Shakespeare's creative path is divided into.

Psychology

"Shakespearean Question".

The extremely poor documentation of Shakespeare’s biography gave rise to the so-called “Shakespearean question” - a discussion about the identity of Shakespeare the author and Shakespeare the actor. "Anti-Strethfordians" (researchers who reject the traditional biography of Shakespeare) believe that the real creator of the great plays was one of the highly educated Elizabethan nobles who hired the actor Shakespeare as a "dummy author." Argumentation: the actor Shakespeare did not have sufficient erudition, outlook and experience to create texts of such comprehensiveness and depth. “Stretfordians” (supporters of the traditional version) object: Shakespeare is just a typical case of a self-taught genius for the Renaissance: no one considers Leonardo, Durer or Bruegel to be fictitious creators; so there is no reason to doubt Shakespeare’s creative capabilities.

Periodization of Shakespeare's work.

In Russian Shakespeare studies, it is customary to distinguish three periods in Shakespeare’s work, in Anglo-American studies - four, which is probably more accurate: 1) the period of apprenticeship (1590-1592); 2) “optimistic” period (1592-1601); 3) the period of great tragedies (1601-1608); 4) the period of “romantic dramas” (1608-1612).

24. The universal nature of the tragic conflict in King Lear.

Apparently, there is a certain doom of the tragic hero - to fate, inevitable and always wrong choices, hopeless confrontation, suffering. And in a situation of doom, the conflict cannot be settled. The comic hero is most often doomed to life and happiness. Tragic – death, madness or endless suffering. This is a tragedy of human dignity in an unjust society.

The essence and evolution of Lear’s character was very accurately defined by N. A. Dobrolyubov: “Lear has a really strong nature, and general servility towards him only develops it in a one-sided way - not for great deeds of love and common good, but solely for the satisfaction of his own, personal whims. This is completely understandable in a person who is accustomed to consider himself the source of all joy and sorrow, the beginning and end of all life in his kingdom.

Here, with the external space of action, with the ease of fulfilling all desires, there is nothing to express his spiritual strength. But his self-adoration goes beyond all limits of common sense: he transfers directly onto his personality all that brilliance, all the respect that he enjoyed for his rank; he decides to throw off power, confident that even after that people will not stop trembling at him. This insane conviction forces him to give his kingdom to his daughters and thereby move from his barbarously senseless position to the simple title of an ordinary person and experience all the sorrows associated with human life.” “Looking at him, we first feel hatred for this dissolute despot; but, following the development of the drama, we become more and more reconciled with him as a person and end up being filled with indignation and burning anger, no longer towards him, but for him and for the whole world - towards that wild, inhuman situation that can lead to such the dissipation of even people like Lear"

"King Lear" is a social tragedy. It shows the demarcation of different social groups in society. Representatives of the old knightly honor are Lear, Gloucester, Kent, Albany; the world of bourgeois predation is represented by Goneril, Regan, Edmond, Cornwall. There is a fierce struggle between these worlds. Society is experiencing a state of deep crisis. Gloucester characterizes the destruction of social foundations in the following way: “Love is cooling, friendship is weakening, fratricidal strife is everywhere. There are riots in the cities, discord in the villages, treason in the palaces, and the family bond between parents and children is collapsing... Our best time has passed. Bitterness, betrayal, disastrous unrest will accompany us to the grave” (Translated by B. Pasternak).

It is against this broad social background that the tragic story of King Lear unfolds. At the beginning of the play, Lear is a king with power, commanding the destinies of people. Shakespeare in this tragedy (where he penetrates deeper into the social relations of the time than in his other plays) showed that Lear's power does not lie in his kingship, but in the fact that he owns wealth and lands. As soon as Lear divided his kingdom between his daughters Goneril and Regan, leaving himself only the kingship, he lost his power. Without his possessions, the king found himself in the position of a beggar. The possessive principle in society destroyed patriarchal family human relations. Goneril and Regan swore their love for their father when he was in power, and turned away from him when he lost his possessions.

Having gone through tragic trials, through a storm in his own soul, Lear becomes human. He learned the plight of the poor, became involved in the life of the people and understood what was happening around him. King Lear gains wisdom. A meeting in the steppe, during a storm, with the homeless and unfortunate Poor Tom played a big role in the emergence of a new view of the world. (This was Edgar Gloucester, hiding from the persecution of his brother Edmond.) In Lear's shocked mind, society appears in a new light, and he subjects it to merciless criticism. Lear's madness becomes an epiphany. Lear sympathizes with the poor and condemns the rich:

Homeless, naked wretches,

Where are you now? How will you reflect

The blows of this fierce weather -

In rags, with his head uncovered

And a skinny belly? How little I thought

More on this first! Here's a lesson for you

Arrogant rich man! Take the place of the poor

Feel what they feel

And give them a share of your excess

As a sign of the highest justice of heaven.

(Translated by B. Pasternak)

Lear speaks with indignation about a society where arbitrariness reigns. Power appears to him in the form of a symbolic image of a dog chasing a beggar who is running away from him. Lear calls the judge a thief, the politician who pretends to understand what others do not understand is a scoundrel.

The noble Kent and the jester remain loyal to Lear to the end. The image of the jester plays a very important role in this tragedy. His witticisms and paradoxical jokes boldly reveal the essence of relationships between people. The tragicomic jester speaks the bitter truth; his witty remarks express

The people's point of view on what is happening.

The storyline associated with the fate of the Earl of Gloucester, the father of two sons, highlights the fate of Lear and gives it a general meaning. Gloucester also experiences the tragedy of ingratitude. His illegitimate son Edmond opposes him.

The humanistic ideal is embodied in the image of Cordelia. She does not accept both the old world of chivalry and the new world of Machiavellians. Her character emphasizes with particular force a sense of human dignity. Unlike her hypocritical sisters, she is sincere and truthful, does not fear the despotic nature of her father and tells him what she thinks. Despite her restraint in expressing her feelings, Cordelia truly loves her father and courageously accepts his disfavor. Subsequently, when Lear, having gone through severe trials, gained human dignity and a sense of justice, Cordelia found herself next to him. These two beautiful people are dying in a cruel society.

At the end of the tragedy, good triumphs over evil. The noble Edgar will become king. As a ruler, he will turn to the wisdom that Lear gained in his tragic fate.

The work of the great English playwright William Shakespeare is usually divided into three or four periods (some researchers consider the period 1590–1600 as one, others divide it into two: 1590–1594, 1595–1600).

· During the first period (1590–1600), Shakespeare was formed as a playwright, a set of ideas was formed that he would touch upon throughout his creative activity, and the foundations of his style were laid. In the works of this period one can still feel the influence of his talented contemporaries, primarily T. Kyd and C. Marlowe. Most of them are written in the genre of historical chronicle and comedy. The early tragedy Titus Andronicus largely follows the aesthetics of the so-called “bloody tragedy,” while Romeo and Juliet already testifies to the maturity of the playwright’s talent. At the same time, in its worldview, this tragedy differs significantly from later works of this genre, asserting the greatness of love as a force capable of transforming the world. Despite the death of the heroes, it is imbued with tragic optimism.

The heroes of most works of this period are young and charming, and the plays themselves are full of optimism and faith in people; they glorify humanistic values.

