Related disciplines. Lecture: Related disciplines. Own professional name

According to the author, precisely such processes occur in the so-called “geographic information mapping”: cartographic production, following in line with highly controversial theoretical provisions, has begun mass production of digital maps - products that do not meet the requirements of end users.

Problems of terminology in geoinformatics are of epistemological origin. Geoinformatics, like any knowledge, is characterized by syntheticity, and as technical knowledge, by constructiveness. In the process of forming a synthetic theory, the already existing formalized (to a greater or lesser extent) apparatus of individual scientific disciplines, which previously developed independently of each other and differ in their language, is used. The concepts of scientific disciplines included in the general theory may differ significantly in their content. Therefore, the synthetic theory faces the task of reducing the heterogeneous concepts of various initial theories and developing its own conceptual apparatus.

A person, creating and developing a theoretical system, perceives a new phenomenon in accordance with a certain categorical apparatus (understands what he sees) and introduces the discovered phenomenon into the existing system of concepts. At the same time, he is limited by the framework of the conceptual system and “sees a new phenomenon as he understands it.” Such strange mutants as “geographic information mapping” and “digital maps” arose as a result of defining and explaining new phenomena in familiar terminology.

The term “geographic information mapping” has become widespread in the literature. There are even brochures and GOSTs of the same name. Yet the use of the term “geographic information mapping” seems debatable; Apparently, it is more correct to talk about automated mapping and geographic information modeling. To explain this point of view, consider the content of geography, cartography, computer science, geoinformatics and the connections between them.

Analyzing the relationships between various theoretical disciplines, we will take into account that they all appear and develop as means to satisfy certain needs. The pragmatic, utilitarian approach of some scientific disciplines and fields of technology to achievements in other areas of human activity is a common occurrence. On the one hand, any specific problem area seeks to use these achievements as a means to solve its internal problems, on the other hand, any area of ​​technical knowledge develops as a tool for solving external problems existing in other areas of activity. Thus, there are needs and means to satisfy them. It is in this aspect that we will consider the relationships “geography - cartography”, “cartography - computer science”, “geography - computer science”, etc.

Geography

Geography does not need any special introduction, but its role in the modern world should be discussed. At different times, one or another type of activity caused different attitudes from society. It can be assumed that in the era of great geographical discoveries and colonial conquests, the social status of geographers (as well as cartographers and navigators) was quite high. In later times, the leading role in the life of society began to gradually pass to specialists in various fields of technology: mechanics, electrical engineering, energy, nuclear physics (this list is far from complete). One of the articles stated that programmers currently have the greatest influence on the life of human society.

Previous generations of geographers fulfilled their historical mission: there were no “blank spots” left on the Earth. Upon completion of this work, there was a certain decline in the social status of geography. Some radical statements can be seen as a defensive reaction on the part of geographers. Here is the first example at hand that is not the most extreme point of view: “The development of GIS and geographic information mapping gives geography and related sciences about the Earth and society a unique and perhaps the only chance in their entire history to truly become the basis of advanced scientific technology, the basis for the development of geoinformation ( geographic information industry. As a result, geography could turn out to be one of the core areas, the basis for the informatization of society at all levels...”

This romantic view of the role of geography in the modern world is wrong. Its author can be respected for his tender attitude towards his profession, but one cannot agree with him. Geography, in principle, cannot be either “the basis of advanced scientific technology” or “the basis of the informatization of society,” since this place is occupied by other disciplines (see below).

Nevertheless, geospace and habitat continue to play an important role in the life of modern man, which is not always recognized by society. This role is confirmed by the specifics of automated information systems. At the highest level, the following main categories are distinguished around which data banks are organized:

1. 
   people, which is natural due to the inherent anthropocentrism of humans;
2. 
   items related to people (movable and immovable property, etc.);
3. 
   objects related to the earth (in a broader sense - with the earth's surface, the human environment);
4. 
   various types of resources (financial, material, natural, information);
5. 
   scientific (we would say scientific, technical and technological).

However, society has not completely forgotten about the existence of geographers and is again giving them a real, not imaginary, chance to restore the prestige of geography. If earlier geography was primarily concerned with the study and description of the natural human environment, now the problem of its man-made destruction has become the focus of geographical research. The global significance of environmental problems is emphasized by the holding of several international conferences by the International Cartographic Association under the general motto “GIS for sustainable environmental development.”
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Electronics Electronization

The function of the “base of informatization of society” is performed by electronic technology and computer science, which have caused fundamental changes in technology and the life of society as a whole. Currently, there is an intensive process of electronization - the introduction of electronic equipment into various spheres of human activity. The so-called “high technologies” are based mainly on the latest achievements of electronic technology, which is increasingly used in a variety of fields - medicine, forensics, geology, military affairs (possibly the most widespread application), etc.

We can cite two facts about the influence of electronics on technologies from a field close to cartography - geodesy. The first is associated with the advent of electronic methods for measuring distances about 40 years ago and the emergence of radio geodesy. The use of radio rangefinders, and then light rangefinders, made it possible to increase labor productivity tens of times during high-precision distance measurements, but had little impact on the scheme for creating a state geodetic network.

The second fact is more impressive and is associated with the emergence of space geodesy on the basis of space technology, celestial mechanics, electronics, radio geodesy and computer technology, which led to fundamental changes in the design of the state geodetic network and the virtual disappearance of astronomical and geodetic measurements.

The use of space geodesy methods has also led to the fact that today anyone can determine the coordinates of any point on the earth’s surface with an accuracy of several meters: just press a few buttons on a GPS receiver. High-precision coordinate measurements (on the order of 1 cm) require more expensive equipment and special training, but we can expect that after some time they will become as accessible as televisions.

By the way, in the Middle Ages, division was studied at universities, and the best division specialists were in Italian universities. Indeed, performing division in the Roman (non-positional) number system is not the easiest task; try dividing at least CLXIX by XIII. Today division is studied in primary school. The given examples quite clearly demonstrate the essence of scientific and technological progress.

All technical means of communication (telephone, radio, television, etc.) are designed to transmit information. Computers represent a qualitatively higher level of functionality of electronic technology, since they provide a transition from a passive function of information transmission to an active one - automatic processing by technical means. The current integration of means of transmitting and processing information is a natural step dictated by the internal logic of the development of informatization.

Thus, the claims of geography or cartography to be “the basis of advanced scientific technology” are incorrect, but nevertheless both geography and cartography are relevant to this technology. Their task is much more prosaic - to learn to use new information technologies to develop their capabilities, increase efficiency, etc.

Computer science

In the explanatory dictionary, computer science is defined as “a scientific field that deals with the study of laws, methods and methods of accumulating, processing and transmitting information using computers and other technical means.” The definition given in the Mathematical Encyclopedic Dictionary coincides with it: “Informatics is ... a science that studies the laws and methods of accumulating, transmitting and processing information using a computer.”

In addition, for reasons of completeness, we present another definition: “Informatics (in a figurative sense) is an area of ​​human activity associated with the use of computers” [Ibid., p. 821]. We consider this definition to be loose and will not use it as such.

The subject of computer science consists of information models that describe, using parameters presented in symbolic form, both the subject area and information processing processes. In other words, computer science deals with the study and creation of models of the world external to the modeling system and models of modeling systems.

Another definition of the subject of computer science is “...the study of the patterns of human interaction with a computer in all types of its activities” [Ibid., p. 244] - may turn out to be controversial, since, firstly, it is not explained what aspects of such interaction are being studied, and secondly, the interaction of a person with technical means, including computers, is the subject of study of engineering psychology.

In connection with the issue under discussion, it is appropriate to recall the definitions of model and simulation. “Modeling is the study of phenomena, processes or systems of objects by constructing and studying their models; one of the main methods of scientific knowledge and technical design” [Ibid., p. 828].

“A model is a general scientific concept that means both an ideal and a physical object, the analysis of which or observation of which allows us to understand the essential features of another phenomenon, process or object being studied” [Ibid., p. 829].

