitude, etc. It should be emphasized that traumatic circumstances or unwanted information are indeed displaced from a person’s consciousness, although outwardly this may look like active resistance to memories and introspection.

In the questionnaire, in this scale, the authors also included questions related to the less well-known mechanism of psychological defense - “isolation”. With “isolation,” the individual’s traumatic and emotionally reinforced experience can be realized, but at a cognitive level, isolated from the affect of anxiety.

Regression

In classical ideas, “regression” is considered as a mechanism of psychological defense, through which a person, in his behavioral reactions, seeks to avoid anxiety by moving to earlier stages of libido development. With this form of defensive reaction, a person exposed to frustrating factors replaces the solution of subjectively more complex problems with relatively simpler ones that are accessible in the current situations. The use of simpler and more familiar behavioral stereotypes significantly impoverishes the general (potentially possible) arsenal of the predominance of conflict situations. Also related to this mechanism is the “realization in action” type of defense mentioned in the literature, in which unconscious desires or conflicts are directly expressed in actions that prevent their awareness. Impulsivity and weakness of emotional-volitional control, characteristic of psychopathic individuals, are determined by the actualization of this particular defense mechanism against the general background of changes in the motivational-need sphere towards their greater simplicity and accessibility.

Compensation

This mechanism of psychological defense is often combined with “identification.” It manifests itself in attempts to find a suitable replacement for a real or imaginary shortcoming, a defect of an intolerable feeling with another quality, most often through fantasizing or appropriating the properties, advantages, values, and behavioral characteristics of another person. Often this occurs in situations of the need to avoid conflict with this person and increase a sense of self-sufficiency. At the same time, borrowed values, attitudes or thoughts are accepted without analysis and restructuring and therefore do not become part of the personality itself.

A number of authors reasonably believe that “compensation” can be considered as a form of protection against an inferiority complex, for example, in adolescents with antisocial behavior, aggressive and criminal actions directed against the individual. Probably here we are talking about overcompensation or regression similar in content to the general immaturity of the mental health.

Another manifestation of compensatory defense mechanisms may be the situation of overcoming frustrating circumstances or situations with oversatisfaction in other areas - for example, a physically weak or timid person, unable to respond to the threat of violence, finds satisfaction by humiliating the offender with the help of a sophisticated mind or cunning. People for whom “compensation” is the most characteristic type of psychological defense often turn out to be dreamers looking for ideals in various spheres of life.

Projection

At the heart of “projection” is the process by which unconscious and unacceptable feelings and thoughts for the individual are localized externally, attributed to other people, and thus, as a fact of consciousness, become secondary. A negative, socially unapproved connotation of experienced feelings and properties, for example, aggressiveness, is often attributed to others in order to justify one’s own aggressiveness or ill will, which manifests itself as if for defensive purposes. Examples of hypocrisy are well known, when a person constantly attributes his own immoral aspirations to others.

Less common is another type of projection, in which positive, socially approved feelings, thoughts or actions that can elevate are attributed to significant persons (usually from the microsocial environment). For example, a teacher who has not shown special abilities in professional activities is inclined to endow his beloved student with talent in this particular area, thereby unconsciously elevating himself (“... to a winning student from a defeated teacher”).

Substitution

A common form of psychological defense, which in the literature is often referred to as “displacement.” The action of this protective mechanism is manifested in the discharge of suppressed emotions (usually hostility, anger), which are directed towards objects that pose less danger or are more accessible than those that caused negative emotions and feelings. For example, an open manifestation of hatred towards a person, which can cause an unwanted conflict with him, is transferred to another, more accessible and not “dangerous”. In most cases, substitution resolves the emotional tension that arose under the influence of a frustrating situation, but does not lead to relief or achievement of the goal. In this situation, the subject can perform unexpected, sometimes meaningless actions that resolve internal tension.

A number of researchers interpret the meaning of this protective mechanism much more broadly, including not only the replacement of the object of the action, but also its source, and the action itself, implying various options for replacement activity.

The authors of the IHS methodology are not inclined to such an expansive interpretation of this protective mechanism and interpret it in the manner described above, although Z. Freud considered substitution one of the “basic ways of functioning of the unconscious” (Freud Z., 1986).