Historical chronicles can be called an English saga, revealing the turbulent events of the country's history over several centuries - from the era of King John to the time immediately preceding the era of Shakespeare. Although he does not always adhere to historical facts (for example, in Richard III), the playwright manages to create an accurate atmosphere of the time, show the balance of forces and their confrontations that determined the history of the country, and create a broad social background. As Shakespeare's talent matures, the psychological depth of the characters, their complexity and inconsistency increases, which was manifested with great force in the image of Richard Gloucester, who became Richard III. At the same time, there is a search for an ideal monarch, and he appears in the image of Henry V in the play of the same name, who does everything to ensure that England finally becomes a unified state that has overcome feudal fragmentation and civil strife, destructive for the country (“Richard II”, “King John”) .

The world of Shakespearean comedies of the 1590s. harmonious and cheerful. We are present at a celebration of life, which is presented as a bright masquerade. A lot of funny adventures happen to the heroes, sometimes they even find themselves in difficult situations, but as a result, everything always ends well. This is a world sparkling with humor of kind and generous people who know how to enjoy life, despite its contradictions. Good must certainly win.

1590–1594 – early chronicles: “Henry VI”, part 2 (1590), “Henry VI”, part 3 (1591), “Henry VI”, part 1 (1592), “Richard III” (1593); early comedies: The Comedy of Errors (1592), The Taming of the Shrew (1593); early tragedy Titus Andronicus (1594).

1595–1600 – chronicles: “Richard II” (1595), “King John” (1596), “Henry IV”, part 1 (1597), “Henry IV”, part 2 (1598), “Henry V” (1598) ; comedies: “The Two Gentlemen of Verona” (1594), “Love’s Labour’s Lost” (1594), “A Midsummer Night’s Dream” (1596), “The Merchant of Venice” (1596), “Much Ado About Nothing” (1598), “The Merry Wives of Windsor” "(1598), "As You Like It" (1599), "Twelfth Night" (1600); tragedies: “Romeo and Juliet” (1595), “Julius Caesar” (1599).

· The second period (1600–1609) in Shakespeare’s work is painted in tragic tones. A turning point in Shakespeare’s worldview is already evident in the comedy “As You Like It” and the tragedy “Julius Caesar,” dating back to 1599. Symptoms of crisis are brewing in English society, expressed in the uprising of the Earl of Essex, its bloody suppression, peasant riots and aggravation of class contradictions, which in just a few decades will lead to the English bourgeois revolution. Among the rebels was the Earl of Southampton, to whom, according to many researchers, Shakespeare’s sonnets, as well as the poems “Venus and Adonis” (1593) and “Lucretia” (1594), are dedicated. All this could not pass by Shakespeare. Four great tragedies appear one after another: “Hamlet” (1601), “Othello” (1604), “King Lear” (1605), “Macbeth” (1606), indicating a turning point in the worldview of the great playwright. The hopes of creating a harmonious world, which were cherished by humanists, were dispelled, and this world itself turned out to be a utopia. As Hamlet, whom critics call a “reflective hero,” bitterly states, “the connection of times has broken down” (in another translation, “the age is dislocated”), and whoever tries to connect the broken links will face a tragic fate. The death of heroes is inevitable because it is the price that must be paid for the possibility of change in a rotten society. This is the atoning sacrifice that must be made for the sake of the future. The great translator of Hamlet into Russian B.L. Pasternak wrote that Hamlet is “a drama of a high lot, a commanded feat, an entrusted destiny.” It is hardly a coincidence that the first poem that opens the poems of Yuri Zhivago in the famous novel by B.L. Pasternak, there was Hamlet.

The hum died down. I went on stage.

Leaning against the door frame,

What will happen in my lifetime.

The darkness of the night is pointed at me

A thousand binoculars on the axis.

If possible, Abba Father,

Carry this cup past.

I love your stubborn plan

And I agree to play this role.

But now there is another drama,

And this time fire me.

But the order of actions has been thought out,

And the end of the road is inevitable.

I am alone, everything is drowning in pharisaism.

Living life is not a field to cross.

The “Roman” plays “Coriolanus” and “Antony and Cleopatra” are also full of tragedy. Even comedies written during this period have a tragic connotation and no longer carry the cheerful charge that marked the comedies of the 1590s. It’s not for nothing that they are called “dark” or “drug” comedies. The sonnets, published in a pirated edition in 1609, adjoin the same period. They represent the pinnacle achievement of English poetry both in the depth of philosophical understanding of reality and in artistic power. Some of them have something in common, both thematically and stylistically, with “great” tragedies and are also colored by a tragic attitude (compare Hamlet’s monologue “To be or not to be” and sonnet 66; the 127th sonnet makes one think of “Othello”). All 154 sonnets form two sonnet cycles, unequal in volume, addressed to a friend and a “dark lady,” united by a lyrical hero who amazes with the richness of his inner world and the depth of his experiences.

1601–1608 – tragedies: “Hamlet” (1601), “Othello” (1604), “King Lear” (1605), “Macbeth”; ancient tragedies: “Antony and Cleopatra” (1606), “Coriolanus” (1607), “Timon of Athens” (1608); comedies: “Troilus and Cressida” (1602), “The end is the crown of the matter” (1603), “Measure for measure” (1604).

· The third period (1609–1612) is the shortest in Shakespeare’s work: it lasts only four years. In 1613, the playwright returned to Stratford-upon-Avon and stopped his creative activity. At this time, only four plays were published from his pen. He co-authored (probably with J. Fletcher) the historical chronicle “Henry VIII,” which is not one of Shakespeare’s significant works. Later plays are written in the genre of romantic tragicomedy, in which fairy-tale and fantastic elements appear, which is especially typical for The Tempest, in which obvious Baroque features appear. The author accepts the tragedy of life, in which the dark and the light are in constant struggle, but good ultimately defeats evil.

According to Shakespeare researcher Prof. A. Aniksta, “Shakespeare brought important new artistic principles to drama, which had never existed in art before him. The characters of the heroes in ancient drama had only one important feature. Shakespeare created heroes and heroines endowed with the traits of a spiritually rich living personality. At the same time, he showed the characters of his characters in development. These artistic innovations enriched not only art, but also the understanding of human nature."

2.1. Answer the questions.

What stages is Shakespeare's work divided into? Which stage was the most fruitful from a quantitative point of view? Which stage was the most philosophically intense? What are the reasons for the changes in the playwright’s worldview at the turn of the century? How does Shakespeare's career end? How can we explain Shakespeare's extraordinary popularity during the Elizabethan era?

What is Shakespeare's contribution to the development of world theater? How would you explain Shakespeare’s formula “All the world is a stage, and the people in it are actors”? What laws apply in the theater? Do they differ from the laws in force in the world? How do Shakespeare's works differ from the texts from which he based them? What explains the synthetic nature of the work of the great playwright?

What is the main theme in Shakespeare's historical chronicles? What is the main conflict of the chronicles? How is history dramatized by Shakespeare? Is historical accuracy essential for a playwright? Who personifies the humanistic ideal of a ruler in Shakespeare's chronicles? How can we explain Shakespeare's use of themes from ancient Greek and Roman history?

What is unique about Shakespeare's comedies? Is there a difference in attitude in the comedies of Shakespeare's first and second periods?

What is the source of tragic suffering in Shakespeare's tragedies? Who is Shakespeare's ideal man (“he whose blood and mind are so joyfully mingled” - Hamlet)? Is such a person possible in principle? What is the reason for the change in personality of the tragic hero? How does the nature of the action change in Shakespeare’s tragedies of the second period compared to the previous stage (for example, with the tragedy “Romeo and Juliet”)? What role do moral categories play in the development of the action and characters of the heroes of tragedies?