“An information model is a model in which the phenomenon or process being studied is presented in the form of processes of information transmission and processing” [Ibid., p. 821].

Information processing is the conditional transformation of the presentation and content of information performed by some system.

Computer science has the closest connections with mathematics. We can say that the relationship between computer science and mathematics is approximately the same as between technical knowledge and natural sciences. “Pure” mathematics is limited to finding a way to solve a problem and pays virtually no attention to the computational costs of obtaining the result. In computer science as technical knowledge, the problem of the effectiveness of the applied mathematical models and methods for solving problems occupies one of the central places. At the intersection of computer science and mathematics, a new field of knowledge has emerged - applied mathematics.

In computer science, applied computer science is distinguished, which deals with the creation of specialized information technologies - a set of tools and methods for automating specific types of activities based on computer technology, communications and software.

The Mathematical Encyclopedic Dictionary also provides a second interpretation of computer science as a generic concept covering “all types of human activity associated with the use of computers.” In this essentially everyday definition, no distinction is made between the spheres of production of means and their use, for which there are well-known reasons.

As a rule, these areas of activity differ significantly in their subject matter, and professionals in one problem area do not need to have knowledge from another. Thus, specialists in the production of microscopes do not need to have theoretical knowledge from the field where they can be applied, for example, biology or crystallography. The opposite is also true - for biologists or crystallographers, if the latter do not study the optical properties of substances, ideas about the consumer properties of microscopes are quite enough and there is no need to know the laws of optics.

In applied computer science we see a completely opposite picture. Firstly, in the sphere of software production and in the sphere of their application, the same technical means are used - computers.

Secondly, the ultimate goal of using a computer is to solve certain applied problems, which requires the development of special software. But the development of application software is impossible without the use of special knowledge from the problem area being automated. Therefore, both specialists who have mastered software development technologies and computer scientists who have studied a specific problem area act as developers of special software. Consequently, the second distinctive feature of applied computer science can be considered the unique need to integrate knowledge from the field of production of means and the field of their application.

Thirdly, the use of special software, which essentially represents “canned knowledge,” to a certain extent reduces the requirements for user qualifications, which does not happen when using any other means except software.

The characteristic features of the ongoing informatization are the high pace of internal development of computer science and the rapid expansion of the scope of its application, expansion into almost all areas of human activity. Technologies, thanks to informatization, are changing at such a speed that we do not seem to have time to comprehend them.

Cartography

The scientific discipline of maps, methods of their creation and use - cartography - arose from the needs of geography and other earth sciences to describe the position of objects on the earth's surface.

Of the three possible methods of description - verbal, tabular and graphic - the most adequate to the human perception of the spatial position of objects is graphic, which is a special case of analogue modeling. Enter into the table at least five pairs of arbitrary numbers in the range from 0 to 1000 (coordinates of points on the plane) and ask someone to estimate their relative positions. It is likely that any person will need at least 10 seconds to do this. But if these points are plotted on paper in a certain coordinate system, then one glance will be enough to assess their relative position. A real map sheet may contain thousands and even tens of thousands of objects.

The advantages of cartographic and any graphical method of presenting information about the spatial position of objects are its clarity. But the disadvantages, as we know, are a continuation of the advantages: the graphic method is characterized by significant limitations - the cartographer has very few visual means to display the diverse properties of objects.

To describe the properties of objects, a tabular method of presenting data is more effective. Tables can be made as large as desired. In all areas of activity where it is not necessary to know the spatial position of objects, this is what they do - they fill out various “forms”. In cartography they act differently and create sets of maps - atlases, while a significant part of the information is duplicated many times.

At one time, such inventions as paper and printing served as powerful incentives for the development of cartography. Modern cartographic production is largely based on the achievements of printing. Symbols of topographic and any other maps and the maps themselves reflect, among other things, the capabilities and limitations of modern printing equipment.

To verify this, it is enough to compare the symbols for maps of medium or small scales with the symbols for large-scale plans. The design of the former is more colorful. The reason is that multi-color printing equipment is used to reproduce them. Until recently, large-scale plans were reproduced by photocopying or electrographic methods. With the development of computer technology and graphic output tools, a real possibility of reproducing multicolor images has emerged; The limiting factor is the still insufficient distribution of graphical output tools. Therefore, in the near future we can expect the appearance of symbols for large-scale topographic plans with a more diverse palette.

In essence, the emergence of printing itself was associated with the need to perform a very simple operation - applying an image to the surface of paper. But as a result, this extremely simple need practically led to the formation of a new area of ​​technical knowledge - printing and the creation of a powerful infrastructure - modern printing production. The deep reason for their appearance is explained, of course, not by the external, primitive need for printing, but by the exceptional, vitally important need of human society for information.

To understand current trends in cartography and cartographic production, it is necessary to consider the types of production and the nature of cartographic production.

It is known that in every production process there are physical (mass and energy) and logical (information) components. It is also known that there are three types of production: processing and processing of matter, energy and information. No type of production occurs in its pure form; In any process, all three types of transformations are performed in parallel: material, energy and information. The identification of the above types of production is carried out according to the target type of transformation.

The differences in types of production are so deep and important that the history of mankind is divided into three phases according to the dominant type of production: the substance society, the energy society and the information society. Some authors argue that the most developed countries have already entered the phase of the information society, others consider these statements to be premature. Be that as it may, today the world is moving towards the information society: production is constantly becoming more complex, the role of information is constantly increasing, and more and more resources are being used to process it.

Cartographic production is informational in nature. No material assets are created in the mapping process. The purpose of mapping is to provide consumers with information about the earth's surface, and not to create maps. We do not believe that the driver's goal is to drive a car, a kind of art for art's sake, and not to deliver goods. But in order to deliver the cargo to the right place, the driver is forced to drive the car. Similarly, in order to provide the consumer with information about the area, previously it was necessary to create only maps, today the situation is changing.

If cartographic production is informational, and the computer is a modern, effective means of processing information, then the conclusion is obvious: the task of cartographic production should be the development of the latest information technologies, and the task of cartographic theory should be the development of a methodology for automated mapping.

Maps are just a form of presenting information, determined by the peculiarities of human perception and the history of the development of cartography and cartographic production. The value of a map is determined not by the cartographic image, but by its content, the information conveyed. Currently, due to computerization and informatization, the needs in the use of cartographic products are changing; consumers increasingly need to present the same data on the earth's surface, but in a different form - in digital form. Thus, modern trends in cartographic production are determined by the contradiction between form and content.

The use of computers is having a revolutionary impact on cartographic production. The innovations listed above (paper, printing and printing) meant the improvement of the physical component of cartographic processes. But the essence of cartography and mapping is not the physical, but the logical component, i.e., information processing. The development of the logical component, which meant the transition from craft to science and the establishment of cartography as a theory, began with the coordinate method developed by Descartes and analytical geometry and continued with the development of cartographic projections and the formation of mathematical cartography.

However, until now, cartographic theory has developed somewhat one-sidedly - mainly mathematical cartography has been developed. The state of another part of cartography - the theory of cartographic display (formal cartography) - can be characterized as stagnation. Here we should recall the discussion on the pages of the journal “Geodesy and Cartography” in 1985 - 86, which began with an article by K. A. Salishchev. A theoretical basis was even provided for the current situation: mapping is a creative activity (cartographers create not products, but cartographic works), therefore it is impossible to perform these actions by machine.

Criticism of such views can be reduced to the following remarks. Of course, mapping is an intellectual activity. But the creative nature of activity does not necessarily imply the impossibility of automating it. Chess is no less creative than mapping. Some time ago, there were discussions about whether a machine could beat a skilled chess player. She recently won against the world champion, and now they are arguing whether what a computer does is creativity.

