General concepts of systems, characteristics, properties, classification. Kozyr N.S. System properties of the organization

Systems theory was first applied in the exact sciences and technology. Application of systems theory in management in the late 50s. was the most important contribution of the school of management science. A systems approach is not a set of guidelines or principles for managers - it is a way of thinking in relation to organization and management1.

A system2 consisting of a certain set of interconnected elements (parts) differs from a set of the same, but separate elements in that:

The system is aimed at achieving certain goals; in a set of elements, each of them can have its own goal, the totality of which will not be identical to the goals of the system;

the system has a structure determined by a network of connections between elements; the set of elements of the connection network has no structure;

the system is capable of self-organization due to the synergy of properties inherent in its constituent elements; a set of elements does not have this ability;

“the system has properties that are not possessed by any of its elements taken separately (for example, a system consisting of two parts of the organization has the property of efficiency: a technological subsystem and a social subsystem. None of these subsystems individually has this property);

The system has interconnected properties of integrity and isolation; a set of elements has only the property of isolation.

Thus, all organizations are systems, since a system is a certain integrity consisting of interdependent parts, each of which contributes to the characteristics of the whole. Since people are components of organizations (social components), along with technology (technical components), which

Meskan M-X., Albert M., Khedouri F. Fundamentals of management / Transl. from English M.: Delo, 1992. P. 79.

2Kr&yat no. AND. Strategic management company. M„Russian Business Literature, 1998. P. 436-440,

that are used to do work are called socio-technical systems. Just like in a biological organism, in an organization its parts are interdependent (Fig. 5 1)

Tsel enapr av lei sostі. Structurality? Self-realization * Interchangeability of parts

The relationship between integrity and separateness

Rice. 5th. Systematic organization

Since a system is a whole created from parts and elements, for purposeful activity the signs of this system are: -

many elements and parts; -

unity of the main purpose for all elements and parts; -

the presence of connections between elements or parts; -

integrity and unity of elements or parts; -

structure and hierarchy; -

relative independence, ™ clear, pronounced controllability

The system can be large and it is advisable to divide it into a number of subsystems. A subsystem is a set of elements representing an autonomous area within the system (for example, economic, social, organizational, technical subsystems)1,

Chchshnt:> L Os-popy toprsht organizations M UNPTI, 2000. From 14

Large components of complex systems such as an organization, a person or a machine are often systems1. These parts are called subsystems. The concept of a subsystem is an important concept in organization management. By dividing an organization into departments, management deliberately creates subsystems within the organization. Systems such as management and various levels of management play an important role in the organization as a whole. Subsystems can, in turn, consist of smaller subsystems. Because they are all interdependent, the malfunction of even the smallest subsystem can affect the system as a whole. Understanding that organizations are complex open systems consisting of several interdependent subsystems helps explain why each of the schools of management has proven to be practical only within limited limits .

Each school sought to focus on one subsystem4

the behaviorist (behavioural) school was mainly concerned with the social subsystem,

schools of scientific management and management science - mainly technical subsystems

Consequently, they were often unable to correctly identify all the major components of an organization. Neither school gave serious thought to the impact of the environment on the organization. More recent research shows that this is a very important aspect of organizational performance. It is now widely believed that external forces can be the main determinants2 of success. organizations that predetermine which tools in the management arsenal are likely to be appropriate and most likely to be successful.

The properties of the systems are.

the system has a need for control;

a complex dependence is formed on the system on the properties of its constituent elements and subsystems (a system may have properties that are not inherent in its elements, and may not have the properties of its elements)

The systems have the following classification:

“a technical subsystem in which the range of solutions is limited and the consequences of decisions are usually predetermined;

1Meskon M X and others Fundamentals of Management C 80.

Determinant-lat determans (d?terminantis) - determining - Irgshech

3 Pol.robpss cm Smirnoe 3 A Fundamentals of organization theory C 1^-19

A biological subsystem, the set of solutions in which is also limited due to slow evolutionary development. However, the consequences of decisions in these subsystems are often unpredictable;

The social subsystem is characterized by the presence of a person in a set of interconnected elements. The set of solutions for this subsystem is characterized by great dynamism both in quantity and in means* and methods of implementation;

artificial systems are created by man to implement given programs or goals;

natural systems are created by nature, by man, to realize the goals of world existence;

open systems are characterized by the open nature of connections with the external environment and strong dependence on it;

closed systems are characterized primarily by internal connections and are created to meet the needs of their personnel;

deterministic (predictable) systems operate according to predetermined rules, with a predetermined result;

stochastic (probabilistic) systems are characterized by difficult to predict input influences of the external and (or) internal environment and output results;

soft systems are characterized by high sensitivity to external influences, and as a result, poor stability;

rigid systems are usually authoritarian, based on the high professionalism of a small group of leaders or an organization. Such systems are highly resistant to external influences and react poorly to small impacts;

In addition to the above systems, systems can be simple and complex, active and passive.

It should be noted that the technical, biological and social subsystems have different levels of uncertainty in the results of decision implementation. Each organization must have all the features of the system. The loss of at least one of them inevitably leads the organization to liquidation. Thus, the systemic nature of an organization is a necessary condition for its activities. A systematic approach requires taking into account all key elements (internal and external) that influence decision-making, as well as the largest expenditure of resources and time,

SYSTEM PROPERTIES OF THE ORGANIZATION

Kozyr Natalya Sergeevna
Kuban State University
Candidate of Economic Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of World Economics and Management

SYSTEM PROPERTIES OF THE ORGANIZATION

Kozyr Natalia Sergeevna
Kuban State University
candidate of economic sciences, associate Professor of the Department of World Economics and Management

Sist ema (from the Greek systema - a whole made up of parts; connection), a set of elements that are in relationships and connections with each other, which forms a certain integrity, unity.

When defining the concept of a system, it is necessary to take into account its close relationship with the concepts of integrity, structure, connection, element, relationship, subsystem, etc.