How are the works of Shakespeare of the last period different? What way out does Shakespeare find from the tragic circle of the previous period? Why is this period called romantic in the playwright’s work? What is the reason for the appearance of such a powerful fantastic layer in the plays of this period? What is the main theme of The Tempest?

How do you explain the emergence of the so-called “Shakespearean question”? What contemporary evidence do we have about Shakespeare’s work?

There was a time when Shakespeare's plays were grouped according to their plots: and the result was a group of comedies, a group of tragedies, chronicles from English history, Roman tragedies. This grouping is completely artificial: combining plays from different eras, different moods and different literary techniques into one, it in no way explains the evolution of Shakespeare’s work. The chronological grouping used in our time allows us to draw a fairly clear picture of the course of the spiritual life of the great writer and the changes in his worldview.

Usually four periods are distinguished in Shakespeare's drama, but often the first two are combined into one, which, however, does not create significant differences. The division into four periods allows for a more thorough examination of Shakespeare's early plays. At the same time, the division into three periods is also justified and creates greater clarity: all the chronicles (except Henry VIII, which was only partially written by Shakespeare) and most of the comedies fall into the first period. The second period, on the contrary, contains almost all the tragedies; and the third - tragicomedies (and "Henry VIII").

1.1. First period (1590-1594)

The first period approximately falls on the years 1590-1594. In terms of literary techniques, it can be called a period of imitation: Shakespeare is still entirely at the mercy of his predecessors. The comic horrors of Titus Andronicus are a direct and immediate reflection of the horrors of the plays of Kyd and Marlowe, which received an even more absurd development in the young writer’s immature talent. The influence of the mannered Lilly and the so-called euphuism is reflected in the pretentiousness of the style of the first period. But his own genius is already waking up. In the controversial, but still at least to a small extent Shakespearean, “Henry VI” there are fewer unnecessary horrors, and in “Richard III” horrors are already an organic necessity, needed to depict the terrible personality of the main character.

Romeo and Juliet. Painting by F. Dixie (1884). In terms of mood, this period can be called a period of idealistic faith in the best aspects of life. Young Shakespeare enthusiastically punishes vice in his historical tragedies and enthusiastically glorifies high and poetic feelings - friendship, self-sacrifice and especially love. In the first period there are also works that are almost indifferent, namely the Comedy of Errors, adapted from Plautus. But the main coloring is given by the plays where the author’s youth is reflected in the halo with which he surrounds the young feeling: “Love’s Labour’s Lost”, “Two Gentlemen of Verona” and the “song of songs” of new European literature - “Romeo and Juliet”, beyond which one cannot go apotheosis of love. This, even though the main characters die, is a song of triumphant love, and a passionate young man, at an age when the embrace of a beloved woman seems to be the highest good of life, will always say with enthusiasm that for the day of such love and life it is not a pity. The magical aura that Shakespeare was able to give to his lovers, despite all the tragedy, makes the horror of the “sad tale” sweet, and the proper names of the heroes of the tragedy have continued to be a common noun for the highest poetry of passion for four centuries.

1.2. Second period (1594-1601)

As if on the threshold of the second period of Shakespeare’s creative activity (approximately 1594-1601), stands one of his most famous works - “The Merchant of Venice”. There is still a lot of imitation in him, but in this play Shakespeare’s genius has already powerfully revealed its independence and with extraordinary brightness demonstrated one of its most amazing abilities - to transform the rough, uncouth stone of borrowed plots into artistic sculpture that is striking in its perfection. The plot of The Merchant of Venice is taken from an insignificant 16th-century Italian story. But thanks to the artistic versatility or objectivity of Shakespeare, the name of Shylock became a household name for the historical connection of Jewry with money - and at the same time, in all the vast literature devoted to the defense of Jewry, there is nothing more convincing and humane than Shylock’s famous monologue: “But does the Jew really have no eyes?..” A remnant of the mood of the first idealistic period in The Merchant of Venice, in addition to the imitation of Marlowe, is the belief in friendship, of which Antonio is a selfless representative.

Falstaff with a large jug of wine and a goblet. Painting by E. von Grützner (1896). The transition to the second period was reflected in the absence of that poetry of youth that was so characteristic of the first period. The heroes are still young, but they have already lived a decent life and the main thing for them in life is pleasure.

The portion is piquant, lively, but the tender charm of the girls of “The Two Gentlemen of Verona”, and especially Juliet, is not at all in it. A carefree, cheerful enjoyment of life and good-natured chewing are the main features of the second period, the central figure of which is the third immortal type of Shakespeare - Sir John Falstaff. This is a real poet and philosopher of cheerful gluttony, whose desire for the sparkling life of the spirit, for the brilliance of the mind is as strong as the thirst for satisfying animal needs. The fireworks of his good-natured, cynical wit are as characteristic of him as gluttony. Convicting him is nothing, it doesn’t bother him at all, because he never pursues a personal career and his worries don’t go beyond getting money for the evening sherry. The best proof of this lack of a personal element in Falstaff's cynicism - otherwise he would have been an ordinary swindler - can be found in the failure of The Merry Wives of Windsor. Shakespeare wrote this play in a few weeks at the request of Queen Elizabeth, who wanted to see Falstaff on stage again. But the great playwright for the first and last time wanted to moralize, wanted to “teach a lesson” to Falstaff. To do this, he perverted the very essence of Falstaff’s carefree, dissolute nature, not thinking about anything, even about itself, and gave him a boastful conceit. The type was destroyed, Falstaff loses all interest, becomes ridiculous and disgusting.

A much more successful attempt was to return to the Falstaffian type in the final play of the second period - Twelfth Night. Here we, in the person of Sir Toby and his entourage, have, as it were, the second edition of Sir John, however, without his sparkling wit, but with the same infectious good-natured zhuirstvo. The crude mockery of women in “The Taming of the Shrew” also fits perfectly into the framework of the predominantly “Falstaffian” period. At first glance, the most graceful poetic extravaganza “A Midsummer Night's Dream”, created almost simultaneously, does not fit in well with “The Taming of the Shrew,” which so fragrantly and juicily reflected the youth spent in forests and meadows. But let us think deeper into the central place of the play, into the truly brilliant episode of the sudden surge of passion with which Titania showers the donkey’s head with caresses. How can one not recognize here a good-natured, but undoubtedly mocking symbolization of the causeless whims of female feelings?

The “Falstaffian” period is organically connected with a series of historical chronicles by Shakespeare: Falstaff appears in the two main plays of this series - “Henry IV” and “Henry V”.

1.3. Third period (1600-1609)

However, Shakespeare soon became tired of Falstaffianism. There is something symbolizing the creative mood of Shakespeare himself when he forces Henry V, who has ascended the throne and has become conscious of his high responsibilities, to remove Falstaff, who was hoping to flourish, from himself and mercilessly say to his recent drinking companion in front of everyone: “I don’t know you, old man.” The carefree attitude towards life that until recently had completely dominated him ceases to know Shakespeare.