If creativity is understood as the ability to act effectively on intuition, then we must recognize the absolute inability of a machine for any creativity. But the goal of automated solution of intellectual problems is not necessarily to copy the mental processes in a person’s head, but to obtain the results of solving problems. The method of solving a problem is of secondary importance compared to the fact of obtaining a result. Moreover, today there are already precedents for inventions and discoveries made by machines, not to mention the proof of theorems.

Another example of the importance of creativity comes from the history of cartography itself. Maps have been drawn for centuries. Only with the advent of methods for determining the coordinates of points on the earth's surface and with the development of cartographic projections did it become possible to accurately plot the position of objects on paper, and maps began to be drawn. The possibilities for “creativity” have been significantly reduced; the cartographer can no longer place objects on the map to his liking. Thus, the development of precise methods does not limit creativity, but subjectivity, but these restrictions can hardly cause protest.

In order for a machine to solve a problem, it is necessary to describe the data conversion process in detail and unambiguously, that is, the solution must be formalized. Currently, the most pressing task of cartography is the development of a formal theory of cartographic display.

The formalization of cartographic display processes not only does not kill the possibility of creativity in cartographic production, but, on the contrary, leads to an increase in its share. Creative processes in cartography include determining the content of the map, choosing visual aids, etc., and the most labor-intensive operations for producing a map are routine and can easily be automated.

Geoinformatics

1. “The development of information technologies based on computer technology... has led to the emergence of a new direction in computer science - geoinformatics, which is based on geographic information systems (GIS) and geographic information technologies.”

2. “Geoinformatics and computational geometry have recently been one of the most developing areas of computer science.”

3. “Geoinformatics is usually understood as a scientific and technical complex that unites the branch of scientific knowledge of the same name, technology and applied (production) activities that are associated with the development and implementation of GIS.”

4. “Geoinformatics is a fairly new field of activity in geography, geology and other earth sciences, within the framework of which the tasks of collecting, storing and processing information about natural and socio-economic systems are solved”

5. “The subject of geoinformatics as a science is natural, social and natural-social earthly space-time systems. Methods of geoinformatics - computer modeling and closely related geoinformation mapping. In other words, the subject of geoinformatics coincides with the subjects of earth sciences, socio-economic sciences, cartography, and remote sensing.” And further: “The foundation of geoinformation education (including geoinformation mapping) should be knowledge and understanding of the essence, genesis, dynamics, and functioning of geosystems” [Ibid., p. 43].

These definitions reveal at least four interpretations of the subject of geoinformatics:

The area of ​​creating tools for information modeling of the earth's surface (definitions 1 and 2);

Area of ​​use of these funds (definition 4);

Any activity related to the creation or use of geographic information modeling tools (definition 3);

Some metascience about the Earth (definition 5).

The above definitions correctly indicate one or another aspect of geoinformatics, but we cannot completely agree with any of them, least of all with the definition data in the work. In essence, this work proposes to replace the concept of geography and other earth sciences with geoinformatics. Until now, geosystems have been the subject of geography and other geosciences, and they remain so. The use of new tools changes the methods, but not the subject and content of a scientific discipline. The use of a telescope (and later a radio telescope) in astronomy or a microscope in biology did not change their essence, but made it possible to significantly expand the boundaries and depth of scientific knowledge. This was well understood more than 100 years ago. J. W. Marmery wrote: “The fact that the invention of any apparatus can change the entire appearance of science and gives it a new boost has become a commonplace. Let us remove the telescope from our scientific development, and astronomy will immediately turn into knowledge of the most ordinary and simple phenomena” [cit. to 12, p. 57] - and then gave a list of instruments that influenced the emergence and development of various fields of knowledge: microscope, prism, compass, pendulum, barometer, lens, scales, electric batteries.

In the same way, the use of a new powerful tool in geography and other earth sciences - the computer - does not change their own subject and content of research.However, the use of computers in geography and other geosciences may be the subject of independent research and the content of the corresponding theory, similar to the separation of cartography into a separate area of ​​scientific and technical knowledge.

The short name “geographic information science” somewhat obscures the meaning of the concept “geographic information science”. In this phrase, the main meaning is carried by the word “computer science”, and the word “geographical” is clarifying.

Here we can draw an analogy with the names of many scientific disciplines, for example, economic geography, spheroidal geodesy, space geodesy, mathematical cartography, etc. All of these names are complex, like many others , are subject to the norms of the Russian language, which determine the order of formation of phrases. A person who knows the meaning of each individual word, but has not previously encountered phrases, without even thinking about the norms of the language, intuitively guesses their meaning.

The concept of “geographical information science”, in accordance with the norms of the Russian language, should be interpreted as a certain branch of computer science. This is precisely the logic of the authors of the definitions of geoinformatics in: informatics is considered as a generic concept in relation to geographic information science.

If we apply the “principle of geoinformatics” used in the work to the naming of other scientific areas, then instead of political and economic geography we would have geopolitics and geoeconomics, etc. But the subject of economic geography is different from the subject of “geoeconomics”; the first is a division of geography, while the second would be a division of economics.

As a field of knowledge, geoinformatics is a section of applied computer science, the methodology of information modeling of the earth's surface and geosystems; The subject of geoinformatics as a theory is geographic information models, geographic information systems and technologies. The interpretation of geoinformatics as a branch of geography or even its alternative seems controversial. Geography is a natural science, while computer science and cartography are technical disciplines (at least from the point of view of the Higher Attestation Commission). The fundamental difference between technical sciences and natural sciences was noted above. Geoinformatics is not limited to automated cartography, but it borrows a lot from it and should also be classified as a technical discipline.

Considering geoinformatics as a field of industrial activity, it includes both the production of specialized software (primarily geographic information systems) and the field of application - obtaining, accumulating, processing, presenting, distributing and using digital data about the earth's surface. The question is how necessary it is to unite under one name the area of ​​production of means and the area of ​​their application.

In real life, these areas, as a rule, are different and are called differently, for example, automobile manufacturing and the motor transport industry, etc. Perhaps the only exception to this rule was mechanical engineering, which creates, among other things, the means for its

reproduction, in which the area of ​​application of the created means is the area of ​​their production - machines for the production of machines.

Geographic information systems are not intended to be self-reproducing, and therefore there is no particular reason to combine the field of production of tools and the field of their application under one name “geographic information science”. Just as a person who uses astronomical methods to determine coordinates or directions cannot be considered an astronomer (an astronomer is one who builds the building of astronomy), so the end user who uses GIS to solve their problems is not necessarily a specialist in the field of geoinformatics. It seems rather controversial to call geographers, cartographers and others who do not have sufficiently deep knowledge in the field of computer science, geoinformatics specialists.

Then the question arises about naming the knowledge system about the consumer properties of geographic information systems and production activities aimed at obtaining, accumulating, processing, presenting, distributing and using information about the earth’s surface and geosystems. In this case, we can act by analogy and use the same logic as when forming the term “practical astronomy”, calling a systematized body of knowledge about the use of geographic information modeling tools practical geoinformatics.

According to the author, geoinformatics is not so much a new field of activity in geography or cartography, but a new way of satisfying the age-old human need for knowledge about the environment. Contrary to the opinion of some authors, it is not so much cartography that is becoming different, but cartographic production, which is transforming before our eyes into geoinformation production.

Automation in cartography does not change the essence of cartography. In the same way, automation of cartographic production does not change the purpose of the latter. However, changes in technologies for meeting the public need for knowledge about the country's territory are so fundamental that at present it is possible to raise the question of the appropriateness of renaming the existing infrastructure - Roscartography.

^

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Like any science, sociology is a sector of universal knowledge about existence, therefore, it is connected with other sciences. The differentiation of sciences has gone so far that their unity is sometimes forgotten. At the same time, each science is connected in different ways with other areas of scientific knowledge. Mastering the features of these connections contributes to a deeper understanding of the essence of this science.

The proximity or distance of sociology from other sciences is determined by two circumstances: 1) the commonality of the object of research and 2) the proximity of the subjects of research.

