Old Russian literature - monuments of Old Russian literature. Features of Old Russian literature. Main genres and works
In ancient times, on the territory modern Russia Numerous tribes lived with various pagan beliefs and rituals associated with the worship of many gods. The Slavs were among the first to live in this territory. The Slavs carved idols from wood. The heads of these idols were covered with silver, and the beard and mustache were made of gold. They worshiped the god of thunderstorms - Perun. There was a sun god - Dazhdbog, Stribog - who controlled the air elements and winds. Idols were placed in a high place, and bloody sacrifices (birds, animals) were brought to appease the gods. By the 9th century, tribal alliances of the Eastern Slavs formed principalities, which were headed by princes. Each prince had a squad (rich high nobility). Relations between the princes were complex, and internecine wars often broke out.
In the I X - X centuries. various principalities of the Eastern Slavs united and created a single state, which became known as the Russian Land or Rus'. Central city was Kyiv, at the head of the state was Grand Duke Kyiv The founder of the dynasty of Kyiv princes was Rurik. The Slavic tribes fought with each other and then decided to invite one of the foreigners. The Slavs went to the Varangians who lived on the shores of the Baltic Sea. One of the leaders named Rurik was offered to come to the Slavic lands and rule. Rurik came to Novgorod, where he began to reign. He founded the Rurik dynasty, which ruled Rus' until the 16th century. The Slavic lands ruled by Rurik increasingly began to be called Russia, and the inhabitants were called Rusichs, and later Russians. In the language of the Varangians, the detachment of rowers that sailed, led by Rurik, on a large boat to Novgorod was called Rus. But the Russians themselves understood the word Rus differently: a bright land. Light brown meant fair. The princes who began to rule after Rurik (Igor, Princess Olga, Oleg, Vladimir Svyatoslav, Yaroslav the Wise, Vladimir Monomakh, etc.) sought to end civil strife within the country, defended the independence of the state, strengthened and expanded its borders.
Significant date in the history of Russia - 988 This is the year of the adoption of Christianity. Christianity came to Rus' from Byzantium. Writing spread with Christianity. In the second half of the 9th century, the brothers Cyril and Methodius created Slavic alphabet. Two alphabets were created: the Cyrillic alphabet (named Kirill) and the Glagolitic alphabet (verb-word, speech); the Glagolitic alphabet did not become widespread. The brothers are revered by the Slavic peoples as educators and are recognized as saints. Writing contributed to the development of ancient Russian literature. Literature Ancient Rus' has a number of features.
I. Feature – syncretism i.e. compound. This feature is associated with underdevelopment genre forms. In one Old Russian genre it is possible to identify features characteristic of other genres, i.e., in one genre elements of several genres are combined, for example, in “Walking” there are descriptions of geographical and historical places, and sermons, and teachings. A striking manifestation of syncretism can be traced in the chronicles; they contain a military story, a legend, samples of contracts, and reflections on religious topics.
II.Feature - monumentality. The scribes of Ancient Rus' showed the greatness of the world, they were interested in the fate of the Motherland. The scribe strives to depict the eternal; Eternal values determined Christian religion. Hence there is no image of appearance, everyday life, because... it's all mortal. The scribe strives to narrate the entire Russian land.
III. Feature - historicism. In ancient Russian monuments, historical figures were described. These are stories about battles, about princely crimes. The heroes were princes, generals, and saints. In ancient Russian literature there are no fictional heroes, there are no works on fictional plots. Fiction was equal to lies, and lies were unacceptable. The writer's right to fiction was realized only in the 17th century.
IV.Feature – patriotism. Old Russian literature is marked by high patriotism and citizenship. The authors always mourn the defeats suffered by the Russian land. Scribes always tried to put boyars and princes on the true path. The worst princes were condemned, the best were praised.
V. Feature – anonymity. Old Russian literature is mostly anonymous. Very rarely, some authors put their names at the end of manuscripts, calling themselves “unworthy”, “great sinners”; sometimes ancient Russian authors signed the names of popular Byzantine writers.