Basic system principles(System / Great Soviet Encyclopedia):

1) integrity – the fundamental irreducibility of the properties of a system to the sum of the properties of its constituent elements and the irreducibility of the latter properties of the whole; the dependence of each element, property and relationship of the system on its place, functions, etc. within the whole;

2) structure – the ability to describe a system through establishing its structure, i.e. networks of connections and relationships; the conditionality of the behavior of the system by the behavior of its individual elements and the properties of its structure;

3) interdependence of the system and the environment (forms and manifests its properties in the process of interaction with the environment, while remaining the leading active component);

4) hierarchy – each component, being an element of the overall system, can be considered independently as a separate system, and studied in in this case the system is one component of a wider system;

5) multiplicity of description - the fundamental complexity of the system requires the construction of many different models, each of which describes only its specific aspect, etc.

System principles formed the basis of " system properties of the organization", which are described in management theory (table).

Some definitions presented in the “organization theory” reflect systemic principles in their meaning:

– structure is equivalent to connectivity;

– the interdependence of the system and the environment is inherently similar to the concepts of homeostasis and self-preservation.

Table– Systemic properties of an organization, presented in textbooks and teaching aids on “Organization Theory”

For example, in the works of scientists various classifications are given in relation to enterprises of the sectoral economy: industrial reviews, energy resources, agro-industrial complex, livestock farming, automobile market, logistics, retail, banking sector, etc.

At the same time, the system property “emergence” has become widespread, which is found in all textbooks and teaching aids on organization theory. In practice, this property is more often used as a synergy effect and is reflected in publications devoted to the organizational development of enterprises.

In some publications, system properties have an expanded structure and detailed classification. Of course, this allows you to expand the boundaries of knowledge and, in the future, apply it in the process of studying organizations.

However, it is important to pay attention to the meaning of studying the systemic properties of an organization and their purpose. For example, the basic system principles only in their totality allow us to identify the concept of “system”. In turn, the totality system properties allows the organization to be a system.

Thus, considering any organization as a system, the following properties can be identified: 1) integrity ; 2) structure (connectivity); 3) emergence ; 4) homeostasis (self-preservation).

If one of the system properties is lost, there is a threat of destruction of the organization. Here we're talking about that regardless of the ability to realize or recognize a particular property using the example of an organization, it is their simultaneous presence that allows the organization to be a system (figure).

Drawing– Systemic properties of the organization (compiled by the author)

1) Integrity– the property of an organization to be a single whole, regardless of the number and complexity of its components. Each element has its own qualities, exhibits individual properties and has a specific place in the overall structure of the organization, while the entire set of elements forms a single system.

2) Structurality(connectivity) – mutual influence of organizational elements on each other, forming connections and relationships. Identifying and defining these relationships allows us to describe the structure of the organization.

3) Emergence– the presence of additional special properties in the system that are not inherent in its subsystems. Organization potential more than the amount potentials of the elements included in the system separately.

4) Homeostasis (self-preservation)– maintaining parameters that are essential for maintaining the system within acceptable limits. The organization strives to maintain its potential under the influence of the external and internal environment.

Every organization is an element of nature and society and is a system regardless of our awareness. The only difference is in the efficiency of the system, which can develop successfully, or vice versa – destructively. The successful development of any company depends on the ability of top management to comprehensively perceive the organization as a system, and all production and economic aspects of activity must be formalized in the relevant internal company documents.

Thus, the importance of competent identification and awareness of the systemic properties of an organization is as follows: assessing the manifestation of each property allows one to diagnose the coherence of the work of all elements within the organization and manage the development of the company, ensuring positive dynamics of the life cycle. Identification of a weak or destructive manifestation of one of the systemic properties ( integrity, structure, emergence, homeostasis), is an indicator of the need for appropriate management decisions to eliminate negative processes that will transform the negative manifestations of intra-company elements into positive development organization as a successful and prosperous system.

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Organization theory is based on systems theory.

System– this is 1) a whole created from parts and elements of purposeful activity and possessing new properties that are absent in the elements and parts that form it; 2) the objective part of the universe, including similar and compatible elements that form a special whole that interacts with the external environment. Many other definitions are also acceptable. What they have in common is that the system is some correct combination of the most important, essential properties of the object being studied.

The characteristics of a system are the multitude of its constituent elements, the unity of the main goal for all elements, the presence of connections between them, the integrity and unity of the elements, the presence of structure and hierarchy, relative independence and the presence of control over these elements. The term "organization" in one of its lexical meanings also means “system”, but not any system, but to a certain extent ordered, organized.

The system may include a large list of elements and it is advisable to divide it into a number of subsystems.

Subsystem– a set of elements representing an autonomous area within the system (economic, organizational, technical subsystems).

Large systems (LS)– systems represented by a set of subsystems of an ever-decreasing level of complexity down to elementary subsystems that perform basic elementary functions within a given large system.

The system has a number of properties.

Properties of the system - these are the qualities of elements that make it possible to quantitatively describe the system and express it in certain quantities.

The basic properties of the systems are as follows:

• – the system strives to preserve its structure (this property is based on the objective law of organization - the law of self-preservation);
• – the system has a need for management (there is a set of needs of a person, an animal, society, a herd of animals and a large society);
• – a complex dependence is formed in the system on the properties of its constituent elements and subsystems (a system may have properties that are not inherent in its elements, and may not have the properties of its elements). For example, when teamwork people may have an idea that would not have occurred to them individual work; The collective, created by teacher Makarenko from street children, did not accept the theft, swearing, and disorder characteristic of almost all of its members.

In addition to the listed properties, large systems have the properties of emergence, synergy and multiplicativity.

Emergence property– this is 1) one of the primary fundamental properties of large systems, meaning that the target functions of individual subsystems, as a rule, do not coincide with the target function of the BS itself; 2) the emergence of qualitatively new properties in organized system, absent from its elements and not characteristic of them.

Property of synergy– one of the primary fundamental properties of large systems, meaning the unidirectionality of actions in the system, which leads to strengthening (multiplication) of the final result.

Multiplicativity property– one of the primary fundamental properties of large systems, meaning that effects, both positive and negative, in the BS have the property of multiplication.

Each system has an input effect, a processing system, final results and feedback

Systems can be classified according to various signs, however, the main one is their grouping in three subsystems: technical, biological and social.

Technical subsystem includes machines, equipment, computers and other operable products that have instructions for the user. The range of decisions in a technical system is limited and the consequences of decisions are usually predetermined. For example, the procedure for turning on and working with a computer, the procedure for driving a car, the method for calculating mast supports for power lines, solving problems in mathematics, etc. Such decisions are formalized in nature and are carried out in a strictly defined order. The professionalism of the specialist making decisions in a technical system determines the quality of the decision made and implemented. For example, a good programmer can effectively use computer resources and create a high-quality software product, while an unskilled one can ruin information and technical base computer.