Since the object of sociology is society as a whole or individual social phenomena, then according to this criterion, sociology is “related” to philosophy, psychology, political science, law, history, economic theory, cultural studies and other disciplines. But mathematics, natural, technical, medical and agricultural sciences are distant from sociology. And although some achievements of these sciences, for example, mathematics, are used in sociology, this fact does not bring sociology closer to these sciences.

In subject matter, sociology is related to those sciences that study social relations in certain areas of human activity. Social relations are dispositional, that is, they are contained “within” political, economic, moral, religious, legal and other types of social relations. The sciences that study these relationships also study the sociality of people, but in specific, developed forms. That is why sociology is so organically combined with them. At the same time, not all sciences whose object is human activity are related to sociology. These are, for example, demography, statistics, economic geography, etc. In these sciences, only external manifestations of human activity are recorded, but not its internal content with goals, values, interests, emotions, etc.

Philosophy - sociology. The closest thing to sociology is philosophy. Its influence on sociology lies in the fact that sociological problems have been analyzed within the framework of philosophy for a long time. As a result, sociology included concepts used in philosophy: need, value, interest, development, progress, etc.

Sociology - philosophy. Being a “daughter” science, sociology explains its own history to philosophy. A kind of “sociology of philosophy” emerges, which shows the social conditions of the genesis and development of philosophy. So, for example, it was shown and proven that philosophy does not arise under any, but only under favorable conditions: a sufficiently high level of development of the sciences, the flourishing of cities and the personal freedom of members of society.

Psychology - sociology. Psychology, both individual and social, provides much valuable material for sociology. The first shows and substantiates psychological personality types, the dynamics of emotional experiences, the formation and change of value orientations, etc. The second explains the facts of collective behavior of people (expectations, moods, psychoses, optimism, pessimism, etc.) and allows us to predict some trends in population behavior.

Sociology - psychology. Sociology shows the social context of individual and collective mental phenomena. For example, references to the past when making decisions are necessary so that acting individuals can put their actions on a par with the affairs of bygone days and thereby show the “naturalness” of their behavior. The European bourgeoisie, having taken state power into their hands, initially imitated the heroes of ancient Rome. Propagandists of communism composed fairy tales in which they likened Lenin and Stalin to heroes of fairy tales and epics. Examples of this kind show how close sociology is to formulating the laws of socio-psychological phenomena.

In addition, sociology shows the role of various psychological personality types in social relationships. It is no coincidence, apparently, that choleric and sanguine people predominate in the phenomena of leadership and criminal activity, rather than phlegmatic and melancholic people.

Political science-sociology. Provides empirical material for the analysis of social phenomena, corrects some judgments and predictions of sociologists.

Sociology - political science. The formulation of the laws of human communication would help to understand the meaning of political phenomena and institutions, as well as to anticipate changes in the political consciousness of the masses. The subjunctive mood shows that so far both sciences are only capable of describing and explaining, inviting the reader to take their judgments on faith. Perhaps a transition, but the theoretical level of research will be made by one of the middle-level theories - the sociology of politics.

Jurisprudence - sociology. Positive law provides rich material for sociological generalizations. Social relations in the field of law are more tense than in any other area of ​​public life. Evidence of this is the unflagging interest of members of society in all branches of law, especially criminal law. Law enforcement practice is assessed from the standpoint of natural law.

Sociology - jurisprudence. Sociology is so vitally necessary for law that thinking lawyers, due to this necessity, themselves begin to study society. The speculative, armchair construction of legal norms inevitably leads society to a dead end. Juggling with terms, proving one convention with another convention is legal scholasticism. Thinking lawyers understand that not only society (maybe not so much!) should be adjusted to the rules of law, but also law should take into account the interests of the majority of the population, or the interests of large social groups. And for this, society should be known as it really is. In connection with the need for such knowledge, a sociological approach to understanding law and the sociology of law have developed. At the intersection of sociology, psychology and criminal law, criminology emerges - the sociology of crime.

History - sociology. History shows the dynamics of social relations in social time and space and provides rich material for sociological generalizations.

Sociology - history. Thanks to generalizations of many empirical facts, history, even before the emergence of sociology, began to transform from a genre of fiction, which it was in the Middle Ages, into science. The motto of the ancients “History is the teacher of life” is realized in reality only under the condition of the closest union of history with sociology. History, indeed, is the teacher of life, but it teaches only those who are able to learn from it, who are able to see the repeatability of phenomena through a mass of unique details. Without sociology, history is a pile of unprocessed raw materials. Realizing this fact, some historians (B.F. Porshnev, E.M. Zhukov, M.A. Barg) called for the creation of a sociology of history.

Economic theory - sociology. Shows the influence of material living conditions on individuals, small and large social groups. Economic theory also shows the influence of economic laws on changing social relations.

Sociology - economic theory. Social relations develop under the influence of more than just economic laws; their sources are diverse. However, these relationships do not significantly affect market conditions and therefore economists are not indifferent to sociological material! Economic sociology, sociology of labor, and sociology of trade became an expression of the vital necessity of sociology for economic theory.

Culturology - sociology. Culture should not be reduced to one of its sides - artistic culture. In terms of content, culture represents traditions, customs, holidays, language, beliefs, etc. Culture is a way of existence of society, it is the ability to live together. The mentality of cultural people is such that they are capable of forming a society. The science that studies culture in this sense is cultural studies. It provides sociology with material for generalizations and shows, in particular, that the separation of sociology from philosophy in the cultural field of Europe is not accidental.

Sociology - cultural studies. Explores trends in the development of culture, shows the logic of its relative independent functioning. One of the middle-level sociological theories has emerged - the sociology of culture. This theory eliminates the simplistic idea that culture depends on the level of economic development. The story describes the flowering of culture in economically and politically undeveloped countries.

Not all sciences that are related to sociology are indicated. However, the examples given show interdisciplinary connections that weaken as sciences differentiate. On the contrary, the use of data from various sciences makes it possible to present the phenomenon of interest in a comprehensive and complete manner.

Topic 1.

Structure and composition of modern cultural knowledge

1. The place of cultural studies in the system of sciences, object, subject, goals of cultural studies. Related disciplines. Sections of cultural studies.

2. The concept of “culture”, classification of culture

3. Functions of culture

Until the 20th century the study of culture was within the framework of philosophical and historical sciences. The identification of cultural studies as a separate scientific block at the end of the 20th century. associated with the accumulation of a large amount of knowledge about culture and the need to systematize it.

The term "culturology" is derived from the Latin. cultura (which in turn came from colo, cultum, colere - “to cultivate, process”) and from Greek. logos (word, concept, doctrine, theory, reason, thought, knowledge). If we take translation as “knowledge about culture” as a basis, this means that cultural studies studies both the theory of culture and the history of culture, but if we take it as “theory of culture”, then only theory. For the first time, the word “cultural studies” was proposed to be used as a scientific term by the American researcher Leslie White.

There are several views on the question of the status of cultural knowledge:

1. Culturology is an academic discipline, which examines man, society and culture, using the knowledge of various sciences: philosophy, aesthetics, ethics, history, art history, religious studies, ethnography, archeology, psychology, linguistics, etc. This humanitarian discipline was introduced in Russia in specific conditions (1980s), when there was a crisis in the Marxist system of social science, and it was intended mainly for students of non-humanitarian universities. After economics, political science, sociology, and philosophy acquired their own place and significance in the system of humanitarian knowledge, cultural studies began to play the role of a preparatory course for the disciplines of the social and humanitarian cycle.

2. Cultural studies– an independent branch of scientific knowledge, which has its own object and subject of knowledge, methods and approaches of research., i.e. cultural studies is the science about culture (only in Russia).

Object of study:

o sociocultural environment (including culture)

o the most general patterns of culture;

o principles of the functioning of culture in society;

o interrelation and dialogue of different cultures;

o common trends in the cultural development of humanity.