VI. Feature - Old Russian literature was entirely handwritten. And although printing appeared in the middle of the 16th century. Even before the 18th century, works were distributed by correspondence. When rewriting, scribes made their own amendments, changes, shortened or expanded the text. Therefore, the monuments of ancient Russian literature did not have a stable text. From the 11th to the 14th centuries, the main writing material was parchment, made from calf skin. Parchment from the title ancient city(in Greece) Pergamon, where in the 2nd century BC. began to make parchment. In Rus', parchment is called “veal” or “haratya”. This expensive material was available only to the propertied class. Craftsmen and traders used birch bark. The recordings were made on birch bark. Wooden tablets were fastened together in the form of student notebooks. Famous birch bark letters are monuments of writing from the 11th to 15th centuries. Birch bark certificates- source on the history of society and Everyday life medieval people, as well as on the history of East Slavic languages.
They wrote on birch bark or parchment with ink. Ink was made from decoctions of alder or oak bark and soot. Until the 19th century They used a quill pen, since parchment was expensive, so to save writing material, the words in a line were not separated, everything was written together. Paragraphs in the manuscript were written in red ink - hence the “red line”. Frequently used words were written abbreviated as special sign– “title” For example, glet (short for verb, i.e. to speak) Buka (Virgin Mary)
The parchment was lined with a ruler. Every letter was written out. Texts were copied by scribes either across the entire page or in two columns. There are three types of handwriting: charter, semi-charter, cursive. The charter is in the handwriting of the 11th - 13th centuries. This is handwriting with regular, almost square letters. The letter is solemn, calm, the letters were written in wide, but not tall, letters. Working on the manuscript required painstaking work and great art. When the scribe completed his hard work, he happily noted it at the end of the book. Thus, at the end of the Laurentian Chronicle it is written: “Rejoice, book writer, having reached the end of the books.” They wrote slowly. Thus, “Ostromirovo Gospel” took seven months to create.
From the second half of the 15th century, paper came into use and the charter gave way to semi-charter, a more fluent letter. The division of the text into words and the use of punctuation marks are associated with the semi-charter. The straight lines of the charter are replaced by oblique lines. The charter of Russian manuscripts is drawing, calligraphically clear writing. In the semi-charter, a large number of abbreviations of words were allowed, and emphasis was placed. A semi-statutory letter was faster and more convenient than a statutory letter. Since the 16th century, semi-statutory writing has been replaced by cursive writing. “Cursive writing” is a tendency to speed up writing. This is a special type of letter, differing in its graphics from the charter and semi-charter. This is a simplified version of these two types. Monuments of ancient writing testify to the high level of culture and skill of ancient Russian scribes, who were entrusted with the copying of texts. They tried to give handwritten books a highly artistic and luxurious appearance, decorating them with various types of ornaments and drawings. With the development of the statute, geometric ornament develops. It consists of a rectangle, an arch and other geometric shapes, inside of which patterns in the form of circles, triangles and others were applied on the sides of the title. The ornament could be one-color or multi-color. Ornaments depicting plants and animals were also used. They painted capital letters and used miniatures - that is, illustrations for the text. The written sheets were sewn into notebooks, which were intertwined in wooden boards. The boards were covered with leather, and sometimes covered with frames specially made of silver and gold. A remarkable example of jewelry art is the setting of the Mstislav Gospel (XII). In the middle of the 15th century, printing appeared. Church works were published, and artistic monuments were copied for a long time. The original manuscripts have not reached us; their later copies of the 15th century have been preserved. Thus, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” written in the late 80s of the 12th century, was found in a copy of the 16th century. Textualists study monuments, establish the time and place of their writing, and determine which list is more consistent with the original author's text. And paleographers use handwriting, writing material, and miniatures to determine the time of creation of the manuscript. In Ancient Rus' the word book is singular was not used, because the book consisted of several notebooks bound together. They treated books with care; they believed that mishandling a book could harm a person. On one book there is an inscription: “Whoever spoils books, whoever steals them, let him be damned.”