Hamlet and Horatio in the cemetery. Painting by E. Delacroix (1839). The third period of his artistic activity begins, approximately covering the years 1600-1609, a period of deep spiritual darkness, but at the same time the period of creation of the greatest literary works of new humanity. The first harbinger of a changed mood and worldview was reflected in the comedy “As You Like It”, in the psychology of the melancholic Jacques, tired of life. And this melancholy keeps growing, at first only quietly yearning, but then quickly turning into outbursts of the darkest despair. Everything becomes covered with a black veil for the great artist’s mental gaze, he doubts everything, it seems to him that “the connection of times has fallen apart,” that the whole world stinks like rotten fish, he doesn’t know whether it’s worth living at all.

A terrible drama of contradictions between real life and higher aspirations in Hamlet unfolds before us; a desperate artist gives us a picture of the collapse of the best political ideals in “Julius Caesar” (although the tragedy chronologically belongs to the second period, but according to the questions posed in it it is usually attributed to the third), shows in “Othello” the horrors hidden under the roses of love, gives an amazing the depiction of the ingratitude of those closest to us in “King Lear” and the ingratitude of the crowd in “Coriolanus” shows the destructive charm of earthly greatness in “Macbeth” on essentially good people.

Cordelia. Painting by William F. Yeamans (1888). But the artist, who thought so deeply about the purpose of existence, despaired of more than one earthly thing. The most terrible thing for a man of the 16th century, and even an Englishman - he even doubted the afterlife, for him the consolations of religion were powerless.

And at the same time, in this boundless despair the most beneficial beginning was hidden. Organically in need of spiritual medicine - otherwise there was nothing to live with, much less create - Shakespeare of the Hamlet period creates a number of the most noble images. You cannot create anything great with contempt for people alone.

We need delight, we need a deep conviction that no matter how bad the world is, there are also righteous people in it, because of whom the city of our existence is saved. Let Hamlet be passionate, but indecisive, deep, but lacking the freshness of spontaneity. But at the same time, and this is the most important thing, he has a high spirit. Cordelia, Desdemona and Ophelia are woven from some subtle ether of poetry; everyone perishes because they cannot contain the evil of life and somehow adapt to it. Even the villainous couple Macbeths die from an excess of conscience. And among the minor characters of great tragedies there remains a whole gallery of magically tender and selfless women and the noblest spirit of men.

All this shows that the artist’s pessimistic mood was generated not only by the contemplation of the evil of the world. It also has its source in the fact that in his soul, under the influence of thoughts about the purpose of life, a very high ideal of the purpose of man was created. He was so strict with the world because he wanted to see it perfect.

Real misanthropy appears only in “Timon of Athens” - and the world’s greatest artist suffered a failure: the misanthrope Timon was not a success for Shakespeare, his character was not motivated enough. Obviously, lonely anger does not contain creativity. If we pay attention to the fact that the play refers to the very end of a dark period, then we will understand that after it finally comes a bright period of a reconciled search for mental peace and tranquility. “Antony and Cleopatra” can be considered a transition to this period of Shakespeare’s creativity. In “Antony and Cleopatra,” the talented, but devoid of any moral principles, predator from “Julius Caesar” is surrounded by a truly poetic aura, and the semi-traitor Cleopatra largely atones for her sins with a heroic death.

1.4. Fourth period (1609-1612)

Prospero and Ariel. Painting by W. Hamilton (1797). The fourth period, not counting Shakespeare's very weak participation in Henry VIII (most researchers agree that almost the entire play was written by John Fletcher), covers only three or four years and four plays - the so-called “romantic dramas” or tragicomedies Ratsky I. The problem of tragicomedy and Shakespeare’s last plays // “Theater”, 1971, No. 2. Of these, “Pericles”, “Cymbeline” and “The Winter’s Tale” belong to the secondary plays and only in “The Tempest” did Shakespeare’s genius again manifest itself in with all the brilliance of its generalizing power, creating a one-sided, but unusually vivid embodiment of the incivility of the mob in the person of the drunken savage Caliban. In the plays of the fourth and last period, everything is fine; difficult trials are introduced only to make the joy of deliverance from disasters sweeter. Slander is exposed, innocence is justified, fidelity is rewarded, the madness of jealousy has no tragic consequences, lovers are united in a happy marriage. There is, however, nothing cloying in this optimism, because true reconciliation is felt. The poetic girls created now - Marina from "Pericles", Perdita from "The Winter's Tale", Miranda from "The Tempest" - are no longer the delights of a lover, like Juliet, not the rapture of a husband, like Desdemona, but the quiet admiration of a happy father. It is extremely tempting to see the desire of many Shakespeare scholars to see autobiographical symbolization in the final scene of The Tempest, this last independent play of Shakespeare: just as Prospero renounces his magic and retires, so the writer himself left London to return to his native Stretford.

Shakespeare's entire career spanned the period from 1590 to 1612. usually divided into three or four periods.

I (optimistic) period (1590-1600)

The general character of the works of the first period can be defined as optimistic, colored by a joyful perception of life in all its diversity, faith in the triumph of the smart and the good. During this period, Shakespeare mostly wrote comedies:

• - "Comedy of Errors"
• - "The Taming of the Shrew",
• - “Two Veronese”,
• - "Love's Labour's Lost"
• - "A dream in a summer night",
• - "The Merry Wives of Windsor"
• - “Much ado about nothing”
• - “As you like it”,
• - "Twelfth Night".

The theme of almost all of Shakespeare's comedies is love, its emergence and development, the resistance and intrigues of others and the victory of bright young feelings. The action of the works takes place against the backdrop of beautiful landscapes, bathed in moonlight or sunlight. This is how the magical world of Shakespeare's comedies appears before us, seemingly far from fun. Shakespeare has a great ability to talentedly combine the comic (the duels of wit between Benedick and Beatrice in Much Ado About Nothing, Petruchio and Catharina from The Taming of the Shrew) with the lyrical and even tragic (the betrayals of Proteus in The Two Gentlemen of Verona, the machinations of Shylock in "The Merchant of Venice"). Shakespeare's characters are amazingly multifaceted; their images embody traits characteristic of people of the Renaissance: will, desire for independence, and love of life. The female characters of these comedies are especially interesting - they are equal to men, free, energetic, active and infinitely charming. Shakespeare's comedies are varied. Shakespeare uses various genres of comedy - romantic comedy (A Midsummer Night's Dream), comedy of characters (The Taming of the Shrew), sitcom (The Comedy of Errors).

During the same period (1590-1600) Shakespeare wrote a number of historical chronicles. Each of which covers one of the periods of English history.

About the time of the struggle between the Scarlet and White Roses:

• - “Henry VI” (three parts),
• - "Richard III".

About the previous period of struggle between the feudal barons and the absolute monarchy:

• - "Richard II"
• - “Henry IV” (two parts),
• - "Henry V".

The genre of dramatic chronicle is characteristic only of the English Renaissance. Most likely, this happened because the favorite theatrical genre of the early English Middle Ages were mysteries with secular motives. The dramaturgy of the mature Renaissance was formed under their influence; and in dramatic chronicles many mysterious features are preserved: a wide coverage of events, many characters, a free alternation of episodes. However, unlike the mysteries, the chronicles do not present biblical history, but the history of the state. Here, in essence, he also turns to the ideals of harmony - but specifically state harmony, which he sees in the victory of the monarchy over medieval feudal civil strife. At the end of the plays, good triumphs; evil, no matter how terrible and bloody its path was, has been overthrown. Thus, in the first period of Shakespeare’s work, the main Renaissance idea was interpreted at different levels - personal and state: the achievement of harmony and humanistic ideals.

During the same period, Shakespeare wrote two tragedies:

• - "Romeo and Juliet",
• - "Julius Caesar".