Subject of study:

· the result of people's activities;

· cultural models;

· attitudes that regulate the life of society, manifesting themselves in customs, laws, norms and values;

· communication connections between people, forming special languages ​​of interpersonal communication;

Goals of cultural studies:

1. Forecasting and designing spiritual processes of social development, analysis of the sociocultural consequences of social processes;

2. Search for new methods of socialization (social formation) and inculturation (i.e. mastering the content of culture) of the individual;

3. Providing knowledge about national culture;

4. Comparative analysis of cultures (comparative method of cultural research).

Disciplines related to cultural studies

Anthropology of culture (cultural anthropology) shows that the theory of culture deals with ethnic communities that have their own distinctive culture. Focuses on social structure, political organization, economic system, kinship system, characteristics of food, housing, clothing, tools, religion, mythology of a particular culture. Cultural anthropology relies on a large amount of ethnographic material.

Philosophy of culture (cultural philosophy)– acting as an independent direction, remains a section in philosophy aimed at understanding the essence and meaning of culture. Philosophy of culture is the highest possible level of generalization of cultural processes. Studies culture in the context of fundamental philosophical problems - being (ontology of culture), consciousness, society, personality.

Sociology of culture– a specific branch of knowledge that is at the intersection of the fields of sociology and culture and, accordingly, studies social patterns in human activity. In sociology, the concept of “culture” means an artificial environment of existence created by people: things, symbolic systems, customs, beliefs, values, norms that are expressed in the objective environment, patterns of behavior that are learned by people, passed on from generation to generation, and are an important source of communication , regulation of social interaction and behavior.

Highlight 2 sections in cultural studies

Fundamental cultural studies studies the processes and forms of integration and interaction of people based on their common values, creates a categorical apparatus.

1. Applied cultural studies studies, plans and develops methods for targeted forecasting and management of socio-cultural processes within the framework of state, social and cultural policies. Goal: forecasting and regulation of current cultural processes, development of social technologies for the transfer of cultural experience, management and protection of culture, cultural, educational and leisure activities.

Today there are about 600 definitions of the term “culture”; the word “culture” is one of the most used in modern language. But this speaks more about its polysemy than its knowledge. Why so much?

– Diversity of the phenomenon of culture

– The definition was given by scientists from different fields of knowledge

– Definitions were formulated on the basis of different methodological bases

The term “culture” is of Latin origin, which means “cultivation”, “processing”, “care”. Cicero (1st century BC) said: “Culture is the cultivation of the human mind through a process of purposeful influence.” That is, the main object of “cultivation” becomes the person himself, his inner world. And therefore, the very concept of “culture” begins to narrow to its size: it begins to be understood only as spiritual culture - the area of ​​​​the highest achievements of a person in the spiritual sphere.

A broader and more dominant approach to understanding culture is when the emphasis is shifted to the human world around us and thus culture expands, covering, along with the spiritual and material spheres. Thus, culture can be defined as the totality of the achievements (and losses) of humanity in the material and spiritual sphere.

Related information.

Ethnography is a science that studies the composition, origin, settlement, cultural and historical relationships of the peoples of the world, as well as their material and spiritual culture, and features of life. (The totality of all the features of life, customs, culture of a people, nationality, locality.) Ethnography has a more diffuse field of study than folkloristics. The focus of ethnography is still material culture, while for folkloristics it is spiritual, however, when studying the same conspiracies and rituals, one will have to deal with the material culture of the people. Accordingly, if ethnography begins to study spiritual culture in connection with material culture, then it intersects with folkloristics, and, using its own methods, conducts similar research. The root of the difference can also be seen in the concept of “ethnicity” =? People for folklore and ethnography. In both cases, this concept is controversial, but as we established above, for folklore it is “common knowledge” that unites people, while for ethnography it is rather “common roots”, social groups that arose as a result of the historical process. THAT. The definition of folkloristics is broader. Anthropology and ethnology are terms used in Western countries to denote what our science has always understood by the term ethnography. (again in Adonyeva’s lecture, she described anthropology and ethnology as a person’s study of a culture to which he does not belong, or one with which there is a conflict.) The science of peoples, mainly. primitive (which has a very vague content, coinciding either with anthropology, or with ethnography and cultural history). - this is from the 4t dictionary of the Russian language. Ethnolinguistics is a science that deals with the definition of “complex” words from the field of feelings and sensations. What actually stands behind the words honor, love, loyalty, etc. In relation to it, folkloristics does the same simply with more extensive formulas of human consciousness.

QUESTION 2. The concept of folklore genre. Genre composition of Russian folklore.

The concept of folklore genre. The set of principles that makes it possible in a given situation to construct a statement of a certain type is called a folklore genre (for a similar thing, see B.N. Putilov). The units of formation of a folklore genre, if the genre is a set of folklore works, are complete utterances, as units of speech communication. Unlike units of speech (words and sentences), an utterance has an addressee, expression and author. The composition and style of the statement depend on these features.

Folklore texts are analyzed in the following aspects:

-social situation that provoked the statement

-speaker's intention

-basic social characteristics of the speaker

-ideological/mental attitudes

-the goal pursued by the speaker

-characterization of the relationship between the fact of the message and the fact itself

-response reaction

-linguistic means for creating utterances(Adonyeva S.B. “Pragmatics..”)

Genre is a set of works united by a common poetic system, everyday use of performance forms and musical structure. Propp we limit ourselves to narrative and lyrical poetry. Dramatic poetry, as well as ditties, proverbs, sayings, riddles and conspiracies, may be the subject of another work.

Propp divides narration into poetry

Prosaic and

Poetic

Folk prose is one of the areas of folk art

Identifies the trace genera and species

1. fairy tale - neither the performer nor the listener believes in what is being told (Belinsky) this is very important because in other cases there are attempts to convey reality, but here it is deliberate fiction

Fairy tales

According to Propp's definition, they are distinguished by a completely clear composition, by their structural features, by their, so to speak, syntax, which is established scientifically with absolute precision, which is discussed in more detail in the Morphology of Fairy Tales and in the ticket about fairy tales.

Cumulative ones are built on multiple repetitions of everything, creating piles and references. They have a special composition, style, rich colorful language, gravitate towards rhythm and rhyme

For other types of fairy tales, except for magical and cumulative ones, the composition has not been studied, and it is not yet possible to determine and divide them on this basis. They probably do not have unity of composition. If this is so, then some other principle must be chosen as the basis for further systematization. Such a principle, which has scientific and cognitive significance, can be determined by the character of the characters.

We immediately recall the debate at the beginning of Morphology of a Fairy Tale, where the story is about Afanasyev and his classification according to which no one classifies, but it exists. From this we get 1 digit

1. tales about animals

Tales about inanimate nature (all sorts of forces, the wind of the world)

Tales about objects (bubble, bast shoes, straws)

By type of animal (domestic wild)

Tales of Plants (War of the Mushrooms)

2) tales about people (they are also everyday people) actions, men, women, etc.

This essentially includes the turnip, which is cumulative

Propp divides them into character types in terms of their actions

About dexterous and smart guessers

Wise advisors

Unfaithful/faithful wives

Robbers

Evil and good... and so on

The same division according to the types of s.zhetov, because here the plot is determined by the character of the character, which divides his actions...

In folklore there is no particular difference between everyday tales about people and anektodati (propp)

3) fables - stories about unrealistic events in life (for example, Münchhausen is based on this genre)

4) boring fairy tales - short jokes/rhymes for children when they require fairy tales

From the point of view of propinquity, a fairy tale is not yet a genre; these are the types of fairy tales that we have identified; these are genres; they can be divided into rubrics. Genre is only one of the links in classification.