Biological subsystem includes the flora and fauna of the planet, including relatively closed biological subsystems, for example, an anthill, the human body, etc. This subsystem has a greater variety of functioning than the technical one. The range of solutions in a biological system is also limited due to the slow evolutionary development of the animal and plant world. However, the consequences of decisions in biological subsystems are often unpredictable. For example, a doctor’s decisions related to methods and means of treating patients, an agronomist’s decisions on the use of certain chemicals as fertilizers. Solutions in such subsystems involve the development of several alternative options and the selection of the best one based on some criteria. The professionalism of a specialist is determined by his ability to find the best of alternative solutions, i.e. he must correctly answer the question: what will happen if..?

Social (public) subsystem characterized by the presence of a person in a set of interrelated elements. Typical examples of social subsystems include a family, a production team, an informal organization, a driver driving a car, and even one individual (by himself). These subsystems are significantly ahead of biological ones in terms of diversity of functioning. Set of solutions in social subsystem characterized by great dynamism, both in quantity and in means and methods of implementation. This is explained by the high rate of change in a person’s consciousness, as well as the nuances in his reactions to the same situations of the same type.

The listed types of subsystems have different levels of uncertainty (unpredictability) in the results of decision implementation

The relationship between uncertainties in the activities of various subsystems

It is no coincidence that in world practice it is easier to obtain the status of a professional in the technical subsystem, much more difficult in the biological and extremely difficult in the social!

One can cite very big list outstanding designers, inventors, workers, physicists and other technical specialists; significantly fewer - outstanding doctors, veterinarians, biologists, etc.; you can list on your fingers the outstanding leaders of states, organizations, heads of families, etc.

Among the outstanding personalities who worked with the technical subsystem, a worthy place is occupied by: I. Kepler (1571–1630) - German astronomer; I. Newton (1643–1727) – English mathematician, mechanic, astronomer and physicist; M.V. Lomonosov (1711–1765) – Russian naturalist; P.S. Laplace (1749–1827) – French mathematician, astronomer, physicist; A. Einstein (1879–1955) – theoretical physicist, one of the founders of modern physics; S.P. Korolev (1906/07–1966) – Soviet designer, etc.

Among the outstanding scientists who worked with the biological subsystem are the following: Hippocrates (c. 460 - c. 370 BC) - ancient Greek doctor, materialist; K. Linnaeus (1707–1778) – Swedish naturalist; Charles Darwin (1809–1882) – English naturalist; IN AND. Vernadsky (1863–1945) – naturalist, geo- and biochemist, etc.

Among the personalities working in the social subsystem, there are no generally recognized leaders. Although, according to a number of characteristics, they include the Russian Emperor Peter I, the American businessman G . Ford and other personalities.

A social system may include biological and technical subsystems, and a biological system may include a technical one.

Social, biological and technical systems can be: artificial and natural, open and closed, fully and partially predictable (deterministic and stochastic), hard and soft. In the future, the classification of systems will be considered using the example of social systems.

Artificial systems are created at the request of a person or any society to implement intended programs or goals. For example, a family, a design bureau, a student union, an election association.

Natural systems created by nature or society. For example, the system of the universe, the cyclical system of land use, the strategy for sustainable development of the world economy.

Open systems characterized by a wide range of connections with the external environment and strong dependence on it. For example, commercial firms, the media, local authorities.

Closed systems characterized mainly by internal connections and created by people or companies to satisfy the needs and interests primarily of their personnel, company or founders. For example, trade unions, political parties, Masonic societies, the family in the East.

Deterministic (predictable) systems operate according to predetermined rules, with a predetermined result. For example, teaching students at an institute, producing standard products.

Stochastic (probabilistic) systems characterized by difficult to predict input influences of the external and (or) internal environment and output results. For example, research units, entrepreneurial companies, playing Russian lotto.

Soft systems are characterized by high sensitivity to external influences, and as a result, poor stability. For example, a system of stock quotes, new organizations, a person in the absence of firm life goals.

Rigid systems are usually authoritarian, based on the high professionalism of a small group of organizational leaders. Such systems are highly resistant to external influences and react poorly to small impacts. For example, the church, authoritarian government regimes.

In addition, systems can be simple or complex, active or passive.

Each organization must have all the features of the system. The loss of at least one of them inevitably leads the organization to liquidation. Thus, the systemic nature of an organization is a necessary condition for its activities.

SYSTEM ORGANIZATION OF MANAGEMENT. FUNCTIONAL SYSTEMS AND THEIR INTERACTION

The idea of ​​self-regulation of physiological functions is most fully reflected in the theory of functional systems developed by Academician P.K. Anokhin. According to this theory, the balancing of the organism with its environment is carried out by self-organizing functional systems.

Functional systems (FS) are a dynamically developing self-regulating complex of central and peripheral formations, ensuring the achievement of useful adaptive results.

The result of the action of any PS is a vital adaptive indicator necessary for the normal functioning of the body in biological and social terms. This implies the system-forming role of the result of an action. It is to achieve a certain adaptive result that FSs are formed, the complexity of the organization of which is determined by the nature of this result.

The variety of adaptive results useful for the body can be reduced to several groups: 1) metabolic results, which are a consequence of metabolic processes at the molecular (biochemical) level, creating substrates or end products necessary for life; 2) homeopathic results, which are leading indicators of body fluids: blood, lymph, interstitial fluid (osmotic pressure, pH, nutrient content, oxygen, hormones, etc.), providing various aspects of normal metabolism; 3) the results of behavioral activity of animals and humans, satisfying basic metabolic and biological needs: food, drinking, sexual, etc.; 4) the results of human social activity that satisfy social (creation of a social product of labor, environmental protection, protection of the fatherland, improvement of everyday life) and spiritual (acquisition of knowledge, creativity) needs.

Each FS includes various organs and tissues.

The inclusion of individual organs and tissues in the FS is carried out according to the principle of interaction, which provides for the active participation of each element of the system in achieving a useful adaptive result.

In the example given, each element actively contributes to maintaining the gas composition of the blood: the lungs provide gas exchange, the blood binds and transports O2 and CO2, the heart and blood vessels provide the necessary speed and volume of blood movement.

