The plot and characters of the poem are gypsies. Analysis of the poem “Gypsies. Features of the gypsy soul
Zemfira represents a wonderful artistic embodiment of an integral, spontaneous nature. It is maintained by the poet from the first word to his last exclamation. Her short song, which she sings while rocking the child, is filled with poetic charm and grace. The passionate, impetuous nature of the gypsy was expressed entirely in her words:
Old husband, terrible husband, I hate you,
Cut me, burn me: I despise you;
I am firm, I am not afraid, I love another,
No knife, no fire. I'm dying in love.
All of Zemfira’s ardent love and thirst for boundless freedom were expressed in these words. She behaves so energetically and defiantly towards Aleko because she defends the most precious and cherished thing she has: freedom of feeling.
After all, a simple wild gypsy has nothing else in which she could show her personality, except for a free and sincere feeling. To take this away from her would mean to deprive her of her spiritual appearance; She instinctively understands this, and therefore says: “I die loving.”
Without this feeling, Zemfira becomes a living corpse, and then she prefers physical death. With this exclamation, she dies, maintaining the consciousness of her human dignity, since, according to the wild gypsy, to love means to live, and without free and sincere love there is no life. Her lover is killed, the object of her free passion is dead, and therefore there is no point in living.
The old gypsy man, Zemfira's father, is directly opposite to Aleko in character; He is a calm person, with a simple and complacent attitude towards life. Through his lips, the poet condemns Aleko’s selfishness and cruelty:
The old man is a representative of simple people close to nature. He is kind and meek, kind and generous. He renounces the evil, proud Aleko, but there is no malice in his heart even against his daughter’s killer.
He tells him: “Sorry! may peace be with you." Pushkin is clearly more sympathetic to the old gypsy man than Aleko. This reflected the Russian nature of the poet and expressed his aspirations for popular principles. But he still does not quite clearly understand the principles of the people.
He forced, for example, the old man to justify Zemfira’s betrayal, reasoning that love appears and disappears at the whim of the heart and cannot be stopped, just as one cannot indicate a place in the sky for the moon, order it to illuminate one cloud and not another.
According to popular belief, on the contrary, love should be eternal. But, consciously forcing the old man to express ideas that are dissimilar to his character, the poet unconsciously draws him correctly: the old man, until his death, did not stop loving and did not forget his wife who cheated on him.
The old gypsy is the complete opposite of Aleko. This is a person who not only loves his freedom, but knows how to appreciate and respect the freedom of others. His wife Mariula once left with a gypsy from a neighboring camp, leaving her husband and leaving a little daughter. The old man did not chase after her to take revenge, since he believed that no one was “able to hold back love.”
He also does not take revenge on Aleko for taking away the last joy in his life - his daughter. The image of the old gypsy is clearly romantic. But such an interpretation would have been necessary for Pushkin in order to highlight Aleko’s egoism more clearly. Zemfira is also the opposite of Aleko in the sense that she does not think about her life, she is submissive to her feelings.
In contrast to Aleko, the poem gives images of gypsies: free, following the dictates of her immediate feelings, Zemfira, her simple and ingenuous father. The moral concepts of the gypsies, romantically presented by Pushkin, are fully expressed in the sentence passed by the old gypsy to the murderer of his daughter:
“Leave us, proud man! We do not torment, we do not execute,
We are wild, we have no laws. We don't need blood or groans;
But we don’t want to live with a murderer.”
The proclamation of humanity and goodness - this is the inner meaning of Pushkin’s last romantic poem. However, the poet is not inclined to recognize the life of the gypsies as his ideal: he does not see the full embodiment of human aspirations in it either. Pushkin understands that “nakedness,” poverty, and primitive views do not constitute human happiness, although they compare favorably with the “brilliant shame” of secular life.
The very “truth” of following one’s feelings and desires among gypsies does not rise to the heights of humanistic consciousness. Yes, they don’t torture or execute people, but still, in the name of their own happiness, they destroy the happiness of others. Aleko, whom Zemfira cheated on, suffers and tries to drown out his suffering in bloody revenge.
The old gypsy, abandoned by Mariula, knows: “what happened will not happen again,” “joy barks in succession to everyone,” and he calms down and seems to be reconciled. But his heart is cold and sad, but loneliness also torments and burns him. How vividly the story of the old gypsy conveys these feelings:
I was young; my soul
At that time it was seething with joy;
And not one in my curls
The gray hair has not yet turned white, -
Between young beauties
There was one... and for a long time she was,
I admired the sun like the sun,
And finally he called me mine...