Lyrical epic and dramatic poetry are types of epic: epic prose\epic poetry

Since the kazka is a type of epic prose, it is divided into the above genres, some into types and those into versions and variants. Therefore there is a trace diagram

Next area

2) stories that people believe in

Here we have

A) ethnological about the origin of the earth and everything that is on it (creation myths)

B) about animals they are why: why does an elephant have a long nose

C) epics - in most cases these are horror stories about goblin, mermaids and other evil spirits (there were also other things)

D) legends - stories associated with Orthodoxy, with characters from the First and New Testaments, since a legend is etymologically what monks read at meals, but with historical figures this is not the case. In addition, the question of the relationship of legends to folklore is controversial. Sokolov considered them legendary fairy tales of Aarne, Andreev and Afanasyev considered them separate and published them in separate collections

D) legends - this is where historical persons and events belong

E) tales - oral memoirs of individuals that convey events that took place and preserve facts

Verse epic poetry

It is distinguished by the inextricable connection of the musical component with the text, that is, the genre does not matter - they will always sing. RHYTHM. The plot, the verse, the tune are one artistic whole. (remembering Lord’s description of how a storyteller learns to sing an epic) melodiousness expresses a lyrical attitude towards the person portrayed. Although each epic individually does not have its own tune (different epics can be sung with the same tune and vice versa), the style of epic musical performance is, within certain limits, integral and inapplicable to other types of epic creativity.

An epic is one of the types of epic song poetry. The epic itself is not a genre, like a fairy tale, but it includes those same genres. Epics are distinguished by a wild variety of plots, so they are more difficult to classify than fairy tales.

By plot groups, by style and character of the narration, epics are divided into

1. heroic epics

- “classical” (the plot is the exploits of national Russian heroes, as a prologue, how the hero received power) for example, when after Ilya and Svyatogor the battle between Ilya and the idol begins. Or when, after healing Elijah, he travels to Kyiv, defeating the robber nightingale along the way

Military (in any idea they talk about a battle with a group of enemies, hordes of Tatars for example. ADD TO THE PLOT!!! You can track the history and evolution of ‘b[the epic believes propp)

Single combat (Muromets and Turkish Khan, Alyosha in battle with Tararin)

When 2 heroes meet in the field, they don’t recognize each other and fight (EXAMPLE!!)

Epics about the battle with a monster (can we include an IDOL here?? Or a nightingale?) They are more ancient and from them you will develop something about battles

Epics about the hero's rebellion (one of the signs is actions in the interests of the state)

These are epics about Ilya's rebellion against Vladimir, about Ilya and the tavern goals, about Buyan the Bogatyr, about Vasily Buslaevich and the Novgorodians and about the death of Vasily Buslaevich. One of the signs of heroic epics is that the hero in them acts in the interests of the state. From this point of view, the epic about the Danube and his trip to get a wife for Vladimir undoubtedly belongs to the heroic epics.

What is more correct: to consider that each of these groups constitutes a special genre, or to believe that, despite the difference in plots, heroic epics constitute one of the genres of epic creativity? The latter position is more correct, because the genre is determined not so much by plots as by the unity of poetics - style and ideological orientation, and this unity is evident here.

2. Fairy-tale epics

The antagonist of the hero in these cases is a woman. Unlike fairy tales, in which a woman is most often a helpless creature whom he saves, for example, from a snake and whom he marries, or a wise wife or assistant to the hero, women in epics are most often treacherous and demonic creatures; they embody some kind of evil, and the hero destroys them. Such epics include “Potyk”, “Luka Danilovich”, “Ivan Godinovich”, “Dobrynya and Marinka”, “Gleb Volodyevich”, “Solomon and Vasily Okulovich” and some others. These are epics, not fairy tales. What gives them a fabulous character is the presence of witchcraft, werewolf, and various miracles; These plots are specific to epics and do not correspond to the poetics of the fairy tale plots. Along with this, fairy tales sung in epic verse are also used in the epic epic. Such works do not belong to epic works. Their plots appear in fairy tale indexes (“The Untold Dream”, “Stavr Godinovich”, “Vanka

Udovkin’s son”, “Sunflower Kingdom”, etc.). Such tales should be studied both in the study of fairy tales and in the study of epic creativity, but they cannot be attributed to the genre of epics only on the basis of the use of epic verse. Such epics usually have no options. A special case is the epic about Sadko, in which there is no antagonist of the hero like the insidious women of other epics. Nevertheless, its belonging to fairy-tale epics is quite obvious.

Can we consider that fairy-tale epics constitute the same genre as heroic epics? It seems to us that it is impossible. Although the issue still needs to be studied specifically, it is still quite obvious that, for example, the epic about Dobrynya and Marinka is a phenomenon of a completely different nature than the epic about the Lithuanian raid, and that they belong to different genres, despite the commonality of the epic verse.

3. Novellistic epics - a number of realistically colored narratives, the plots of which differ from those discussed above, with great variety

– matchmaking with obstacles

On the one hand, the style of a short story and the style of a monumental, heroic or fairy-tale epic are incompatible. On the other hand, the epics contain a number of realistically colored narratives, the plots of which are of a significantly different nature than those discussed above. CONDITIONALLY, such epics can be called novelistic. Their number is small, but they are very diverse. Some of them talk about matchmaking, which, after overcoming some obstacles, ends happily (“Nightingale Budimirovich”, “Khoten Sludovich”, “Alyosha and the Petrovich’s sister”). An intermediate position between fairy-tale epics and novelistic epics is occupied by the epic about the departure of Dobrynya and the unsuccessful marriage of Alyosha. The epic about Alyosha and the Petrovich sister occupies an intermediate position between the epic genre and the ballad genre. The same can be said about “Kozarina”. The epic about Danil Lovchanin also has a ballad character, which we will talk about below when studying ballads. We would classify other stories that usually belong to epics as ballads (“Churilo and Bermyata’s unfaithful wife”).

The plots of novelistic epics can be divided into groups, but we will not do this here. The woman plays a big role in these epics, but there are novelistic epics of a different nature, such as the epic about Duke’s competition with Churila or about Vladimir’s visit to Churila’s father.

1. songs about saints and their deeds (about Alexei the man of God.)

I express certain religious ideas of the people, but the worldview expressed in them often does not coincide with the dogma of the church, has historical details and has special beauties.

In contrast to them there are buffoons

1. there are many types of songs about funny events (or about not funny events but interpreted humorously)

2. –parodies

3. -fables

4. – with sharp social satire

They are not always of a narrative nature; sometimes the subject matter is funny and the essence does not result in much development. Commonality of genres =, first of all, commonality of style.

Significantly different from Western European, the sphere is the world of human passions, interpreted tragically

1. love (family content)

The female sufferer in the leading role. Medieval Russian reality. The actors mostly belong to the middle or upper classes, and are depicted through the eyes of peasants. They tend to depict terrible events; the murder of an innocent woman is a frequent outcome and the killer is often a member of the family. Prince Roman, Fyodor and Marfa, slandered wife.

The long absence of one of the family members during an unexpected chance meeting, they do not recognize each other and the tragic events (the robber brother and the ssetsra) song recorded by Pushkin?

2) historical ballads

Real historical heroes, such as Tatars, may act in them, but they do not attack with an army, but kidnap a woman. Concentration of attention around personal history, a characteristic sign of the presence of some intrigue of love or family content

Epics are less focused on the individual than ballads; however, there are many transitory cases (EXAMPLES!!)

It is not always possible to draw an exact line between the ballad and other genres. In this case, we can talk about an epic of a ballad nature or a ballad of an epic type. Such transitional or related cases between a ballad and an epic, a ballad and a historical song, or a ballad and a lyrical song can be found in a number, although not a very large number. It is impractical to draw artificial edges. An epic and a ballad can also be distinguished from a musical perspective. The epic has a certain meter and melodies of a semi-recitative nature. The poetic dimensions of the ballad are very diverse, as well as naive. From a musical point of view, ballads do not exist as a folk music genre.