To achieve results at different levels, multi-level FSs are also formed. FS at any level of organization has a fundamentally similar structure, which includes 5 main components: 1) a useful adaptive result; 2) result acceptors (control devices); 3) reverse afferentation, supplying information from receptors to the central link of the FS; 4) central architectonics - selective association of nervous elements of various levels into special nodal mechanisms (control devices); 5) executive components (reaction apparatuses) - somatic, autonomic, endocrine, behavioral. The diagram of the functional system according to P.K. Anokhin is shown in Fig. 3.1.

The state of the internal environment is constantly monitored by the corresponding receptors. The source of changes in the parameters of the internal environment of the body is the metabolic process (metabolism) continuously flowing in cells, accompanied by the consumption of initial and formation of final products. Any deviation of parameters from parameters that are optimal for metabolism, as well as changes in results at a different level, are perceived by receptors. From the latter, information is transmitted by a feedback link to the corresponding nerve centers. Based on incoming information, structures of various levels of the central system are selectively involved in this FS. nervous system to mobilize executive bodies and systems (reaction apparatuses). The activity of the latter leads to the restoration of what is necessary for metabolism or social adaptation result.

The organization of various PS in the body is fundamentally the same.

At the same time, there are differences in their organization that are determined by the nature of the result. FS that determine various indicators of the internal environment of the body are genetically determined and often include only internal (vegetative, humoral) mechanisms of self-regulation. These include PS that determine the optimal level of blood mass, formed elements, environmental reaction (pH), and blood pressure for tissue metabolism.

Other PS of the homeostatic level also include an external link of self-regulation, which involves the interaction of the body with the external environment. In the work of some PS, the external link plays a relatively passive role as a source of necessary substrates (for example, oxygen for PS respiration); in others, the external link of self-regulation is active and includes purposeful human behavior in the environment, aimed at its transformation. These include PS, which provides the body with optimal levels of nutrients, osmotic pressure, and body temperature.

FS of the behavioral and social level are extremely dynamic in their organization and are formed as appropriate needs arise. In such FS, the external link of self-regulation plays a leading role. At the same time, human behavior is determined and corrected genetically, individually acquired experience, as well as numerous disturbing influences. An example of such FS is human production activity to achieve a socially significant result for society and the individual: the creativity of scientists, artists, writers. body needs. The excitement created by the dominant motivation mobilizes genetic and individually acquired experience (memory) to satisfy this need. Information about the state of the living environment, supplied by situational afferentation, allows in a specific situation to assess the possibility and, if necessary, correct past experience of satisfying a need. The interaction of excitations created by dominant motivation, memory mechanisms and environmental afferentation creates a state of readiness (pre-launch integration) necessary to obtain an adaptive result. Triggering afferentation transfers the system from a state of readiness to a state of activity. At the stage of afferent synthesis, the dominant motivation determines what to do, memory - how to do it, situational and trigger afferentation - when to do it in order to achieve the desired result.

The stage of afferent synthesis ends with decision making.

At this stage, out of many possible ones, a single path is chosen to satisfy the leading needs of the body. There is a restriction in the degrees of freedom of activity of the FS.

Following the decision, an acceptor of the action result and an action program are formed. In the action result acceptor, all the main features of the future result of the action are programmed. This programming occurs on the basis of dominant motivation, which extracts from memory mechanisms the necessary information about the characteristics of the result and the ways to achieve it. Thus, the acceptor of action results is an apparatus for foresight, forecasting, modeling the results of the FS activity, where the parameters of the result are modeled and compared with the afferent model. Information about outcome parameters is provided using reverse afferentation.

A necessary link in the work of the FS is reverse afferentation. With its help, individual stages and the final result of systems activity are assessed. Information from the receptors arrives through afferent nerves and humoral communication channels to the structures that make up the acceptor of the result of the action. The coincidence of the parameters of the real result and the properties of its model prepared in the acceptor means the satisfaction of the initial needs of the organism.

The activities of the FS end here. Its components can be used in other file systems. If the parameters of the result and the properties of the model prepared on the basis of afferent synthesis in the acceptor of the results of the action do not coincide, an indicative-exploratory reaction occurs. It leads to a restructuring of afferent synthesis, the adoption of a new decision, clarification of the characteristics of the model in the acceptor of the results of the action and the program for achieving them. The activities of the FS are carried out in a new direction necessary to satisfy the leading need.

Principles of FS interaction. Several functional systems operate simultaneously in the body, which provides for their interaction, which is based on certain principles.

The principle of systemogenesis involves selective maturation and involution of functional systems. Thus, the PS of blood circulation, respiration, nutrition and their individual components in the process of ontogenesis mature and develop earlier than other PS.

The principle of hierarchy assumes that the body's physical functions are arranged in a certain row in accordance with biological or social significance. For example, in biological terms, the dominant position is occupied by the PS, which ensures the preservation of tissue integrity, then by the PS of nutrition, reproduction, etc. The activity of the organism in each time period is determined by the dominant PS in terms of survival or adaptation of the organism to the conditions of existence. After satisfying one leading need, another most important need in terms of social or biological significance takes a dominant position.

The principle of sequential dynamic interaction provides for a clear sequence of changes in the activities of several interconnected FS. The factor determining the beginning of the activity of each subsequent FS is the result of the activity of the previous system. Another principle for organizing the interaction of FS is the principle of systemic quantization of life activity. For example, in the process of breathing, the following systemic “quanta” with their final results can be distinguished: inhalation and the entry of a certain amount of air into the alveoli; diffusion of O2 from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillaries and binding of O2 to hemoglobin; O2 transport to tissues; diffusion of O2 from blood into tissues and CO2 in the opposite direction; transport of CO2 to the lungs;

diffusion of CO2 from the blood into the alveolar air; exhalation. The principle of system quantization extends to human behavior. Thus, controlling the vital activity of the body by organizing the physical functions of the homeostatic and behavioral levels has a number of properties that allow the body to adequately adapt to a changing external environment. FS allows you to respond to disturbing influences from the external environment and, based on feedback, restructure the body’s activity when the parameters of the internal environment deviate. In addition, in the central mechanisms of the FS, an apparatus for predicting future results is formed - an acceptor of the result of an action, on the basis of which the organization and initiation of adaptive acts that anticipate actual events occur, which significantly expands the adaptive capabilities of the organism. Comparison of the parameters of the achieved result with the afferent model in the acceptor of action results serves as the basis for correcting the body’s activity in terms of obtaining exactly those results that the best way

The systems approach in organization theory is used as a special methodology for scientific analysis and thinking. The essence of the systems approach lies in the idea of ​​the organization as a system. A system is a certain integrity of unity, consisting of interdependent parts, each of which contributes to the characteristics of the whole. A system, as defined by many authors, is a collection of interconnected elements. Characteristic feature Such a collection is that its properties as a system are not reduced to a simple sum of the properties of its elements.