The centers of book writing, education and culture of Ancient Rus' were monasteries. In this regard, the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery played a major role. Theodosius of Pechersk introduced the duty of monks to write books. In his life, Theodosius of Pechersky describes the process of creating books. Day and night the monks wrote books in their cells. The monks led an ascetic lifestyle and were educated people. They not only rewrote books, but also translated from Greek language Bible, Psalter (songs of religious content), church prayers, explained the meaning of church holidays. Several books have survived from the 11th century. They are decorated with great taste. There are books trimmed with gold and pearls. Such books were very expensive. In Rus', book printing was considered a state matter.
The first printing house was founded by Ivan Fedorov in 1561 in Moscow. He creates a printing press, a typeface, and according to his scheme, a Printing Yard is being built not far from the Kremlin. 1564 is the year of birth of Russian book printing. Fedorov publishes the first Russian primer, which was used to teach both adults and children to read and write. Books and ancient manuscripts are stored in the libraries of Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Yaroslavl, Kostroma. Few parchment manuscripts have survived, many in one copy, but most of burned down during fires.
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4. Monuments of ancient Russian literature
The word "Monument" comes from the word "memory". Most often, monuments are buildings or busts built in honor and glory of a person. For example, many monuments to Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin were created. To perpetuate the memory of the great poet, his grateful admirers erected monuments to him. Monuments in those places where the poet lived and wrote his works are especially dear to us. They preserve the memory of the poet’s stay in these places. Ancient temples and ancient buildings in general are called architectural monuments, because they also preserve the memory of past centuries of native history.
In order for a work to be recognized as a literary monument, time must pass. An ancient Russian writer who compiled a chronicle, story or biographies of saints probably did not think that he was creating monuments. But after some time, descendants evaluate the work as a monument if they see in it something outstanding or characteristic of the era in which it was created.
What is the value of literary monuments, architecture and cultural monuments in general? The monument is a witness of its time.
Among the outstanding monuments of ancient Russian literature are “The Tale of Bygone Years” by Nestor the Chronicler, “The Tale of Boris and Gleb”, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, “The Life of Sergius of Radonezh”, “ Chronicle story about the Battle of Kulikovo" and other heroic works of Ancient Rus'. One of the most remarkable monuments of ancient Russian literature is the “Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh to his children,” extracted from the Laurentian Chronicle. All these monuments of ancient Russian literature cannot but be addressed by those who study native history and Russian literature. We will also turn to them, because they all bear us living testimony about the past of our Fatherland.
Literature is part of reality; it occupies a certain place in the history of the people and fulfills enormous social responsibilities. During the period of the 9th - early 13th centuries. serves the purpose of unification, expresses the national consciousness of unity. She is the keeper of history and legends, and these latter were a kind of means of exploring space, marking the holiness or significance of a particular place: a tract, a mound, a village, etc. Historically, legends conveyed historical depth to the country, they were that “fourth dimension” in within the framework of which the entire vast Russian land was perceived and became visible. The same role was played by chronicles and lives of saints, historical stories and stories about the founding of monasteries. All Russian literature was distinguished by deep historicism. Literature was one of the ways to master the surrounding world.
What did ancient Russian literature teach? The secular element of ancient Russian literature was deeply patriotic. She taught active love to the homeland, fostered citizenship, and strived to correct the shortcomings of society.
In essence, all the monuments of ancient Russian literature, due to their historical themes, are much more closely connected with each other than at the present time. They can be arranged in chronological order, but as a whole they present one story: Russian and world. Ancient literature by the nature of its existence and creation, it belongs to folklore rather than to the personal creativity of modern times. The work, once created by the author, was then changed by scribes in numerous rewrites, altered, acquired different ideological colors in different environments, was supplemented, acquired new episodes, etc.: therefore, almost every work that has come to us in several copies is known to us in various editions, types and editions.
The first Russian works are full of admiration for the wisdom of the universe, but a wisdom that is not closed in itself, but serves man. Along the path of such an anthropocentric perception of the universe, the relationship between the artist and the object of art also changed. And this new attitude led a person away from what was canonically recognized by the church.