All of the above shows that ballads have such a specific character that we can talk about them as a genre. Those sharp differences that exist in the repertoire of epics or fairy tales are not here. The difference between family ballads, about unrecognized meetings, and so-called historical ballads is a difference of types, not genres.

Historical songs

The question of the genre nature of historical songs is very complex. The very name “historical songs” indicates that these songs are determined by their content and that the subject of historical songs are historical persons or events that took place in Russian history or at least have a historical character. Meanwhile, as soon as we begin to consider what is called historical song, we immediately discover the extreme diversity and variegation of poetic forms.

This diversity is so great that historical songs do not in any way constitute a genre, if the genre is defined on the basis of some unity of poetics. Here the same thing happens as with fairy tales and epics, which we also could not recognize as a genre. True, the researcher has the right to specify his terminology and conditionally call historical songs a genre. But such terminology would not have educational significance, and therefore B. N. Putilov was right when he called his book dedicated to historical songs “Russian historical song folklore of the 13th-16th centuries” (M.-L., 1960). Nevertheless, historical song exists, if not as a genre, then as the sum of several different genres from different eras and different forms, united by the historicity of their content. A complete and accurate definition of all genres of historical song cannot be our task. But even with a superficial glance, without special and in-depth study, it is possible to establish at least some types of historical songs. The nature of historical songs depends on two factors: the era in which they are created and the environment that creates them. This makes it possible to at least outline the main categories of historical songs.

1. Songs of the buffoonish warehouse

They open a list of rhetorical songs because the first historical song was identified precisely in this genre. About Schelkan Dudentievich, the earliest dates back to the 14th century, songs composed later were of a different nature

2. Songs about Ivan the Terrible, composed in the 16th century, are terrible.

Songs created in the Moscow urban environment - gunners (free artillerymen) and songs were created using the means of epics and the people called them antiquities (the wrath of the terrible on his son, the capture of Kazan) in further development they lost connection with the epic

3) songs about internal events in the 16th and early 18th centuries

Also created in Moscow by ordinary people, these are songs of a certain environment and a certain era. Despite the diversity of poetics, they have a single epic (about the Zemsky Sobor, about the siege of the Osolovetsky monastery)

3. St. Petersburg songs

With the transfer of the capital to St. Petersburg, this type of urban songs about internal events of Russian history ceases to be productive. In St. Petersburg, individual songs were created about the Decembrist uprising, about Arakcheev and some others, but this genre was in decline in the 19th century. The songs of this group are created by the urban environment, from where they later penetrate into the peasantry.

4. Songs of the Cossacks 16-17 centuries

Choral performance of lengthy lyrical songs about freemen, about peasant wars. Here the songs about Pugachev are more real than the songs about Razin, since the St. Petersburg songs were influenced by the soldiers

5. Military soldier songs 18-20

With the advent of the regular army, soldiers created the dominant type of fighting from the Battle of Poltava to World War II

Lyrical songs

1. Forms of existence and use

Round dance games

Performed without movement

2) household use

Labor gatherings, Christmas weddings, etc.

They sing about love, family, separation - human life

2. Psenia express a different attitude towards the world

Satirical reproaches

Majestic lamenters

3) by execution

Lengthy, intermediate, semi-extended

4)Songs by social groups

Workers, peasants, barge haulers, soldiers

Female, male, young, old, etc., gender

To divide into genres, we start from the following positions

1. Unity of form and content. It is assumed that the first is the content since it creates the form

2. Since they were created by representatives of different social groups, their songs are different

A social group of farm laborers will create a song with a certain content and accordingly the song will take a certain form

1. Songs of peasants who left the land

2. Songs of workers

Division of songs by social affiliation

3. Songs of peasants doing agricultural work

Are divided into

• Ritual

F) agricultural

Divided according to the holidays on which they were performed

For example, Christmas time = Christmastide, New Year's Eve = sub-tables for guessing

Songs for every holiday = a separate genre

I) family

Propp considers lamentations, they happen

+) funeral

For each moment of the ritual, different for a different performer

+_) wedding

Other lamentations performed by the bride or mourner, as well as sentences of the groomsmen and honorable parents are the main genres of wedding songs

• Non-ritual

Here the propp again focused on the lamentations, they are named

A) Recruit songs, as well as those related to some kind of disaster in life, here are the rest of the songs not considered by the propr

According to the form of performance, songs can be divided into those that are performed with body movements and those that are performed without

A) Round dances, games, dances

Round dance, game and dance songs have a special style. They usually have a verse structure (which is not the case in vocal songs). Such songs have special laws of composition. For example, the last lines of each verse may be repeated with one or two words changed.

• Round dance songs are distributed according to the figures that make up the round dance (Balakirev distinguishes “circular” round dance songs, when the round dance moves in a circle, and “walking” songs, when the singers stand or walk one after another.)
• Game songs are usually associated with the game, but can also be performed alone as a reminder of past games; they differ in the place of performance and allow one to determine what the game consisted of.

Games and game songs also differ in whether they are performed outdoors or in a hut. Games in the hut in winter and in the field or on the street in summer are different. Game songs are closely related to games, and very often from the lyrics of the song you can determine what the game consisted of. The game song can be recognized whether it is designated as such by the collector or not. The boundaries between round dance and game songs cannot always be established precisely, since the very conduct of a round dance is a kind of game

• In dance songs, the content of the song is less closely connected with the dance itself than the content of play songs with the game. Any frequent song can be used as a dance song; you can dance to any frequent song. However, not every frequent song is necessarily danced to. If a game song can be recognized regardless of whether it is designated as such or not, then a dance song cannot be recognized by its text. It follows from this that dance songs do not actually represent a genre. However, the use of song for dancing is an important feature of a number of frequent songs.

Performed by a choir or alone, just sitting or while working

1. Pronounced lingering

Elegiac, lyrical, expressing deep feelings of singers usually singing sadness

2. Frequent songs

Have a cheerful, humorous character and are more likely to express collective feelings

For 1.2 the tempo of the song = the nature of the song, for 3 it does not matter

3. Semi-long

To differentiate the genre of a song, it is important

An indication of a humorous nature, since this is a feature of frequent

Attention to the theme and content of the song

Non-ritual songs include different genres, but they themselves do not constitute a genre

Songs of peasants torn from the land

Songs of the street servants constitute an undoubted, and, moreover, very specific genre. On the one hand, they reflect all the horror, all the humiliation of the peasant, wholly dependent on the tyranny of the master and subjected to severe flogging for the slightest offense. On the other hand, they contain elements of some kind of frivolous or cheeky tone, which is completely alien to peasant songs and which testifies to the corruption of the peasant psyche under the influence of the “civilized” lordly environment.

Lackey city songs we come across songs with a social focus

Labor songs created to accompany work, for example, burlatsky ones when a song replaces a command and the like

Delete songs - dedicated to the robbers who broke free and became ruby ​​hoods (but songs about tragic fate are drawn-out)

Soldiers' songs - about the hardships of service and courage for the fatherland, etc.

It’s very important to look at who sings the song; if it’s a girl, then it’s more like some kind of drawn-out or love song, and if it’s a guy, then it’s deleting, etc.

Prison songs – 2 types: those suffering and asking for freedom, and seasoned prisoners flaunting their past

Folklore of the urban bourgeois environment - genre of cruel romance about the tragic ending of unhappy love

Workers' songs - traditions come from literature, although there are peasant images and appeals and laments too, but the theme is bitter life and the composition of words and images is different. Early labor poetry – 4 st. trochee = ditty. Poems by poets that suit their meaning are transformed into songs. Work songs combine folklore and literature, 3 categories stand out among them

1. Songs created by the workers themselves

2. Satirical songs related to class consciousness

3. Hymn songs and funeral marches were performed collectively

Thus, within the composition of working-class poetry, several groups can be identified that have the character of genres: these are lingering songs of the folklore type, lyric-epic poetic songs with increasing revolutionary content, satirical works, also with increasing revolutionary consciousness, and hymn poetry, already going beyond the boundaries of folklore .