II (tragic) period (1601-1607)

It is considered the tragic period of Shakespeare's work. Dedicated mainly to tragedy. It was during this period that the playwright reached the pinnacle of his creativity:

• - “Hamlet” (1601),
• - “Othello” (1604),
• - “King Lear” (1605),
• - “Macbeth” (1606),
• - “Antony and Cleopatra” (1607),
• - “Coriolanus” (1607).

There is no longer a trace of a harmonious sense of the world in them; eternal and insoluble conflicts are revealed here. Here the tragedy lies not only in the clash between the individual and society, but also in the internal contradictions in the soul of the hero. The problem is brought to a general philosophical level, and the characters remain unusually multifaceted and psychologically voluminous. At the same time, it is very important that in Shakespeare’s great tragedies there is a complete absence of a fatalistic attitude towards fate, which predetermines tragedy. The main emphasis, as before, is placed on the personality of the hero, who shapes his own destiny and the destinies of those around him.

During the same period, Shakespeare wrote two comedies:

• - “The end is the crown of the matter,”
• - “Measure for measure.”

III (romantic) period (1608-1612)

It is considered the romantic period of Shakespeare's work.

Works of the last period of his work:

• - "Cymbeline"
• - “Winter's Tale”,
• - “Storm.”

These are poetic tales that lead away from reality into the world of dreams. A complete conscious rejection of realism and a retreat into romantic fantasy is naturally interpreted by Shakespeare scholars as the playwright’s disappointment in humanistic ideals and recognition of the impossibility of achieving harmony. This path - from a triumphantly jubilant faith in harmony to tired disappointment - actually followed the entire worldview of the Renaissance.

Shakespeare, the author of the chronicles, had predecessors and teachers, but the poet occupied his special place here from the very beginning. And his technique is not only original for a poet of the 16th century, but exceptional in general in the field of historical drama.

The prologue to Henry VIII promises the public to depict exclusively the truth and true history in the chronicle, without resorting to “spectacular scenes” and “absurd battles”... Henry VIII does not belong entirely to Shakespeare, but the prologue quite correctly characterizes him as the author of the chronicles. The poet, with amazing dedication and tact, obeys his sources, often literally borrows scenes and monologues from Holinshed’s chronicle and only through an inspired creative process gives the scenes dramatic life and strength, and in monologues reflects the fullness of the soul of the characters. This art is rapidly improved with each chronicle, and after the epic, fragmentary dialogues of Henry VI, there are a number of exciting scenes of Richard II and King John, until finally in Richard III there is a real drama with deep psychology of the hero and an exemplary sequential development of the action. From a dramatizing chronicler, in a few years he grew into a playwright-psychologist, and in the near future, the author of great tragedies. And again, as in comedies, the poet managed to merge an unusually skillful response to the demands of the modern public with the fruitful results of personal creativity.

We know that the chronicles on theater stages were the result of the patriotic sentiments of the era and, of course, had precisely these sentiments in mind. Naturally, Shakespeare hastened to fully satisfy the feelings of the public and his own at the same time. The poet could not remain indifferent to the glory of his fatherland and, perhaps, actually welcomed the death of the “Armada” in poetry: so, at least, some think. But this fact is not significant: the chronicles gave the poet any scope for patriotic lyricism, and he took advantage of it with all the swiftness and fervor of his inspiration. Shakespeare's fiery patriotism should be considered the most reliable feature of his moral personality. One can not count the unworthy role of the Maid of Orleans among the poet’s patriotic intentions: the chronicle of Henry VI itself is unknown to what extent it belongs to Shakespeare, and the personality of Joan of Arc in the 16th century could least of all be presented in its true light, even to non-patriots and non-Englishmen, and, finally, , the author did not hide Jeanne’s passionate patriotic inspiration, the main fact of her biography. But the absolutely authentic Shakespearean chronicles are enough to appreciate the poet’s national instinct.

Before us are heroes of different social status - kings and simple lords; different political parties - supporters of Lancaster and York; different characters - the frivolous despot Richard II and the chivalrous Duke of Ghent, his victim and opponent - and all are equally filled with enthusiastic adoration for their native England, all become sensitive and poets, as soon as the conversation comes about the power of the homeland or its misfortunes, about separation from it.

Richard, returning to England after a short absence, seems to be a lover greeting the “sweet land” and “striving to hug it to his chest,” like the mother of her own son, “both crying and laughing.” Before his death, Ghent makes an enthusiastic speech to the “glorious island,” “the land of greatness, the fatherland of Mars, the earthly Eden,” “a shining diamond set in a silver sea.” One of the most independent and stern heroes of the chronicles - Norfolk - going into exile for disobedience to Richard, turns his last words, filled with melancholy, to England. Not hearing his native language is torment equal to death for him; to lose your homeland is to lose the “light of your eyes.” In the sad times of King John, the lords bitterly lament the storm gathering over their “native people,” and Prince Philip concludes the drama with a real national anthem:

"At the proud feet of an alien warrior

Britain did not lie in the dust.

And she will never lie in the dust,

As long as she doesn't hurt herself...

And may fighters from all corners of the earth

They are coming at us, we will push them away!

If England knows how to be England,

No one in the world can defeat us.”

The poet clearly sympathizes with such sentiments. He brings into the chronicles the same anger and ridicule of imitators of foreign fashion that we have heard in comedies. Prince Philip equates “serving fashion” with the poison of lies. One of the vices that led to the downfall of Richard II was his passion for Italian fashions: this is a clear anachronism for the 14th century of English history, but the poet needed it for patriotic purposes.

They are all the more important because Shakespeare's politics are limited to them. We would search in vain for the principles and ideas that caused English civil strife in his chronicles. Issues of general policy played a big role precisely under Richard II and John Lackland. Richard II, counting on a marriage with a French princess, adopted French etiquette at court and declared claims to unlimited autocracy following the example of the French sovereigns. It was for these claims that the parliament accused the king of violating the constitution and deposed him. English historians consider this struggle to be the first constitutional struggle in English history. The events under King John are well known: through the joint efforts of the lords, clergy and London townspeople, the Magna Carta was created, that is, the legal basis for British freedom was laid. In Shakespeare's chronicles there are no political questions about the power of the king and the rights of his subjects: the poet even skips the era of the creation of the Great Charter in the chronicle and does not deal with Richard's constitutional crimes. His focus is on the moral shortcomings of the figures, on psychology, rather than on politics. Regarding Richard, heavy taxes and the unpopularity of the king among the people are mentioned in passing, and King John, unlike the usual, strictly historical, truth of Shakespeare's chronicles, is even greatly embellished in comparison with the real personality of this sovereign. Undoubtedly, with this formulation of the question, Shakespeare's chronicles are far from complete and do not exhaust all the phenomena of historical eras. Truthful in facts and characters, they omit many significant events and in heroes they look primarily for people, and not for political figures. This truth is abbreviated and often one-sided. It is very characteristic of Shakespeare, a poet indifferent to social movements in comparison with the psychological development of individuals. But here it was quite natural that the poet-playwright, who needed mainly strong central figures, and a contemporary of the almost primitive chronicle historiography, had an impact. And Shakespeare, precisely by the incompleteness of his chronicles, proved only the same conscientiousness in the use of sources. In the second part of Henry VI, he could simply rewrite humorous scenes from the chronicle with the people's conspirators and put an end to the Kedah rebellion, which was in fact incomparably more important and serious. Subsequently, he will do the same with the plebeians in Coriolanus, borrowing here the aristocratic spirit from the source. And we cannot demand from a 16th-century poet insight and interpretation, which even in our time are not accessible to all scientists.