A system (from the ancient Greek combination) is a set of interconnected elements, isolated from the environment and interacting with it as a whole. The word of Greek origin has many meanings: combination, organism, structure, organization, union, system, governing body. In ancient philosophy, this term was associated with the orderliness and integrity of natural objects.

Modern literature provides many definitions of the concept “system”. Thus, L. von Bertalanffy defined a system as a complex of interacting elements. “We will call everything consisting of parts connected to each other a system.” There are several main approaches to defining the concept of “system”.

In accordance with the first approach, a system is defined as a complex of elements that are ordered among themselves and interact. “A system is “a set of elements together with their relationships” (I. Miller), “an ensemble of interconnected elements” (G. E. Zborovsky and G. P. Orlov), “a set of objects together with connections between them and between their characteristics” (W. Ashby and J. Clear), “a whole made up of many parts. Ensemble of signs" (K. Cherry); “A system is an arrangement of physical components connected or related to each other in such a way that they form or act as a whole” (Distefano). According to the definition of Art. Vir system is “everything consisting of parts connected to each other.” A system is “a set of objects together with the relationships between the objects and between their attributes.” A system is a “total connection of bodies.”

This group of definitions generally characterizes a system as a collection of many parts (elements, subsystems) interconnected. This group of definitions relates to the philosophical understanding of the system. The key concepts here are “element”, “connection”, “interaction”, “relationship”.

However, this approach also has limitations. If we consider a system as any collection of elements that have interconnections, then the system can be any two arbitrarily selected objects with very weak connections. In accordance with the cybernetic approach, such objects cannot be recognized as systems, since the cybernetic approach to systems does not recognize “weak” connections. Thus, from the standpoint of cybernetics, the extension of connections in the Universe (especially to infinity) should weaken the interaction between parts (in the limiting case to zero), and the weakening of connections destroys the system, turns it into a conglomerate, therefore the Universe cannot be recognized as a system. And in accordance with the first approach (a system as a set of elements interconnected), the existence of any connection (interaction) between its parts is sufficient to recognize the Universe as a system. In other words, for philosophy the very fact of interconnection is important (even at an infinitesimal level), but for cybernetics only functionally significant connections are of interest.

So, the first drawback of this approach is that it gives too broad a definition, according to which almost any set of elements can be recognized as a system. However, the paradox is that at the same time this definition is too “narrow”. A significant number of objects do not fall under this definition systems, since it is impossible or difficult to describe them internal structure(elements). The system is precisely an integrity, something more than a set of initial elements. The set of elements and description is just one of possible ways descriptions, representations of the system.

In addition, these definitions of the system have another drawback, which is the lack of clarity of the existing definitions of the concepts “interaction”, “communication”, “relationship”. Different authors interpret them differently, considering communication to be one of the types of relationship and, conversely, interaction and relationship as types of connection. Only after a clear definition of these concepts can a clear understanding of the concept of “system” be achieved.

The second group of definitions reflects the point of view of cybernetics, according to which the inputs and outputs of the system are distinguished. Inputs and outputs connect the cybernetic system with the environment. Stimuli from the external environment act through inputs. System reactions are carried out through outputs. In this case, the concept of a “black box” is used, i.e. the internal, structural content of the system (box) is not disclosed. A “black box” is a thing in itself; it cannot be represented as a set of elements, since its structure is unknown. The idea of ​​systems in cybernetics is limited to a set of abstract functions. Knowledge of the functional connection of inputs and outputs is sufficient. Here are examples of “cybernetic” definitions of a system:

“A system is any set of variables that an observer selects from the variables inherent in a real “machine.”

“Systems theory is based on the assumption that the external behavior of any physical device can be described by an appropriate mathematical model that identifies all the critical properties affecting the operation of the device. The resulting mathematical model is called a system” (T. Bus);

"The system is modern language“is a device that receives one or more inputs and generates one or more outputs” (Drenik).

S. Beer noted that many systems, due to their extreme complexity, do not have specific definition. They are studied by identifying the logical and statistical connections that exist between input and output information: the system in this case is considered as a “black box”.

G. H. Goode and R. E. Macall understand input and output as external processes, acting on the system, and as output processes of the system, acting on the environment. By input and output they also understand the point of influence on the system and the point of influence of the system on the environment.

It is obvious that the cybernetic concept of “system” is maximally formalized and symbolic (a set of variables, a mathematical model, input and output functions). Cyberneticians are not interested in what is inside the “black box”; what is important is how the functions at the input of the system are connected with the output functions. It was this generalization that made it possible to see the similarity of control in a machine and in the body. However, any simplification inevitably becomes a brake on development, which is what the “black box” concept led to.

The third group consists of definitions of the system that connect it with purposeful activity. A goal is a state that a system must achieve during its operation. The goal is the direction of behavior of an open nonlinear system, the presence of a “final state” (completing only a certain stage of its development). A system is a complex unity formed by many, usually different, factors and having a common plan or serving to achieve a common goal.

I.M. Vereshchagin defines a system as “an organized set of means to achieve a common goal.” A. A. Ukhtomsky introduced the concept of a functional organ - a temporary combination of functionally different elements. This direction was developed by P.K. Anokhin, who studied the neural systems of the brain. “A system is a functional set of material formations that interact to achieve a certain result (goal) necessary to satisfy the initial need.”^

From the point of view of the role of the researcher, definitions of “system” can be divided into three groups:

• a system as a complex of processes, phenomena and connections between them that exist objectively, regardless of the observer;
• the system as a tool, a way to study processes and phenomena (abstract representation of real objects);
• system is an artificially created complex of elements designed to solve a complex organizational, technical, economic problem.

The fourth approach to defining the concept of a system is based on identifying features that allow an object to be classified as a “system”.