Oh, my youth is fast
Flashed like a falling star!
But you, the time of love, has passed
Even faster: only a year
Mariula loved me.
Once upon a time near the Kagul waters
We met an alien camp;
Those gypsies, their tents
Having broken near ours at the mountain,
We spent two nights together.
They left on the third night, -
And, leaving his little daughter,
Mariula followed them.
I slept peacefully; the dawn flashed;
I woke up, my friend was gone!
I search, I call, and there is no trace.
Longing, Zemfira cried,
And I cried - from now on
All the virgins of the world hate me;
My gaze is never between them
I didn't choose my girlfriends
And lonely leisure
I no longer shared it with anyone.
Therefore, the poem ends with a gloomy final chord. Therefore, Pushkin does not find happiness among the “poor sons of nature.”
Realistically showing the relationships between people that developed in the “captivity of the stuffy cities” of that time, depicting the “fatal passions” that penetrate into the “nomadic canopy,” Pushkin, in a bright romantic aspiration, dreams of a happy, free, humane human life.
He dreams of a world in which the happiness of each person will not be in conflict with the happiness of other people - a world in which freedom will have its basis in a high, meaningful, creative life.
Aleko represents the complete opposite of the character of the gypsies. His speeches and his entire worldview are simple and calm. Whether he was talking about the betrayal of his Mariula, or telling the legend about Ovid, or driving out his daughter’s murderer, the tone of the old gypsy’s speeches was equally objective, alien to impetuosity and passion. It's not that he treats people indifferently. With warm feeling, he talks about the “holy elder” Ovid, exiled by the Roman emperor to the banks of the Danube, the love and attention of local residents to him, his wonderful stories, his longing for his native land.
He cannot forget his love for Mariula. But over the years, with life experience, the old man developed a calm, philosophical attitude towards people and life. Nothing can outrage him. Aleko complains that Zemfira does not love, the old man says that this is in the order of things: a woman’s heart loves in jest. Aleko was cheated on by Mariula - the old man reasons:
Who can hold on to love?
When we are done, joy is given to everyone;
I bet it won't happen again.
Aleko killed his daughter. The old man does not take revenge. For what? After all, she cannot be resurrected. He only expels the killer, because Aleko was not born for wild will. The old man doesn’t even wish him harm: “Sorry! may peace be with you” - these are the last words of the gypsy.
From the point of view of artistic truth, the image of this philosophizing gypsy raises objections. Do such people exist? Undoubtedly, this is an idealized image; but the characters in the poem are always exceptional characters, so some sophistication in the poetic characterization of the gypsy is appropriate.
What features did the poet endow with the old gypsy man and what is the ideological and compositional role of his image?
V. Belinsky says this about the old gypsy man: “This is one of those persons whose creation all literature can be proud of. There is something patriarchal about this gypsy. he has no thoughts: he thinks with feelings - and how true, deep, and human are his feelings! His language is full of poetry."
The old gypsy is endowed with a simple and calmly wise attitude towards life; he is kind, hospitable and tolerant. In his speeches one can hear the experience of many years lived. His role in the poem, as Belinsky points out, is the role that the chorus played in ancient Greek tragedy, explaining the actions of the characters in the tragedy and pronouncing the verdict on them. It is clear that the poet assigns such a role to a person whose moral qualities stand above the other characters in the poem.
In the old man’s speeches we hear the voice of folk legend; it is not for nothing that he utters this word when beginning the story about Ovid. Listening to Zemfira’s singing, the old man remarks: “So, I remember, I remember: this song / Was composed in our time,” that is, he speaks of Zemfira’s song as a folk song.
His very story about Mariul, “a story about himself,” is similar to a sad folk song about love, betrayal, and separation.
Among the young beauties Oh, my youth is fast
There was one... and for a long time she flashed like a falling star!
Like the sun, I admired But you, the time of love, has passed
And finally he called me mine. Even faster: only a year
Mariula loved me.
Reading these beautiful poems, we feel in them the life and movement of images, comparisons, epithets characteristic of folk poetry. Belinsky quite rightly noted that the old gypsy is opposed to the tragic hero of the poem and stands above Aleko.