In his favorite field - psychology and the moral logic of events - Shakespeare extracted everything that could be extracted from the history of English civil strife. Beginning with Richard II, we continually encounter motifs that are destined to develop brilliantly in the poet’s most mature creations.

Based on the facts of true reality, he is convinced of the irresistible power of the moral law governing human life. Victory or fall is always and everywhere the inevitable result of a personality structure that is more or less adapted to the struggle with external conditions. It does not require a miracle for a crime to receive the punishment it deserves, and it does not require exceptional heroes for weakness to pay for its cowardice and mediocrity. One of the heroines and victims of the most severe civil strife regarding several particular cases expressed a general philosophy of human fate:

"Edward went to pay for Edward

And death covered the mortal debt

Plantagenet for Plantagenet...

And this conviction is shared by all witnesses and perpetrators of the bloody events. Only the culprits come too late to the great truth that

“The Lord does not carry out secret executions

Over those who trampled the law...

So says the brother of Richard III to the men sent to kill him - and the truth is realized on the most inveterate and courageous representative of evil. This idea runs as a connecting thread through all the turmoil and intricate intentions of the strong; it does not escape the weak, unworthy of their high position. If the strong should ever remember King John's speech:

“You can’t build a solid foundation with blood,

You can’t save someone else’s life”...

for the weak and unworthy there is a great lesson - the fate of kings Henry VI and Richard II. One in the highest responsible position yearns for a peaceful shepherd’s life and idyllic happiness, the other indulges in pleasures, over the praises of flatterers he does not hear the groans of the people, and his state garden “stalled under the weeds”; both will lose power, and Richard II, filled with arrogance and self-adoration, will recognize the poverty of human nature and laugh bitterly at the servility of flatterers and the conceit of rulers. A painful persistent work of thought will arise in him, previously unknown to him, and he will seek in vain for spiritual peace. The wayward epicurean will turn almost into Hamlet and will have time to survive the chilling breath of Lear's tragedy...

Yes, grains are hidden in the chronicles and often the bright shoots of the poet’s later creations are already green. The fifth act of Hamlet appears before the eyes whenever the circle of dramatic events is completed and the Duke of York, together with Richard II and Richard III, unanimously recognize the truth won by the Danish prince through so many trials and disappointments: “There is a power that leads us to the goal, whatever the path may be.” we elected...

This is not fatalism, but faith in an unchangeable world order, where human will is as valid a link as external life, such as, for example, natural phenomena. Consequences corresponding to its moral content flow from it just as naturally and irresistibly. The influence of such a worldview on dramatic creativity is obvious. The poet will not resort to miracles and exceptional accidents for the sake of the outcome of the play, but he will not retreat even in the face of the most difficult outcome of the tragedy, he will not allow compassion and sensitivity to interfere in deciding the fate of the virtuous and innocent, since the logic of life and events requires sacrifice. This logic, we know, eliminates from the stage of reality not only the criminals, but also the weak, who are unable to oppose their own to external forces and remain at the height of their calling in the whirlpool of hostile currents - and we will see not only the execution of Claudius, Edmund, Macbeth, but also the death of Ophelia, Desdemona, Cordelia, Juliet...

The crowning achievement of Shakespeare's early chronicles is Richard III. The personality and history of the main character is extremely important to us. The poet first presented the psychology of a villain who is infinitely criminal and gloomy. Subsequently, it will be repeated in the characters of Edmund and Iago. At first glance, these figures may come across as cruelly melodramatic. They are ready-made villains on stage and go towards their goals, mercilessly eliminating everything along the way, using any means, as if they were born spontaneous criminals. In reality, they have their own psychological history, their own stages of gradual and logical development. Shakespeare first showed this in the fate of Richard.

The Duke of Gloucester is unusually intelligent, gifted, courageous and energetic - all qualities that elevate a person to heights. But at the same time, he is an exceptional freak, branded by nature from the moment of birth. Ugliness singled him out from the human environment, turning him first into an outcast, then into an embittered renegade, and finally into the natural enemy of all the fortunate. And Richard’s enmity will be all the more persistent as these lucky men are inferior to him in intelligence and talents; their privileged position is a blood insult to his pride and claims, based on a deep consciousness of his superiority. Richard himself accurately explains his position among his relatives and the rest of humanity; does not forget to emphasize his lonely suffering in times of peace, when others are enjoying life and love. Since “deceitful nature” separated him by an impassable abyss from the rest of the world and embodied in him obvious horror for people, he will “curse idle fun” and “throw himself into villainous deeds.” This is a completely understandable impulse of offended pride and an unknown reason for a poisoned existence. And Richard will relentlessly and calculatedly take revenge and feed his selfishness and anger. In addition to willpower and complete indifference to good and evil, the mind will tell him the most reliable means of catching the weak and unreasonable - hypocrisy. This is a common feature of all Shakespeare's villains: a serpent's heart in the shell of a dove. The combination of enormous endurance, cold calculation with artificial openness, sincerity and even lyricism of feelings works wonders. And each new victory only deepens the hero’s contempt for his victims - past and future - and strengthens the highest idea of ​​his own strengths. The villain becomes a fatalist based on the same egoism, that is, he begins to consider himself an instrument of higher power and attributes his atrocities to fate: “An unfortunate star destroyed them,” says Richard about the two young princes he ruined. Edmund, who identifies himself with nature, and Iago, who does not distinguish his will from world power, will look at their enterprises in the same way.

All three heroes act on a majestic tragic stage, and, naturally, the scope of their activity amazes with its breadth and power. But the essence of psychology does not become less vital and real because of this. Forced detachment and bloodily wounded pride in strong natures create a heavy aftertaste of unbearable bitterness and hidden bitterness, crying out for satisfaction. And in such eras of moral and social unrest, in which Richard lives, they directly lead to violence and crime.

It is clear what depth of psychological ideas the poet reached while studying his native history. The most apparently exceptional phenomena in the field of the human spirit and external life are invariably created on the foundations of consistent development, and the greatest dramas, along with everyday facts, represent links in the same world order.

Ticket from journ.ru:

I period. (1564 – 1600) Comedies and historical chronicles. “A Midsummer Night’s Dream”, “The Merchant of Venice”, “Much Ado About Nothing”, “As You Like It”, “Twelfth Night”, “Richard III”, “Richard II”, “Henry IV”, “Henry V” . Tragedies “Romeo and Juliet” and “Julius Caesar”. Belief in the possibility of harmony between man and the world. Belief in the possibility of developing a Renaissance personality. Evil is not global in nature, it is defeatable (Romeo and Juliet: families made peace over the grave of their children) and is associated with what is already a thing of the past (medieval family feud)

II period (1601-1608). Tragedies. “Hamlet” (1601), “Othello” (1604), “Macbeth” (1605), “King Lear” (1605), etc. Awareness of the tragic contradictions of human existence and their insolubility. This is the result of the deepening of Sh.’s philosophical views and the development of the Renaissance in general. Evil is all-encompassing. You can overcome its manifestation, but not itself (what did I say?).

III period. (1609 -1616) Tragicomedies (plays with intensely dramatic content, but a happy ending). Baroque aesthetics. Tragedy is overcome with the help of stoic morality. Fairytale motifs. Mask characters. Happy endings are the result of chance.