S. Beer identifies such properties of the system as complexity, probability, the ability to self-regulate, purposefulness, the presence of feedback and control. I. V. Blauberg and E. G. Yudin identify the following characteristics of a system: integrity, the presence of two or more types of connections, the presence of structure, levels of hierarchy, goals, processes of self-organization, functioning and development.

Let's highlight and analyze the most general properties systems

1. Integrity. The system is considered as a single whole, consisting of interacting parts, often of different quality, but at the same time compatible.

2. The presence of elements that can be described by attributes (properties of the elements themselves). The system must consist of elements that are not identical to each other. The minimum number of elements is two (subject and object, bolt and nut), the maximum is infinity. The dissimilarity of the parts of the system determines its heterogeneity.

3. The presence of connections between elements. The presence of stable connections between the elements of the system, exceeding in strength (power) the connections between the elements of the system and elements not included in the system.

4. Hierarchy (correlation property). The system elements are in various relationships each other, and each of them is located at a certain place on the hierarchical ladder of the system. Each system can have subsystems. The division of subsystems into subsystems of lower levels is called hierarchy and means the subordination of a lower level of the system to a higher one.

5. Availability of structure. The system has a certain structure, determined by the form of connections or interactions between the elements of the system.

6. The presence of a purpose for the existence of the system. The goal is the “desired” state of the system, i.e. the state that the system must achieve during its operation.

7. Emergence (from the English emergence - emergence, emergence of something new) - the presence of special properties in any system that are not inherent in its subsystems and blocks, as well as in the sum of elements not connected by special system-forming connections; irreducibility of the properties of a system to the sum of the properties of its components.

8. The presence of a larger system external to the system, called the environment. Based on the nature of interaction with the environment and the possibility of exchange of matter and energy, the following are distinguished: closed (isolated) systems (no exchange is possible); closed systems (exchange of matter is impossible); open systems (exchange of both matter and energy is possible). In nature, only open systems exist and in organizational theory are considered.

9. Adaptability. The desire for a state of stable equilibrium, which involves adapting the parameters of the system to the changing parameters of the external environment (however, “instability” is not in all cases dysfunctional for the system; it can also act as a condition for dynamic development).

10. Sustainability. The predominance of internal interactions in the system over external ones and flexibility to influence external factors, endurance and stability determine the system’s ability to self-preserve, the constancy of important parameters of the system, and its homeostasis. The probability of achieving the main goal of the system - self-preservation (including through self-reproduction) - is defined as its potential efficiency.

11. Possibility of representation as a model. Any real system can be represented in the form of some material resemblance or symbolic image, i.e. analogue or sign model, respectively. Modeling is inevitably accompanied by some simplification and formalization of the relationships in the system. This formalization can be carried out in the form of logical (cause-and-effect) and (or) mathematical (functional) relationships.

12. Availability of a language for describing the state and functional behavior of the system (isomorphism property).

The system, functioning in the external environment, is in constant change and development. The action of a system over time is called system behavior. Under the influence of external factors, the behavior of the system changes; this change in the behavior of the system is designated as the reaction of the system.

System adaptation is a qualitative change in the system’s response associated with changes in structure and aimed at stabilizing behavior.

Evolution, or development, of a system is the consolidation of adaptive changes in the structure and connections of the system over time, during which its potential effectiveness increases. Development of all material systems due to evolution. An important feature of the evolution of systems is unevenness and lack of monotony. Periods of gradual accumulation of minor changes are sometimes interrupted by sharp qualitative leaps that significantly change the properties of the system. Usually they are associated with the so-called bifurcation points - bifurcation, splitting of the previous path of evolution.

System classification

Various types of systems can be distinguished depending on the characteristics of the classification (Fig. 6.1).

1. By origin:

• natural - systems that objectively exist in animate and inanimate nature and society, which arose without human participation. For example, molecule, cell, organism, population, society. Universe;
• artificial - systems created by man. For example, a car, an enterprise, a party;
• mixed (sociotechnological, organizational and technical).

2. According to the objectivity of existence:

• real (material, which consist of real objects). Real systems are divided into natural (natural systems) and artificial (anthropogenic) systems.
• abstract (symbolic) - systems that, in essence, are models of real objects. These are languages, number systems, mathematical models, systems of science.

3. According to the nature of the connections between the system parameters and the environment:

• closed - there is no exchange of energy, matter and information with the environment. Any element of a closed system has connections only with elements of the system itself;
• open - exchanging energy, matter and information with the environment. In open systems, phenomena of self-organization, complication, or spontaneous emergence of order can occur. All real systems are open;
• combined - contain open and closed subsystems.

4. By structure:

• simple - systems that do not have branched structures, consisting of a small number of relationships and a small number of elements;
• complex - characterized by a large number of elements and internal connections, their heterogeneity and varying quality, structural diversity, and perform a complex function or a number of functions.

Note that there is another approach to assessing complexity. For example, a sign of a simple system is considered to be a relatively small amount of information required for its successful management. Systems that lack information for effective management are considered complex.

There are different types of complexity. Structural complexity is the complexity of a system characterized by a branched structure and a large variety of internal connections. Functional (computational) complexity is determined by the number of arithmetic-logical operations required to implement the system function of converting input values ​​into output values, or the amount of resources (calculation time or memory used) used in the system when solving a certain class of problems. In addition, there is a type of complexity called dynamic complexity - it arises when the connections between the elements of the system change.

5. By the nature of the functions:

• specialized - such systems are characterized by a unique purpose;
• multifunctional (universal) - allow you to implement several functions on the same structure.

6. By the nature of development:

• stable - systems whose structure and functions practically do not change throughout the entire period of existence;
• developing - systems whose structure and functions undergo significant changes over time.

7. By degree of organization:

• well organized. To present the analyzed object or process in the form of a well-organized system means to determine the elements of the system, their relationships, and the rules for combining into larger components;
• poorly organized (diffuse). When presenting an object in the form of a poorly organized or diffuse system, the task is not to determine all the components taken into account, their properties and the connections between them and the goals of the system.