However, according to Belinsky, “despite all the sublimity of the old gypsy’s feelings, he does not clarify the ideal of man: this ideal can only be realized in a consciously rational being, and not in a directly rational one who has not escaped the tutelage of nature and custom.” A deeply correct remark that warns against calling the old gypsy the ideal hero of the poem.
In the depiction of the old gypsy man and Zemfira, as well as the gypsy camp as a whole, filled with the author’s respect and love for his heroes, an important side of his work is revealed. It is devoid of any traces of national exclusivity, while at the same time being completely Russian in spirit.
People of different races and nations, both large and small, enjoy complete equality in the poet’s works, despite the fact that in those days many people, even from among educated society, were characterized by a disdainful attitude towards people of small, “savage” nations.
In contrast to the image of Aleko, the image of an old gypsy is given in the poem - the embodiment of folk wisdom, that folk psychology and morality that develop among ordinary people living in the lap of nature, outside the influence of urban civilization. The old gypsy man not only loves his freedom, but also respects the freedom of others.
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Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin is the author of a large number of famous works. Acquaintance with his work begins from a very young age and until old age it is pleasant to re-read his poems “I remember a wonderful moment”, “Flower”, “I remember another time”, as well as his immortal poems - “Ruslan and Lyudmila”, “Caucasian captive", "Gypsies", "Bronze Horseman" and others.
Each creation of A.S. Pushkin, imbued with a reverent plot and deep meaning. There is nothing superfluous in the works, and each character carries a message for its reader. Each individual creation deserves individual personal attention.
The poem “Gypsies” is the final one in the romantic cycle of works by A.S. Pushkin. It was written in 1824, in Chisinau. The author was in exile at that moment and spent most of his time observing the Roma ethnic group. Having penetrated into the existence of this people, Pushkin creates the poem “The Gypsies,” which is a kind of response to the previously written poem “Prisoner of the Caucasus.” The author was amazed and fascinated by the philosophy of a free people - the gypsies and freedom in the relationship between a man and a woman.
The work itself is presented in a composition according to all the rules of romanticism. True, he is presented in a more critical form, since Pushkin himself continues his conflict with Byron. In his opinion, a return to the natural environment is not the development of the individual’s creativity, but its inhibition and stagnation.
There is a main conflict in the poem - a collision of two worlds: modern and primitive. In the first there are laws, rights and order, and in the second there are rituals, customs and canons. There is also a love story that occurs between Aleko and Zemfira. The latter is the daughter of an old gypsy and lives a free life in a camp. It is she who brings Aleko to the camp and introduces him to local customs.
Aleko is the main character of the poem. He runs away from the city, because he is unable to put up with the injustice, falsehood and hypocrisy of those around him. Aleko's soul is personified by the image of the Moon. Indeed, in the dream, the Moon was darkened, as was the mental state of the main character.
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In the summer of 1821, during his exile in Chisinau, Pushkin traveled for several weeks with a camp of gypsies. Impressed by those days, he began to write a poem "Gypsies", which he completed at the end of 1824 in Mikhailovsky. For the first time, excerpts from the poem were published in the almanac “Polar Star”, then in “Northern Flowers”. Readers were able to read the full text of “Gypsies” only in 1827, when the work was published as a separate edition.
“Gypsies” completes the cycle of Pushkin’s “southern” poems. This is practically the last work of the poet, written in romantic style. It reflected the author’s creative crisis and profound changes in his worldview. The main theme of the poem is the debunking of the romantic hero. But the poet did not find anything to replace the usual ideals, which is why the ending of the work is so gloomy.
Motive flight from civilization to free savages was quite popular at that time. In "Gypsies" Pushkin showed how false and utopian such an idea is. The hero of the poem, Aleko, is an exile persecuted by the law. But the young man not only wants to avoid responsibility for the crime he committed. Aleko became disillusioned with civilization and hated city life. Among the gypsies he seeks freedom and sincerity of feelings.
This plot plot is typical for a romantic work. The author does not say anything about Aleko’s past, about the crime he committed. The reader can only guess about this from individual points. It is clear that Aleko is an educated person, since he is aware of the fate of Ovid. Surely he knows city life well, about which he speaks as follows: “Crowds: mad persecution or brilliant shame”.