Intellectualization

This defense mechanism is often (especially in psychotherapeutic literature) referred to as “rationalization.” The authors of the methodology combined these two concepts, although their essential meaning is somewhat different. Thus, the effect of intellectualization is manifested in a fact-based, overly “mental” way of overcoming a conflict or frustrating situation without experiencing it. In other words, a person suppresses experiences caused by an unpleasant or subjectively unacceptable situation with the help of logical attitudes and manipulations, even in the presence of convincing evidence in favor of the opposite. The difference between intellectualization and rationalization, according to F.E. Vasilyuk (1984), is that it essentially represents “a departure from the world of impulses and affects into the world of words and abstractions.” When rationalizing, a person creates logical (pseudo-reasonable) but plausible justifications for his or someone else’s behavior, actions or experiences caused by reasons that he (the person) cannot recognize due to the threat of loss of self-esteem. With this method of defense, there are often obvious attempts to reduce the value of experience that is inaccessible to the individual. Thus, finding oneself in a situation of conflict, a person protects himself from its negative effects by reducing the importance for himself and other reasons that caused this conflict or traumatic situation. Also included in the intellectualization-rationalization scale was sublimation as a mechanism of psychological defense, in which repressed desires and feelings are exaggeratedly compensated by others that correspond to the highest social values ​​professed by the individual.

Reactive formations

This type of psychological defense is often identified with overcompensation. The personality prevents the expression of unpleasant or unacceptable thoughts, feelings or actions through the exaggerated development of opposing aspirations. In other words, there is a transformation of internal impulses into their subjectively understood opposite. For example, pity or caring may be seen as reactive formations in relation to unconscious callousness, cruelty or emotional indifference.

Determination of the leading mechanisms of psychological defense (Life Style Index)

Strategies for psychological defense in communication

Peacefulness

A psychological strategy for protecting the subjective reality of the individual, in which intelligence and character play a leading role.

The intellect extinguishes or neutralizes the energy of emotions in cases where a threat arises to the self of the individual. Peacefulness presupposes partnership and cooperation, the ability to compromise, make concessions and be pliable, the willingness to sacrifice some of one’s interests in the name of the main thing - preserving dignity.

In some cases, peacefulness means adaptation, the desire to yield to the pressure of a partner, not to aggravate relationships and not to get involved in conflicts, so as not to test one’s self. Intelligence alone, however, is often not enough for peacefulness to become the dominant defense strategy. It is also important to have a suitable character - soft, balanced, sociable. Intelligence combined with a “good” character creates a psychogenic prerequisite for peacefulness. Of course, it also happens that a person with an unimportant character is also forced to show peacefulness. Most likely, he was “broken down by life”, and he made a wise conclusion: we must live in peace and harmony. In this case, his defense strategy is determined by experience and circumstances, that is, it is sociogenic. In the end, it is not so important what motivates a person - nature or experience, or both together - the main result is whether peacefulness is the leading strategy of psychological defense or manifests itself only occasionally, along with other strategies.

It should not be assumed that peacefulness is an impeccable strategy for protecting the Self, suitable in all cases. Complete or sugary peacefulness is proof of spinelessness and lack of will, loss of self-esteem, which is precisely what psychological defense is designed to protect. The winner should not become a trophy. It is best when peacefulness dominates and is combined with other strategies (their soft forms).

Avoidance

A psychological strategy for protecting subjective reality, based on saving intellectual and emotional resources.

The individual habitually bypasses or leaves areas of conflict and tension without a fight when his Self is under attack. At the same time, he does not openly waste the energy of emotions and minimally strains the intellect. Why does he do this? There are different reasons. Avoidance is psychogenic in nature if it is due to the natural characteristics of the individual. He has weak innate energy: poor, rigid emotions, mediocre intelligence, sluggish temperament.

Another option is possible: a person has a powerful intellect from birth to avoid tense contacts, not to get involved with those who annoy his self. However, observations show that intelligence alone is not enough for the dominant strategy of avoidance. Smart people are often actively involved in protecting their subjective reality, and this is natural: the intellect is called upon to guard our needs, interests, values ​​and conquests. Obviously, will is also needed.

Finally, such an option is also possible when a person forces himself to avoid sharp corners in communication and conflict situations, and knows how to tell himself in time: “don’t interfere with your Self.” To do this, you need to have a strong nervous system, will and, undoubtedly, life experience behind you, which at the right moment reminds you: “don’t pull the blanket over yourself,” “don’t spit against the wind,” “don’t sit on the wrong trolleybus,” “do it.” pass to the side."

So what happens? The strategy of peacefulness is built on the basis of a good intellect and an accommodating character - very high demands on the individual. Avoidance is supposedly simpler and does not require special mental and emotional costs, but it is also due to increased demands on the nervous system and will. Aggression is a different matter - using it as a strategy to protect your Self is as easy as shelling pears.

Aggression

A psychological strategy for protecting the subjective reality of the individual, acting on the basis of instinct.