The appeal of art to its creators and to all people has become the style-forming dominant of everything monumental art and all literature of the pre-Mongol period. This is where the imposing, solemn, ceremonial quality of all forms of art and literature of this time comes from.
Literary style the entire pre-Mongol period can be defined as the style of monumental historicism. People of this time sought to see in everything significant in content, powerful in its forms. The style of monumental historicism is characterized by the desire to view what is depicted as if from great distances - spatial, temporal (historical), hierarchical distances. This is a style within which everything that is most beautiful appears large, monumental, majestic. A kind of “panoramic vision” develops. The chronicler sees the Russian land as if from high altitude. He strives for a narrative about the entire Russian land, immediately and easily moves from an event in one principality to an event in another - at the opposite end of the Russian land. This happens not only because the chronicler combined in his narrative sources of different geographical origins, but also because it was precisely such a “broad” story that corresponded to the aesthetic ideas of his time.
The desire to connect various geographical points in one's narrative is also characteristic of the works of Vladimir Monomakh - especially his biography.
It is characteristic that writers of the 9th – 13th centuries. they perceive victory over the enemy as gaining “space”, and defeat as loss of space, misfortune as “crowding”, Life path, if it is filled with need and grief, it is, first of all, a “straight path.”
The Old Russian writer seems to be striving to mark as many different places as possible with the historical events that took place in them. The land is sacred to him, it is consecrated by these historical events. He marks both the place on the Volga where Boris’s horse stumbled in the field and broke his leg, and Smyadyn, where Gleb received the news of his father’s death. and Vyshgorod, where the brothers were then buried, etc. The author seems to be in a hurry to connect more different places, tracts, rivers and cities with the memory of Boris and Gleb. This is especially significant in connection with the fact that the cult of Boris and Gleb directly served the idea of the unity of the Russian land, directly emphasizing the unity of the princely family, the need for brotherly love, and strict subordination of the younger princes to the elders.
The writer makes sure that all the characters behave appropriately and that they utter all the necessary words. “The Tale of Boris and Gleb” from beginning to end is surrounded by speeches of the characters, as if ceremonially commenting on what is happening.
And another feature of the aesthetic formation is its ensemble character.
Medieval art is a systematic art, systematic and unified. It unites visible world and invisible, created by man with the entire cosmos. The works of literature of this period are not self-contained or isolated little worlds. Each of them seems to gravitate toward its neighbors, which already existed before it. Each new work is, first of all, an addition to existing ones, but an addition not in form, but in theme, in plot. Each new work is, first of all, an addition to the existing ones, but an addition not in form, but in theme, in plot.
5. “A Word on Law and Grace”
“The Sermon on Law and Grace” by the first Kyiv metropolitan from the Russians, Hilarion, installed by will Prince of Kyiv Yaroslav the Wise, dedicated to the most complex historiosophical problem. It speaks of the place of Rus' in world history, about the historical role of the Russian people.
It is full of pride in the successes of Christian culture in Rus', and how surprising that with all this it is devoid of national limitations. Hilarion does not place the Russian people above other peoples, but speaks of the equality of all peoples of the world who have embraced Christianity.
This is a most perfect work both in the depth of its content and in the brilliant form in which it is clothed: consistency, logic, ease of transitions from topic to topic, rhythmic organization of speech, variety of images, artistic laconicism make Hilarion’s “Lay” one of best works world oratory. And this work is not a rehash of Byzantine examples, for it is not just a theological sermon of the type that was common in Byzantium, but a theological and political speech, which Byzantine oratory did not know, and at the same time on a national Russian theme.
6. “The Tale of Bygone Years”
A completely different character. This is the work of many chroniclers. The last of them, Nestor, gave the Initial Chronicle artistic and ideological completeness and gave it a name.