8. According to the complexity of behavior:

• automatic - they respond unambiguously to a limited set of external influences;
• decisive - have constant criteria for distinguishing reactions to wide classes of external influences;
• self-organizing - have flexible discrimination criteria and flexible reactions to external influences, adapting to different types of influence;
• foresighted - can foresee the further course of development of the external environment;
• transforming - imaginary systems at the highest level of complexity, not bound by the constancy of existing media. They can change material media while maintaining their individuality. Examples of such systems are not yet known to science.

9. By the nature of connections between elements:

• deterministic - systems for which their state is uniquely determined by the initial values ​​and can be predicted for any subsequent point in time;
• stochastic - systems in which changes are random. With random influences, data on the state of the system is not enough to make a prediction at a subsequent point in time.

10. According to the management structure:

• centralized - systems in which one of the elements plays the main, dominant role;
• decentralized - systems in which all their components are approximately equally significant.

11. By size:

• one-dimensional - systems that have one input and one output;
• multidimensional - systems that have more than one input or output.

It is necessary to understand the convention of a one-dimensional system - in reality, any object has an infinite number of inputs and outputs.

12. According to the homogeneity and diversity of structural elements, systems are homogeneous, or homogeneous, and heterogeneous, or heterogeneous, as well as mixed types:

• in homogeneous systems, the structural elements of the system are homogeneous, i.e. have the same properties. In this regard, in homogeneous systems the elements are interchangeable;
• heterogeneous systems consist of dissimilar elements that do not have the property of interchangeability.

13. Based on your ability to set goals for yourself:

• causal - systems in which the goal is not internally inherent. If such a system has a target function (for example, an autopilot), then this function is specified externally by the user;
• goal-oriented (purposeful) - the goal is formed within the system.

System approach and its development

The systems approach is a direction in the philosophy and methodology of scientific knowledge, which is based on the study of objects as systems.

The peculiarity of the systems approach is that it is focused on revealing the integrity of an object and the mechanisms that provide it, identifying the diverse types of connections of a complex object and bringing them together into a single theoretical picture.

The concept of a “systems approach” (from English - systems approach) began to be widely used in the 1960s - 1970s, although the very desire to consider the object of research as an integral system arose in ancient philosophy and science (Plato, Aristotle). The idea of ​​a systematic organization of knowledge, which arose in ancient times, was formed in the Middle Ages and received its greatest development in German classical philosophy (Kant, Schelling). A classic example of systemic research is “Capital” by K. Marx. The principles of studying the organic whole embodied in it (ascension from the abstract to the concrete, the unity of analysis and synthesis, logical and historical, identification of different-quality connections and their interactions in an object, synthesis of structural-functional and genetic ideas about an object, etc.) were the most important component dialectical-materialistic methodology of scientific knowledge. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution serves as a striking example of the application of a systems approach in biology.

In the 20th century The systems approach occupies one of the leading places in scientific knowledge. This is primarily due to changes in the type of scientific and practical problems. In a number of areas of science central place problems of studying the organization and functioning of complex self-developing objects, the boundaries and composition of which are not obvious and require special research in each individual case, are beginning to be occupied. The study of such objects - multi-level, hierarchical, self-organizing biological, psychological, social, technical - required consideration of these objects as systems.

A number of scientific concepts are emerging, which are characterized by the use of the basic ideas of the systems approach. Thus, in the teachings of V.I. Vernadsky about the biosphere and noosphere scientific knowledge proposed new type objects - global systems. A. A. Bogdanov and a number of other researchers begin to develop the theory of organization. The identification of a special class of systems—information and control—served as the foundation for the emergence of cybernetics. In biology, systemic ideas are used in environmental studies, in the study of higher nervous activity, in the analysis of biological organization, and in taxonomy. In economic science, the principles of the systems approach are used in formulating and solving problems of optimal economic planning, which require the construction of multicomponent models of social systems different levels. In management practice, the ideas of the systems approach are crystallized in the methodological tools of system analysis.

Thus, the principles of the systems approach apply to almost all areas of scientific knowledge and practice. In parallel, the systematic development of these principles in methodological terms begins. Initially, methodological research was grouped around the tasks of constructing a general theory of systems (the first program for its construction and the term itself were proposed by L. Bertalanffy). In the early 1920s. the young biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy began to study organisms as specific systems, summarizing his views in the book " Modern theory development" (1929). He developed a systematic approach to the study of biological organisms. In the book “Robots, People and Consciousness” (1967), the scientist transferred the general theory of systems to the analysis of processes and phenomena public life. In 1969, Bertalanffy’s next book, “General Systems Theory,” was published. The researcher turns his systems theory into a general disciplinary science. He saw the purpose of this science in the search for structural similarity of laws established in various disciplines, from which system-wide patterns can be derived.

However, the development of research in this direction has shown that the totality of problems in the methodology of systems research significantly exceeds the scope of the problems of general systems theory. To designate this broader area of ​​methodological problems, the term “systems approach” is used, which has been used since the 1970s. has firmly entered into scientific use (in the scientific literature different countries To denote this concept, other terms are also used - “system analysis”, “system methods”, “system-structural approach”, “general systems theory”; at the same time, the concepts of system analysis and general systems theory also have a specific, narrower meaning; Taking this into account, the term “system approach” should be considered more accurate; moreover, it is most common in the literature in Russian).

The following stages can be distinguished in the development of the systems approach in the 20th century. (Table 6.1).

Table 6.1

The systems approach does not exist in the form of a strict methodological concept, but is rather a set of research principles. A systems approach is an approach in which the object under study is considered as a system, i.e. a set of interconnected elements (components) that has an output (goal), input (resources), connection with the external environment, feedback. In accordance with general systems theory, an object is considered as a system and at the same time as an element of a larger system.

Studying an object from the perspective of a systems approach includes the following aspects:

• system-elemental (identification of the elements that make up a given system);
• system-structural (study of internal connections between elements of the system);
• system-functional (identification of system functions);
• system-target (identification of goals and subgoals of the system);
• system-resource (analysis of resources required for the functioning of the system);
• system-integration (definition of the set of qualitative properties of the system that ensure its integrity and are different from the properties of its elements);
• system-communication (analysis of external connections of the system with the external environment and other systems);
• systemic-historical (studying the emergence of the system, stages of its development and prospects).

Thus, the systems approach is a methodological direction in science, the main task of which is to develop methods for studying and designing complex objects - systems of different types and classes.

One can come across a twofold understanding of the systems approach: on the one hand, it is consideration, analysis existing systems, on the other hand, the creation, design, synthesis of systems to achieve goals.