Another option for dividing Shakespeare's TV:

The Shakespearean canon includes 37 plays; 18 appeared during Shakespeare's lifetime, 36 were published in the first collected works of Shakespeare (1623, "Pericles" was not included). Attempts to establish the chronology of Shakespeare's work began from the 2nd half of the 18th century. Below is a list of Shakespeare's plays with the dates of their writing, with the periodization of creativity and genre definitions accepted in Shakespearean criticism

First period (1590-1594). Early chronicles: "Henry VI", part 2 (1590); "Henry VI", part 3 (1591); "Henry VI", part 1 (1592); "Richard III" (1593). Early comedies: The Comedy of Errors (1592), The Taming of the Shrew (1593). Early tragedy: Titus Andronicus (1594).

Second period (1595-1600). Chronicles close to the tragedy: "Richard II" (1595); "King John" (1596). Romantic comedies: "The Two Gentlemen of Verona" (1594); "Love's Labour's Lost" (1594); "A Midsummer Night's Dream" (1596); "The Merchant of Venice" (1596). The first mature tragedy: "Romeo and Juliet" (1595). Chronicles close to comedy: "Henry IV", part 1 (1597); "Henry IV", part 2 (1598); "Henry V" (1598). The pinnacle creations of Shakespeare as a comedian: “Much Ado About Nothing” (1598); "The Merry Wives of Windsor" (1598); "As You Like It" (1599); "Twelfth Night" (1600).

Third period (1600-1608). Tragedies that marked a turning point in Shakespeare’s work: “Julius Caesar” (1599); "Hamlet" (1601). "Dark Comedies" (or "problem plays"): "Troilus and Cressida" (1602); “The end is the crown of the matter” (1603); "Measure for Measure" (1604). The pinnacle of Shakespeare's tragedy: Othello (1604); "King Lear" (1605); "Macbeth" (1606). Ancient tragedies: "Antony and Cleopatra" (1607); "Coriolanus" (1607); "Timon of Athens" (1608).

Fourth period (1609-1613). Romantic tragicomedies: "Pericles" (1609); "Cymbeline" (1610); "The Winter's Tale" (1611); "The Tempest" (1612). Late chronicle: "Henry VIII" (1613; possibly with the participation of J. Fletcher).

Outside the canon: "Edward III" (1594-1595; authorship doubtful); "Thomas More" (1594-1595; one scene); "Two Noble Kinsmen" (1613, together with Fletcher). Some Shakespeare scholars (including Soviet ones - A. A. Smirnov) divide Shakespeare's work into three periods, combining the 1st and 2nd (1590-1600) into one.

Shakespeare's work absorbed all the most important radiations of the Renaissance - aesthetic (synthesizing the traditions and motifs of popular romantic genres, Renaissance poetry and prose, folklore, humanistic and folk dramas) and ideological (demonstrating the entire ideological complex of the time: traditional ideas about the world order, the views of defenders of feudal -patriarchal structure and political centralization, motives of Christian ethics, Renaissance neoplatonism and stoicism, ideas of sensationalism and Machiavellianism, etc.). This synthetic nature, combined with a comprehensive coverage of life phenomena and characters, determined the vital fullness of Shakespeare’s works. But at different stages of Shakespeare’s creative path, reality in his works appeared with different facets and in different lighting. The ideology of humanism, combined with the ideals and aspirations of the people, has always remained the basis of Shakespeare's plays. However, it is no coincidence that Shakespeare's genius was most fully expressed in dramaturgy, which by its very essence is more capable of conveying the drama of life than other types of art. The socio-economic processes that caused the cultural revolution called the Renaissance began later in England and proceeded faster than on the continent. The contradictions and contrasts of the era were revealed here more sharply and rapidly, and the milestones in the development of humanistic thought (confidence in the imminent triumph of humanistic ideals - and rejection of it, a time of hope - and disappointment), separated, for example, in Italy for centuries, in England fit into the consciousness of one generation . Shakespeare, more than anyone else, was able to capture and expose the contradictions of his time - hence the dynamics and drama of his works, the intensity of struggle, clashes, and conflicts. A deep understanding of the trends of the time also determined the dynamism of his attitude to reality, which, along with the growth of skill, determines the evolution of his work.

Already the works of the 1st period indicate that Shakespeare keenly feels the comic and tragic incongruities of life, but depicts them in many ways traditionally: the tragic as terrible, the comic as farcical and in isolation from each other. Shakespeare is still learning, assimilating both the national tradition (C. Marlowe’s “bloody tragedy”) and the pan-European one (focusing on ancient models - Plautus in The Comedy of Errors, Seneca in Titus Andronicus - and the Italian humanistic comedy in The Taming of the Shrew ). Shakespeare’s humanistic position has not yet fully taken shape: the positive heroes of the chronicles gravitate towards antiquity, the influence of patriarchal morality is noticeable in comedies.

In the 2nd period, the drama of life is still the basis of Shakespeare's work, however, the general tonality and endings of the plays speak of Shakespeare's faith in the harmonious resolution of life's contradictions. The atmosphere of the works is determined by those who affirm harmony in the state, in public and personal relations (Romeo and Juliet, Viola, Henry V). The carriers of evil (Tybalt, Shylock, Malvolio) - alone. The organic fusion of the comic and tragic in the plays of this period, the unconditional triumph of the principles of humanism, the ability to dissolve ideas in situations and complex images, the desire to embody ideals in full-fledged characters testify to the maturity and independence of Shakespeare's mastery.

In the 1590s, Shakespeare's work was dominated by chronicle plays and comedies. 8 chronicles form 2 cycles covering the history of England 1397-1485. The early cycle (3 parts "Henry VI" and "Richard II") depicts the War of the Roses and the fall of the Lancaster dynasty, showing the collapse of the state due to feudal predation. The second ("Richard II", 2 parts of "Henry IV" and "Henry V") is devoted to the previous period - the rise of the Lancastrians and the successes of England in the Hundred Years' War - and points the way from anarchy to state unity. Standing alone, "King John" and "Henry VIII" depict conflicts within the country in connection with the struggle of the English monarchy against the Roman Catholic Church. The main plot of the chronicles is the fate of the state, taken from a historical perspective; the main conflict is based on the clash of state and personal interests and is revealed in the struggle of entire social groups, which are represented by individual characters, depicted more schematically in the early chronicles and as living individuals in the mature ones (Hotspur, Prince Harry, Falstaff). The main idea of ​​the chronicles - the legitimacy of the victory of centralized power (absolutism) over anarchic self-will - reflects the ideology of humanists. Humanistic views, combined with popular concepts of good and bad rulers, are also reflected in the way the ideal king Henry V and his antipode Richard III are depicted. However, the personalities of almost all the monarchs in the chronicles show that Shakespeare was aware of how far from the ideal the real bearers of power were, and the illusory nature of the ideal of an absolutist monarchy in general.