This work expresses artistic unity, but unity of a special, medieval type. Now we demand from a work of art complete uniformity of style, rigid unity of ideas, a complete absence of seams and differences in individual parts. If there are differences, they are included in a certain unity that strictly unites them. Artistic unity in Ancient Rus' was understood much more broadly. This could be the unity of the ensemble, created over a number of decades and preserving the author’s features in each of its multi-time layers.
In stories about the most ancient events of Russian history, the chronicler reflected the innocence characteristic of the legends that reached him. In the story of the baptism of Rus' and the first Christian martyrs, the chronicler uses all the ecclesiastical ceremoniality of presentation. On the other hand, the chronicle story about the blinding of Prince Vasilko Terebovlsky has a very special character. Here the chronicler needed to strike the reader with the horror of the crime committed, and this story is full of a kind of medieval naturalism, which perfectly describes all the terrible events.
The historical consciousness expressed in The Tale of Bygone Years is of a very high level. The first chroniclers did not just describe events, they were original researchers, weighed different versions the same event. Restoring the course of Russian history, chroniclers sought to connect this history of Rus' with world history, to understand it as part of world history, to find out the origin of the Slavs and individual East Slavic tribes. With pedagogical clarity, the chronicler describes the geographical location of Rus', starting his description from the watershed of the Volga, Dnieper, Western Dvina, and, following their flow, describes which sea each of them flows into and which countries can be reached along each of the seas.
7. "Teachings"
The works of the Kyiv prince Vladimir Monomakh are included in one of the lists of the “Tale of Bygone Years” under 1097 and are known as “Teachings” of Vladimir Monomakh. In fact, only the first of them can be called “teaching”; this first is followed by the autobiography of Monomakh, where he talks about his campaigns and hunts; The autobiography is followed by a letter from Monomakh to his primordial enemy Oleg Svyatoslavovich - the ancestor of the Olgovich princes. All three works are written in a different manner, according to the themes various genres, which they represent, but all three are connected by one political idea.
Vladimir Monomakh promotes strict adherence to mutual obligations and mutual compliance of princes. He strives to show the need to observe the principles of contentment with inheritance by personal example, but is not afraid to talk about those violations of this principle that he himself committed.
8. “The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk”
The Life of Theodosius, although essentially the first Russian life, brought completeness to the biographical genre. The story about a person is told in this work by highlighting only some moments of his life: those in which he reaches, as it were, his highest self-manifestation.
From the Life we learn a lot about the life around him and the people who are completely immersed in this life. Here is the life of a rich provincial house in Vasilva - the house, the leadership of its imperious matter. We can learn something about the position of servants. The flight of Theodosius to Kyiv depicts to us a trade train with carts heavily loaded with goods. But the description of everyday life is very restrained - only to the extent necessary for the plot - the plot is always above the insignificance and vanity of “passing” life. In the context of the temporary, the eternal is seen, in the accidental, the significant. Thanks to this, everyday life is dressed in ceremonial forms of high church virtues. These are like those old and poor relics that lie in precious vessels and are worshiped by wanderers who come to the monastery.
Conclusion
The beginning of ancient Russian literature determined its character for subsequent times. It is significant that the influence of The Tale of Bygone Years remained effective for half a millennium. It was copied in full or abbreviated form at the beginning of most regional and grand ducal chronicles. She was imitated by subsequent chroniclers. For political glorifications, the “Sermon on Law and Grace” of Metropolitan Hilarion remained exemplary for many centuries; for hagiographic literature of the “martius” type - the lives of Boris and Gleb; for hagiographic biographies - “The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk”; for church teachings - the teachings of the same Theodosius and so on.
In the future, Russian literature is enriched with new genres and becomes more complex in content; her public functions acquire more and more ramified forms and diverse applications, literature becomes more and more journalistic, but does not lose its monumentality and medieval historicism.