Aleko easily accepts the primitive life of the gypsies and quickly fits into their nomadic life. "Tattered Tents", "poor dinner", tattered clothes and the need to walk around villages with a tame bear to earn bread do not frighten him. The love of the beautiful Zemfira and the desired freedom should make Aleko completely happy. But that did not happen.
Owns the hero "secret sadness", the reason for which even Aleko himself does not understand. This is a longing for a familiar life, comfort, communication with educated people. In fact, Aleko never became part of the gypsy freemen, because he did not understand and did not accept the essence of this will - freedom of feelings and actions.
The heroines of the poem, Zemfira and Mariula, have no moral obligations to men and children. They blindly follow their desires, obey their passions. Pushkin deliberately created the image of Zemfira's mother, who left her daughter for a new love. In a civilized society, this act would cause universal condemnation, but Zemfira does not condemn her mother. She does the same.
Gypsies do not consider betrayal a sin, because no one can hold back love. For an old man, his daughter’s action is common. But for Aleko, this is an attack on his rights, which cannot go unpunished. The murder of Zemfira and her lover clearly shows that in his soul the hero of the poem never became a gypsy. "I'm not like that", admits Aleko.
The old man calls the young man a proud man, angry and brave as opposed to peaceful and "timid soul" fellow tribesmen. He clearly defines the reason for Aleko’s action - selfishness. “You only want freedom for yourself”, Zemfira’s father accuses the killer. Considering himself free, Aleko does not want to see others free.
For the first time, Pushkin depicted the expulsion of a romantic hero not only from a civilized society, but also from the world of freedom. Aleko commits a crime not against prejudices and traditions, but against universal human values. His jealousy and cruelty do not evoke the sympathy of readers. The hero turns out to be an egoist and a murderer.
At the same time, the poet destroys the romantic aura of gypsy will. The colorfully described details of everyday life show the poverty and ignorance of the wild people, and freedom of love and action does not bring them happiness. This plot twist and assessment of the characters’ actions allowed critics to call the poem “atypical.”
Compositionally the work is built around the gypsy song of Zemfira, which, not by chance, occupies a central place, since it is culmination conflict. The poem consists of eleven parts. Nine of them are written in iambic tetrameter, and Zemfira’s song is written in two-foot anapest. Another song, “The Bird of God Doesn’t Know...” is written in trochee tetrameter.
In addition to the two songs, the poem contains two more stories by the old gypsy: about the exiled poet and about his unfaithful wife Mariula. They serve to develop the plot and reveal the characters' characters well. The parts of the work have completely different forms. There is a narration on behalf of the author, descriptions of the nature and life of the gypsies, and dialogues. All parts are masterfully combined into one whole and consistently realize the poet’s intentions.
“Gypsies” did not have much success in Russia, although some phrases of the poem became catchphrases. The work was enthusiastically received by the European public. It was “Gypsies” that inspired Merimee to write “Carmen”, and Rachmaninov - his first opera “Aleko”. The song “The Bird of God Doesn’t Know...” was set to music by 32 composers. She was included in many children's books and anthologies.
- “Gypsies”, a summary of the chapters of Pushkin’s poem
Stories of love and freedom are an eternal and bottomless theme for many novels and poems. Who has not loved or suffered, who has not sought sweet captivity or freedom from social shackles? From the poem that Pushkin wrote, “Gypsies,” you can learn everything about these stormy feelings and emotions.
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History of creation
The history of the creation of the poem “Gypsies” by Pushkin begins with exile near Chisinau, where for the first time he got to know the life of the gypsies so closely, and reflected it in his poems. He was surprised by the freedom in relations between men and women and the gypsies' philosophical concept of freedom, because a civilized person puts so many restrictions and requirements into the concept of love. In the poem “Gypsies” by Pushkin, the year of writing coincides with the time of exile - 1823-1824.
For that time plot "Gypsies" Pushkin is not entirely traditional. At first everything is normal - a young man comes to the nomadic camp of gypsies, he resembles Pechorin or, sated with the world and its tricks, looking for freedom and relaxation, pure love and real people.
Zemfira, the daughter of an old gypsy, falls in love with Aleko and becomes his wife. The father does not interfere with lovers, does not teach or forbid.
Several happy years pass in love, travel, caring for bread. But it is precisely at this moment that the usual line of romantic poems changes.
Real life bursts into the poetry of nomadic life and tests the hero’s strength. The genius of Pushkin is that he heroes Aleko and Zemfira did not remain cardboard images of romantics, but turned into living and tragic characters.