If the sphere of the chronicles is man and the state, then the sphere of Shakespeare's comedies in the 1590s is man and nature in the universal and optimistic meaning that humanists gave to nature, seeing in it an all-good and omnipotent force and considering man and society as part of it. In Shakespeare's comedies, the ideal, identical to the natural, dominates. Hence the kinship between Shakespeare's comedies and romantic literature: the plot is rich in folklore, adventurous and pastoral motifs, the main theme is love and friendship, the main group of characters are lyrical and romantic heroes and heroines. The movement of life as the movement of uninhibited nature in all its fullness and abundance is a unique source of comedy in Shakespeare, which explains why his comedy, unlike all subsequent European comedy, does not have a pronounced satirical character. Duels of wit, the antics of jesters and the amusement of simpletons (the second main group of comic characters), elements of festivity dating back to ancient rituals and carnival - all this play of free nature determines the atmosphere of fun and optimism in Shakespeare's comedies. The world appears harmonious and holistic, life is a joyful holiday, people are essentially kind and noble. There are also dramatic complications in comedies (the betrayals of Proteus in The Two Gentlemen of Verona, the machinations of Shylock in The Merchant of Venice), but everything hostile to true humanity is easily overcome and, as a rule, is not associated with social reasons. Shakespeare's comedy of the 1590s is not interested in specific social relations; The picture is different in the comedies of the 1600s. Significant social and moral issues are raised here (problems of social inequality - “The end is the crown of the matter”, law and morality - “Measure for measure”); elements of satire and grotesque are more noticeable, the action is close to tragic, happy endings are formal, the cheerful tone disappears.

The gloomy flavor of “problematic comedies” reflects the mentality that prevailed in Shakespeare in the 3rd period and made tragedy the dominant genre in these years. The contradictions of bourgeois progress and the entire transitional stage of social development at the junction of feudalism and capitalism are now perceived as tragically insoluble contradictions of life as a whole, as a discrepancy with the humanistic ideals of the entire past, present and immediate future of humanity. The social basis in Shakespeare is rarely as exposed as in Timon of Athens (the essence of money) or in Coriolanus (the contradictions between the people and the ruling elite). Social conflict usually appears as a moral conflict, family ("Hamlet", "King Lear"), personal ("Othello"), as a struggle of ambitions ("Macbeth", "Antony and Cleopatra"). The main theme of Shakespeare's tragedies - man and society - is revealed primarily in the clash of individuals. But at the same time, the conflict covers the entire chain of existence: acquiring a worldwide, even cosmic character, it is simultaneously projected into the consciousness of the hero. In "King Lear", "Coriolanus" and "Timon of Athens" the emphasis is on the first, in "Othello", "Macbeth" and "Antony and Cleopatra" - on the second, in "Hamlet" the emphasis is equivalent. Regardless of this, the essence of Shakespeare's tragic humanism is most fully revealed in the image of the main character. The heroes of tragedies are titanic both in the power of their characters and in their ability to see social and world troubles in personal troubles. By endowing the heroes with the ability for spiritual growth, Shakespeare was the first in world literature to give a deep depiction of character in development, which occurs in the process of the hero's gradual awareness of the nature of society - and his own nature. At the same time, some heroes retain the integrity of their nature (Richard III, Romeo, Juliet, Coriolanus), others comprehend the duality of themselves and human nature in general (Brutus, Hamlet, Macbeth, Antony); but knowledge of reality and self-knowledge for everyone serves as a source of tragic suffering (often aggravated by the awareness of one’s own fatal mistakes - Antony, Macbeth, especially Othello, Lear) and leads to spiritual change, sometimes to a complete transformation of personality (Lear). The very grandeur of the virtues - reason (Brutus, Hamlet), feelings (Romeo, Othello), strength of character (Macbeth) - attracts the hero to death. Inevitably following from the incompatibility of the hero and the world (although the significant role of accidents leading to the tragic outcome gives the manifestation of the tragic a taste of mystery), the death of the hero, like the entire action, affirms the greatness of the human personality and does not leave a hopeless feeling. At the end of tragedies there is always a return to a certain balance that existed at the beginning. This compositional feature of the tragedies reflects the confidence of Shakespeare the humanist in the existence of a certain norm, without which life is impossible.

Associated with the deepening crisis of humanism, a new, more complex vision of the world was expressed by Shakespeare in the 4th period in the genre of romantic tragicomedy, characteristic of mannerism and baroque. The still acute perception of the tragic side of life is embodied here in tragic conflicts and ups and downs, and faith in humanistic ideals is mainly in a happy ending, however, undisguisedly utopian. The abundance of folklore and fantastic elements, the improbability and complexity of the plots, the simplification of the characters, the emphasized (especially in the finale) conventionality of the depicted - all this creates an unrealistic, romantic flavor of Shakespeare's last plays.

Despite all the differences between the individual stages of Shakespeare’s creative path, the unity of his artistic method is felt in all his plays. Goethe noted that "... the great basis of his (i.e. Shakespeare's) works is truth and life itself." However, the nature of life's truthfulness in Shakespeare is different than in later realism, and is determined by the poetic vision of the world, which is obvious already in the choice of plots. No plot sources have been found for only three of Shakespeare's plays (Love's Labour's Lost, A Midsummer Night's Dream, The Merry Wives of Windsor). In other cases, Shakespeare took ready-made plots from history (for example, from R. Holinshed's Chronicles), legends, poems, and short stories. The traditional nature of the plots, firstly, imparted an epic quality to the action and made it possible to reflect the main moments of the state and political history of mankind, to cover the most essential aspects of life; secondly, it gave authenticity to the life situations depicted in the plots, freeing us from the need to maintain the verisimilitude of details and justify events and actions (for example, to explain Lear’s refusal of power); thirdly, she introduced into Shakespeare’s plays, along with fairy-tale motifs, the features of folk poetic thinking. The abundance of anachronisms (the duke in ancient Athens, billiards in Ancient Egypt, etc.), the convention of the place of action (sometimes clearly indicated, sometimes not indicated at all) and time (different, for example, for different characters - the so-called double time) and others Shakespeare's "inaccuracies" (also explained by theatrical conditions, an orientation towards the perception of the play from the stage), elements of fantasy and the supernatural, a combination of the conventional and naturalistic (and in general a convergence of contrasts) - all these are manifestations of a poetically imaginative approach to reality. Shakespeare’s poetic vision of the world is also indicated by the presence of two or more storylines in one play by Shakespeare: comparable stories (Lear and Gloucester, Hamlet and Laertes) create a figurative idea of ​​some of the laws of life; incomparable (the relationship between Britain and Rome in Cymbeline) combine to transform the play into a poetic model of the world. Shakespeare's poetic method is also reflected in the way he portrays history in chronicles and tragedies. He boldly transforms historical material, making it the basis of a general picture of life and combining the signs of the past with his contemporary understanding of human relations. By dramatizing history, Shakespeare portrays it through the clashes of individual people. Man is the focus of all of Shakespeare's dramaturgy, and the depiction of the human personality in all its versatility, significance and grandeur, complexity and dynamics of spiritual development is Shakespeare's most important artistic achievement. Shakespeare's depiction of the variability and versatility of personality is dramatic in essence, because a change in personality is primarily associated with a change in the real position of the hero - his place in life, his environment - and occurs in jerks; showing the versatility of character, Shakespeare often sacrifices his logic for the sake of heightening drama. At the same time, the characters put their feelings and thoughts into a metaphorically poetic form. Many speeches are independent poems. Shakespeare uses all the richness of poetic imagery. The figurative series correspond to the character of the hero and his evolution (the sublime, ideal structure of images in Othello’s speech at the beginning of the play is later layered with base images close to Iago’s speech, and with the “purification” of Othello his language is also purified), the figurative leitmotifs correspond to the general coloring of the play. The expressiveness and variety of poetic and dramatic means made Shakespeare's work one of the pinnacles of world art.