The instinct of aggression is one of the “big four” instincts common to all animals - hunger, sex, fear and aggression. This immediately explains the indisputable fact that aggression does not leave the repertoire of emotional reactions. It is enough to take a mental look at typical communication situations to see how common, easily reproducible and familiar it is in hard or soft forms. Its powerful energy protects the self of the individual on the street in a city crowd, in public transport, in line, at work, at home, in relationships with strangers and very close people, with friends and lovers. Aggressive ones can be seen from afar.

As the threat to the subjective reality of the individual increases, his aggression increases.

Personality and the instinct of aggression, it turns out, are quite compatible, and the intellect plays the role of a “transfer link” - with its help, aggression is “pumped up”, “spinned to its fullest.” The intellect works in transformer mode, intensifying aggression due to the meaning attached to it.

Diagnosis of the leading strategy of psychological defense in communication

Another early way to deal with troubles is to refuse to accept their existence. We all automatically respond with such denial to any catastrophe. The first reaction of a person who is informed about the death of a loved one is: “No!” This reaction is an echo of an archaic process rooted in childhood egocentrism, when cognition is controlled by a prelogical conviction: “If I don’t admit it, then it didn’t happen.” Processes like these inspired Selma Freiberg to title her classic popular book about early childhood, The Magic Years.

A person for whom denial is a fundamental defense always insists that “everything is fine and everything is for the best.” The parents of one of my patients continued to have one child after another, although three of their offspring had already died from what any other parent not in a state of denial would understand as a genetic disorder. They refused to mourn their dead children, ignored the suffering of two healthy sons, rejected advice to seek genetic counseling, and insisted that what was happening to them was the will of God, who knew their good better than themselves. Experiences of elation and overwhelming joy, especially when they arise in situations in which most people would find negative aspects, also indicate the action of denial.

Most of us resort to denial to some degree, with the worthy goal of making life less unpleasant, and many people have their own specific areas where this defense takes precedence over others. Most people whose feelings are hurt, in a situation where it is inappropriate or unwise to cry, would rather give up their feelings than, fully aware of them, suppress the tears with a conscious effort. In extreme circumstances, the ability to deny the danger to life on an emotional level can be life-saving. Through denial, we can realistically take the most effective and even heroic actions. Every war leaves us with many stories about people who “kept their heads” in terrible, deadly circumstances and, as a result, saved themselves and their comrades.

What's worse is that denial can lead to the opposite outcome. One friend of mine refuses to have annual gynecological tests, as if by ignoring the possibility of uterine and cervical cancer, she can magically avoid these diseases. A wife who denies that her husband who beats her is dangerous; an alcoholic who insists that he has no problem with alcohol; a mother who ignores evidence of her daughter being sexually abused; an elderly person who would not think about giving up driving a car, despite the obvious weakening of his ability to do so, are all familiar examples of denial at its worst.

This psychoanalytic concept has been adopted more or less without distortion into everyday language, partly because the word “denial,” like “isolation,” has not become slang. Another reason for the popularity of this concept is its special role in 12 Step programs (drug addiction treatment) and other interventions designed to help their participants become aware of their habitual use of this defense and to help them get out of the hell they have created for them. myself.

A component of denial can be found in most more mature defenses. Take, for example, the comforting belief that the person who rejected you actually wanted to be with you, but is simply not yet ready to give himself entirely and formalize your relationship. In this case, we see the denial of rejection, as well as a more sophisticated technique of finding justification, which is called rationalization. Likewise, defense through reactive formation, when an emotion turns into its opposite (hate - love), is a specific and more complex type of denial of a feeling that needs to be protected from than simply refusing to experience a given feeling.

The most obvious example of psychopathology due to the use of denial is mania. While manic, people may be in incredible denial of their physical needs, their need to sleep, their financial difficulties, their personal weaknesses, and even their mortality. While depression makes it completely impossible to ignore the painful facts of life, mania makes them psychologically irrelevant. People for whom denial is their main defense are manic in nature. Analytically oriented clinicians classify them as hypomanic. (The prefix “hypo,” meaning “few” or “several,” distinguishes these people from individuals experiencing true manic episodes.)

This category has also been characterized by the word “cyclothymia” (“alternating emotions”), since it tends to alternate between manic and depressive moods, usually not reaching the severity of a clinically diagnosed bipolar disease. Analysts view these fluctuations as the result of periodic use of denial, each time followed by the inevitable “collapse” when the person becomes exhausted due to a manic state.

The presence of unmodified denial in an adult, like other primitive defenses, is a cause for concern. However, mildly hypomanic people can be charming. Many comedians and entertainers demonstrate wit, energy, a penchant for wordplay, and an infectious high spirits. These are the signs that characterize people who, over a long period of time, successfully remove and transform painful experiences. But relatives and friends often notice the other side of their character - heavy and depressive, and it is often not difficult to see the psychological cost of their manic charm.

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