After the young wife admits first in song and then openly that she has fallen in love with another, the hero from Manfred turns into Othello with the gypsy Zemfir e. He forgets that he himself proclaimed freedom and honesty, does not hear the sad love story of his wife’s father about how he was left with a little daughter abandoned by his flighty mother, but kept love in his heart.
In the final Aleko lies in wait for lovers and kills first the man, then the unfaithful wife. The gypsies, represented by Zemfira's father, accuse him of pride and selfishness, as well as the desire for freedom only for himself. They leave him with the cart and go their own way. But Aleko also disappears.
Brief and succinct description of Aleko
Pushkin wanted to place the hero, who had already become popular thanks to Byron and other romantics, and who was tired of his restrictions in a pure environment. Aleko, Zemfira's future husband, having reached the children of the steppes, proclaims that ties with the past and the world of cities are severed. He does not want to lie to himself and others, he seeks simplicity of feelings and freedom from the bustle of science and the crowd. Gypsies are what attracts him inner freedom and childish sincerity. The hero wants to love openly and live without conventions.
Attention! But as soon as dreams collide with real manifestations of this moral freedom and calls for sensual impulses, the hero remembers all the ideals that bored him
Zemfira
The young beauty Zemfira is a true child of love and nature. She is direct in her affections. As soon as she sees Aleko, the gypsy brings him to her family and her home, and then generally gives him her heart.
If sometimes she is worried about the fear that her lover will leave her for a past life, she immediately shares her experiences. Aleko's angry sermons about the baseness and dirt of cities calm her down.
And as soon as the girl felt another love in her heart, she could not remain silent about this either - first she sings about her new feelings, then she admits her desire to leave for someone else, and goes on a date without hiding. From not understanding how it could be otherwise, girl behaves like a mother, who left her for new love. Zemfira sees that her father has recognized his beloved’s right to leave if everything has passed, and she leaves just as easily.
Analysis of the work
So, the jealous man from the poem “Gypsies”, who destroys two young lives at once, does this only because of a feeling of wounded pride, because they dared to abandon him. It was written as if in defiance of all romantic heroes, and in particular Byron. These characters burned with hatred and contempt for society and its deceptive ideals. They fled to the mountains and fields, sending curses to the heavens with calls to pour out their rage on these refuges of vice.
Romantic heroes sought truth and naturalness from nature; it reconciled them with the world and gave them an ideal. Aleko is also bored and sad because he has known and experienced everything. He suffered a lot and now wants peace. But when a man finds himself in the world that he considered ideal, his true face is revealed.
The author's genius is above romantic conventions, one-sided characterizations and deceptions. He draws a situation showing that a person who does not know how to build relationships in his circle, who has not found friends and love in his own world, is not able to do this in a new one.
Everything that is demonic, inert and base, of which Aleko accuses the surrounding society, is in himself and appears at the first difficulties. As soon as his beloved wants to leave, he immediately remembers the man’s right of ownership to the woman who gave herself to him, about the pride of a man, desecrated.
Attention! It is pride , It is not unhappy love that leads to tragedy, and the gypsies who have retained their childish character traits see the true reason and do not resign themselves to it.
Features of the gypsy soul
In general, Pushkin's gypsies are the main characters strong, free, generous and trusting, like children. And at the same time, people are filled to the brim with wisdom, collecting it bit by bit from everyone they meet along the way, and processing it to suit their ideals.
The story of the old man about Ovid is indicative, who in these parts, caressed by love and care, suffered bitterly in longing for. The wise gypsy sees right through Aleko and says that it is impossible to escape from oneself - a person brings his inner world with its nightmares and problems everywhere.
In contrast to Aleko, Zemfira and her father do not see evil in others and do not run away from the world. They react quickly to people, joyfully seek meetings and are trusting listen to other people's stories. The laws of society, private property, and marriage do not interest them and are not clear to them. The gypsies accept the newcomer as a relative and equal; his tossing does not affect the heroes. Only Zemfira is surprised and enchanted, but she soon fell out of love and exchanged Aleko for her own.
Tragic characters according to Pushkin
It’s a terrible act when a loving person only wants revenge on his loved one, and not happiness, even if it is far from him. These emotions are attributed by Pushkin to the majority of the so-called tragic characters, who became popular during the years of general spleen and melancholy, and conquered high society.