In relation to organizations, a systems approach is most often understood as a comprehensive study of an object as a single whole from the standpoint of system analysis, i.e. clarification of a complex problem and its structuring into a series of problems solved using economic and mathematical methods, finding criteria for their solution, detailing goals, designing an effective organization to achieve goals.

System analysis is used as one of the most important methods in systematic approach, as an effective means of solving complex, usually insufficiently clearly defined problems. System analysis can be considered a further development of the ideas of cybernetics: it explores general patterns, related to complex systems that are studied by any science.

Systems engineering is an applied science that studies the problems of actually creating complex control systems.

The system construction process consists of six stages:

1. systems analysis;
2. system programming, which includes determining current goals: drawing up schedules and work plans;
3. systems design - the actual design of a system, its subsystems and components to achieve optimal efficiency;
4. creation of software programs;
5. putting the system into operation and testing it;
6. system maintenance.

The quality of the system organization is usually expressed in the synergy effect. It manifests itself in the fact that the result of the functioning of the system as a whole is higher than the sum of the same results of the individual elements that make up the totality. In practice, this means that from the same elements we can obtain systems of different or identical properties, but of varying efficiency, depending on how these elements are interconnected, i.e. how the system itself will be organized.

An organization, which is an organized whole in its most general abstract form, is the ultimate extension of any system. The concept of “organization” as an ordered state of the whole is identical to the concept of “system”. The concept opposite to “system” is the concept of “non-system”.

A system is nothing more than a static organization, i.e. some currently recorded state of order.

Considering an organization as a system allows us to systematize and classify organizations according to a number of general characteristics. Thus, according to the degree of complexity, nine levels of hierarchy are distinguished:

1. the level of static organization, reflecting the static relationships between the elements of the whole;
2. simple level dynamic system with pre-programmed mandatory movements;
3. level of information organization, or “thermostat” level;
4. self-preserving organization - open system, or cell level;
5. genetically public organization;
6. “animal” type organization, characterized by mobility, goal-directed behavior and awareness;
7. the level of the individual human organism - the “human” level;
8. social organization, which is a variety of social institutions;
9. transcendental systems, i.e. organizations that exist in the form of various structures and relationships.

The use of a systems approach to study an organization allows one to significantly expand the understanding of its essence and development trends, more deeply and comprehensively reveal the content of ongoing processes, and identify objective patterns of the formation of this multi-aspect system.

The systems approach, or systems method, is an explicit (explicitly, openly expressed) description of the procedures for defining objects as systems and methods for their specific systemic study (description, explanation, prediction, etc.).

A systematic approach to studying the properties of an organization allows us to establish its integrity, consistency and organization. With a systematic approach, the attention of researchers is directed to its composition, to the properties of elements that manifest themselves in interaction. Establishing stable relationships between elements in the system at all levels and stages, i.e. The establishment of the law of connections between elements is the discovery of the structural nature of the system as the next stage in the concretization of the whole.

Structure like internal organization system, the reflection of its internal content is manifested in the orderliness of the interconnections of its parts. This allows us to express a number of essential aspects of the organization as a system. The structure of a system, expressing its essence, is manifested in the totality of laws of a given field of phenomena.

Studying the structure of an organization is an important stage in understanding the variety of connections that take place within the object under study. This is one of the aspects of systematicity. The other side is to identify intra-organizational relations and the relationships of the object in question with other components of the system at a higher level. In this regard, it is necessary, firstly, to consider the individual properties of the object under study in their relationship with the object as a whole, and secondly, to reveal the laws of behavior.

System self-organization processes

The systems approach to the study of organization in its modern interpretation is closely related to the self-managing processes of systems. Socio-economic systems in most cases are unbalanced, which spontaneously ensures the development of the effect of self-organization of the human factor and, accordingly, self-government.

Self-organization is a process during which the organization of a complex dynamic system is created, reproduced or improved. Self-organization processes can only take place in systems with a high level of complexity and big amount elements, the connections between which are not rigid, but probabilistic. Properties of self-organization are revealed by objects of various natures: a cell, an organism, a biological population, a biogeocenosis, a human collective, etc. Processes of self-organization are expressed in the restructuring of existing and the formation of new connections between elements of the system. A distinctive feature of self-organization processes is their purposeful, but at the same time natural, spontaneous nature: these processes that occur during the interaction of a system with the environment are, to one degree or another, autonomous, relatively independent of the environment.

There are three types of self-organization processes.

The first is the spontaneous generation of an organization, i.e. the emergence from a certain set of integral objects of a certain level of a new integral system with its own specific laws.

The second type is the processes through which the system maintains a certain level of organization when the external and internal conditions of its functioning change.

The third type of self-organization processes is associated with the development of systems that are able to accumulate and use past experience.

Organizational science, using a systems methodology, involves studying and taking into account the experience of organizational activities in various types of organizations - economic, state, military, etc.

Considering an organization as a system allows us to significantly enrich and diversify the methodological tools for studying organizational relations.

Using this method, you can look at the same organization from three sides simultaneously:

An organization is created as a tool for solving social problems, a means of achieving goals. From this point of view, organizational goals and functions, effectiveness of results, motives and incentives of personnel, etc. come to the fore;

An organization develops as a human community, a specific social environment. From this position, the organization looks like a set of social groups, statuses, norms, leadership relationships, cohesion - conflict, etc.;

An organization can be viewed as an impersonal structure of relationships and norms. The subject of analysis of an organization in this sense is its organizational connections, built hierarchically, as well as its connections with the external environment. The main problems here are balance, self-government, division of labor, controllability, etc.

Of course, all these properties of an organization have only relative independence, there are no sharp boundaries between them, they constantly transform into one another. Moreover, any elements, processes and problems of the organization must be considered in each of these three dimensions, since they appear here in different capacities. For example, an individual in an organization is simultaneously an employee, a personality and an element of the system. An organizational unit is a functional unit small group and subsystem.

It is obvious that the listed roles of the organization give it unequal, largely contradictory orientations. However, as long as the organization is functioning normally, it remains in equilibrium. This balance between the roles of the organization is fluid due to constant shifts towards one of them, and a new balance is achieved through changes, the development of the organization as a whole, as a system. It is the contradictory relationship between these orientations that constitutes the essence and basis of organizational problems.