Children's song folklore

1. Adults sing for children

Lullabies (smooth melody, words from everywhere)

Game tunes, fables

Nursery rhymes for little ones

2. Children sing themselves

Game songs that are incomprehensible without games + conventional rhymes

Songs of teasing, ridicule

Children's songs about the life around them (particularly discordant, sometimes a set of words)

The composition and style of the statement depend on these features.

QUESTION 3. Specifics of folklore: collective and individual principles, stability and variability, the concept of traditionality, way of being.

According to Jacobson and Bogatyrev, folklore gravitates more towards language than towards speech from Saussure’s theory. Speech uses language, and each speaker does so individually. Likewise, in folklore, a certain set of traditions, a body of foundations, beliefs, and creativity is used by the performers of the works and the creators. Tradition acts as a framework, a work is created on its basis, it undergoes collective censorship and after some time turns into a tradition for subsequent works. the existence of a folklore work presupposes a group that assimilates and sanctions it. In folklore, interpretation is the source of the work.

Collective and individual beginnings. In folklore we are faced with the phenomenon of collective creativity. collective creativity is not given to us in any visual experience, and therefore we must assume the existence of some kind of individual creator, initiator. A typical young grammarian in both linguistics and folkloristics, Vsevolod Miller considered the collective creativity of the masses to be a fiction, because, he believed, human experience had never observed such creativity. This is where the influence of our daily environment undoubtedly comes into play. Not oral creativity, but written literature is for us the familiar and most well-known form of creativity, and thus, habitual ideas are egocentrically projected into the sphere of folklore. Thus, the moment of birth of a literary work is considered the moment of its fixation on paper by the author, and by analogy, the moment when an oral work is first objectified, that is, performed by the author, is interpreted as the moment of its birth, whereas in reality the work becomes a folklore fact only from the moment of its acceptance by the collective .

Supporters of the thesis about the individual nature of folklore creativity tend to substitute anonymous instead of collective. So, for example, in one well-known guide to Russian oral creativity the following is said: “Thus, it is clear that in a ritual song, if we do not know who was the creator of the ritual, who was the creator of the first song, then this does not contradict individual creativity, but only says that the ritual is so ancient that we cannot indicate either the author or the conditions for the origin of the oldest song, closely connected with the ritual, and that it was created in an environment where the personality of the author was of no interest, why the memory of her and not preserved. Thus, the idea of ​​“collective” creativity has nothing to do with it” (102, p. 163). It is not taken into account here that there cannot be a ritual without the sanction of the collective, that this is a contradictio in adjecto and that, even if the source of this or that ritual lay an individual manifestation, the path from it to the ritual is as far as the path from an individual deviation in speech before changes in language.

In folklore, the relationship between a work of art, on the one hand, and its objectification, that is! the so-called variations of this work when performed by different people, on the other hand, are completely analogous to the relationship between langue and parole. Like langue, a folklore work is impersonal and exists only potentially; it is only a complex of known norms and impulses, the outline of an actual tradition, which performers color with patterns of individual creativity, just as parole producers do in relation to langue 2. To what extent are these individual new formations in the language (respectively in folklore) meet the requirements of the collective and anticipate the natural evolution of langue (respectively folklore), so they are socialized and become facts of langue (respectively elements of a folklore work).

The role of the performer of a folklore work should in no way be identified with either the role of the reader or reciter of a literary work, or with the role of the author. From the point of view of the performer of a folklore work, these works are a fact of langue, that is, impersonal, existing independently of the performer, although allowing for deformation and the introduction of new creative and topical material.

An individual beginning is possible in folklore only in theory, that is, if Ch spells a hernia better than Sh, only after the collective of those who know Ch’s method has adopted its version of the spell will become a folklore work, and not just a local feature of a well-known conspiracy (?)

Stability and variability

Folklore text as an oral text shares some features of ordinary oral speech, although it is much more regulated. As in everyday speech, in folklore there is a division into small structural units (in songs these links may coincide with a line), which must be linked by certain syntactic means, much less strict than in written speech. But at the same time, folklore texts are traditional and reproducible in the act of performance. This act is ritualized to one degree or another, includes a close relationship between the singer and the audience (its specific and permanent society involved in the knowledge of tradition and ritual restrictions) and, what is especially important, is for the most part not a recitation by heart, but a more or less creative reproduction of the plot , genre and stylistic models. Let us emphasize once again: all kinds of repetitions and verbal formulas, as the most important building blocks, help to store the text in the singer’s memory between acts of playing it in front of an audience. Singers and storytellers are capable of memorizing thousands and thousands of lines by heart, but the mechanism of creative transmission is far from being reduced to simply reciting what has been memorized.

As already mentioned, the greatest degree of memorization and rigor in reproduction occurs in relation to ritual songs, first of all, spells (due to the sacredness of the magic word), as well as proverbs and choral songs (the choral principle itself goes back to the ritual, which A. especially insisted on). N. Veselovsky), although within these limits there is a certain minimum of variation. Of course, the variability is minimal in sacred poetry (oral, but professional) such as the Vedic poetry in India or the ancient Irish poetry of the Philids (and previously the Druids), etc. In songs and fairy tales that are no longer ideologically connected with the ritual, the scale of variation is much greater, even when repeated performances by the same singer or storyteller.

In principle, variation is an original feature of folklore, and the search for a single prototype of the original text, as a rule, is a scientific utopia .

In general, archaic folklore, which almost entirely remains within the ritual framework, varies to a much lesser extent than the “classical” folklore that exists alongside literature.

Depending on the audience and other circumstances, the singer-storyteller can shorten his text or expand it through parallelisms, additional episodes, etc. All kinds of repetition, which constitutes the element of folklore and the element of archaic literature with its hegemony of the ritual principle, is the main and most powerful means of structuring archaic and folklore works and the most important feature of the archaic and folklore style. Having arisen on the basis of ritual and orality, repetition of forms, phraseological units, phonic and syntactic elements are perceived at the same time as a decorative device. Constant epithets, comparisons, contrasting juxtapositions, metaphors, play with synonyms, anaphoric and epiphoric repetitions, internal rhymes, alliteration and assonance increasingly begin to feel like decoration.

As already noted, folklore continues to function even after the advent of book literature, but this traditional or “classical” folklore in some respects differs from strictly archaic, as if primitive, folklore. If such “primitive” folklore is based on the ancient mythology and religious system of the shaman type, if it is, as it were, immersed in the atmosphere of primitive syncretism with its hegemony of ritual forms, then traditional folklore develops in the conditions of the collapse of clan relations and the replacement of tribal unions by early state associations, in the conditions the transition from clan to family, the emergence of state consciousness (which was decisive for the creation of classical forms of epic), the development of more complex religious and mythological systems, up to “world religions” and the beginnings of historical or at least quasi-historical ideas, which leads to partial deritualization and desacralization of the most ancient plot fund. A very fundamental factor in the difference between earlier and later forms of folklore is the very fact of the existence of book literature and its influence on oral tradition.

Developed folklore experiences the multifaceted influence of literature where the authority and weight of the written word is immeasurably higher both in religious-magical and aesthetic terms. Sometimes the spoken word disguises itself as a book, reproducing the norms of the written language, especially often in solemn, rhythmic speech. On the other hand, folklorization of book sources occurs, which often leads to their archaization. Along with the literary influence itself, it is necessary to take into account the influence of more developed folklore (often already influenced by bookishness) on the creativity of neighboring peoples standing at a more archaic stage of cultural development (for example, the influence of Russian folklore on the oral literature of some other peoples of the USSR).

(Meltinsky, Novik and others.. status of the word and the concept of genre)

From the fact that each performance is a source of production for the trace of the performer (Jacobson), the variability of the folklore work as such grows. However, all of them together are based on a stable tradition = lounge. Variation is observed within genres,...