These young people wore tragic masks, sighed languidly and scolded their contemporary society with its wrong and low foundations and rules. They sought to return to the “golden age” where life was bold and daring, feelings were real, and people were sincere. Pushkin, using the example of his hero, shows what they can bring to this golden world - grief and death.
Poem "Gypsies", brief analysis
Pushkin, poem “Gypsies”, summary
Conclusion
All these motives and moods allow us to say that the Gypsies are genre of romantic poems, because it has everything you need. Tragic and bright heroes, an unhappy love story, death, conflict between society and the hero, love and infidelity, mental tossing and an emotional ending.
GYPSIES
(Poem, 1824)
Aleko- a fugitive from civilization with its “unfreedom”, persecuted by the “law”, the hero of the last of the cycle of “Byronic” poems by Pushkin, in which all the (already obviously insoluble) problems posed by this genre are condensed to the limit.
A. wants to become part of the “wild”, natural world. When the gypsy Zemfira finds him in the desert steppe, he follows her to the camp to become a gypsy. The gypsies do not mind - their will knows no prohibition (here the chains are intended exclusively for the bear), just as it does not know constancy. The Wise Old Man, Zemfira’s father, explains this to the newcomer - once, twice (“...freedom is not always sweet / To those who are accustomed to bliss”). He agrees in advance - because he loves Zemfira, wants to always be with her - and become a “free inhabitant of the world”, like a “bird of God”, not knowing care and labor. Alas, he does not realize that the gypsies are free to the end; that for all their passion they do not know long-lasting, hot passion, and therefore do not know fidelity; that he needs freedom from someone else's dictate, but he never recognizes someone else's freedom from himself. First of all, Zemfira’s freedom to love whoever she wants.
Thus, the Byronically fragmentary plot, breaking up into short dramatic passages, approaches the inevitable climax of the love (and semantic) conflict. Having spent two years with his beloved Zemfira, A. suddenly hears her allusive song: “Old husband, formidable husband /<...>I love someone else...” This is self-exposure, contrastingly shaded by Zemfira’s answer, consistently free: “you are free to be angry.”
The end is near; Nothing can stop her - not even the third (according to literary and folklore account, necessarily the last) warning of the Old Man. Having learned from Zemfira that the Russian moans and sobs terribly in his sleep, he calls A. for a conversation: he again reminds that “here people are free,” tells an instructive story about his Love for Zemfira’s mother, Mariu-la, who left with a gypsy from another camp ; All in vain. Finding Zemfira with someone else, A. kills both. That is, he administers court, which is possible only where there is law. Having described a full circle, the action returns to the starting point - the European, who fled from the law into freedom, himself judges the will according to the law established by him. What is the value of freedom that does not promise happiness? What is the value of a civilization from which one cannot hide, because it nests in man himself? A. does not find an answer - he remains completely alone, rejected (but not condemned!) by the camp. Unlike the Caucasian captive from Pushkin’s poem of the same name, he cannot return to the “Russian”, European space, where “Our two-headed eagle / Still roars with its momentary glory.”
According to the law of the genre, the circumstances of the hero’s life are correlated with the circumstances of the life of the author (who himself is “...dear Mariula<...>repeated the tender name"). The connecting link between them is not only the autobiographical epilogue, not only the name A., through which the name of Pushkin himself, Alexander, shines through. The legend about Ovid, which - again for educational purposes - is told by the Old Man, is very important. It is with Ovid, whom Rome expelled from the center of the empire to the northern outskirts, in the Danube regions, that Pushkin compares himself in poems from the period of southern exile. It is with Ovid, who among the free people yearned for the empire, that A. Starik compares. And yet the line separating the author’s inner world from the hero’s inner world is clearly drawn. The author has already realized that “fatal passions are everywhere / And there is no protection from fate”; he is more experienced and wiser than A.; he does not so much rhyme his experiences with the feelings of the hero as coldly and harshly analyze his spiritual world.
The Old Man’s phrase addressed to A. - “Humble yourself, proud man” - served as the starting point for the historiosophical constructions of F. M. Dostoevsky’s “Pushkin Speech” (1880); the image of A. became for Dostoevsky the personification of the individualistic, godless principle of Western European culture; he is opposed by Tatyana Larina, personifying the humble beginning of Russian conciliarism.