Literature
1. Adrianova-Peretz V.P. The main tasks of studying ancient Russian literature in research - pp. 5-14
2. Adrianova-Peretz V.P. Old Russian literature and folklore: (Towards the formulation of the problem). - P. 5-16
3. Klyuchevsky V.O. Old Russian Lives saints as a historical source - M.: graduate School, 1879 – 254 p.
4. Kuskov V. Literature and culture of Ancient Rus': dictionary-reference book. – M.: Higher School, 1994. – 229 p.
5. Moral experience in the bookishness of Ancient Rus' // Thought. Yearbook of the St. Petersburg Association of Philosophers. – Vol. No. 1, 2000.
Kuskov V. Literature and culture of Ancient Rus': dictionary-reference book. – M.: Higher School, 1994. – P. 129
Klyuchevsky V.O. Old Russian Lives of Saints as a Historical Source - M.: Higher School, 1879 – P. 14
Moral experience in the bookishness of Ancient Rus' // Thought. Yearbook of the St. Petersburg Association of Philosophers. – Vol. No. 1, 2000.
Adrianova-Peretz V.P. Ancient Russian literature and folklore: (Towards the formulation of the problem). - P. 5-16
Adrianova-Peretz V.P. The main tasks of studying ancient Russian literature in research pp. 5-14
Ancient Russian literature. There is no need to consider all the monuments that existed in Ancient Rus'. Using the example of several works, we will consider how the theme of man and his deeds developed in ancient Russian literature. 2. Man in the literature of ancient Rus' One of the first, most important genres of emerging Russian literature was the genre of chronicle. The oldest chronicle that has actually reached us...
To the Soviet deficit, but also to Old Russian literature. But the differences between ancient Russian literature and contemporary literatures of the Latin West or Byzantium do not at all indicate its inferiority, “second-rateness.” Just Old Russian culture- in many ways different. Culturologist and semiotician B.A. Uspensky explained the uniqueness of Old Russian literature as follows. A word, according to semiotics (the science of signs) is a conditional...
... “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” “every era finds ... something new and its own” [Likhachev, 1994: 3] Conclusion The conducted research made it possible to identify the aesthetic and functional nature of ancient Russian literature, using cultural aspects of analysis literary text, to comprehend the spiritual atmosphere of Ancient Rus' and the author’s model of the world, to identify and analyze methodological and methodological...
He cannot help us: he himself calls his work either a “word”, sometimes a “song”, sometimes a “story” (“Let us begin, brethren, with this story...”). The Lay has no analogies among other monuments of ancient Russian literature. Therefore, this is either a work that is exceptional in its genre originality, or - a representative of a special genre, the monuments of which have not reached us, since this genre combines features...
ancient Russian literature patristics
Heyday Kievan Rus, the time of the triumph of Christianity. About four hundred churches were built in Kyiv alone. A variety of genres is encouraged, and the influence of folklore on Old Russian literature does not dry out. The priority of the book tradition is affirmed.
The style of monumental historicism continues to develop, as in images and frescoes, the prince in the chronicle is always official, as if addressed to the viewer. Christian worldview when depicting people, it was put in the service of strengthening the feudal system. It spoke mainly where legal crimes were discussed: murders, fraud.
With regard to negative heroes the writer is less formal than in relation to goodies your narrative.
One of the most negative characters in the Ipatiev Chronicle is Vladimir Galitsky. His main feature: greed; he acts not directly, not by war, but by bribery and money. This image of Vladimir reflected the hatred of representatives of the poor Principality of Kyiv to a richer one in the 12th century. Principality of Galicia. Literary portraits of princes are also laconic, energetically inscribed in space.
On an icon of the 12th century Tretyakov Gallery from the Novgorod Yuriev Monastery, St. George the Victorious stands with a shield behind his back, with a spear and sword in his hands. The authors strive to emphasize the bravery of the princes not only in the description, but also in the commendable characteristics of the heroes, but also in the description of the action. There are almost no characters and no connection of development historical events With characteristic features participants. Each prince performs his life's work as a representative of a certain family, princes.
Dependent chroniclers tried to portray their prince from the point of view of ideal behavior. They talked mainly about the activities of certain layers of society. XII is characterized by the awakening of thought, says Klyuchevsky. The initial Russian chronicle, along with other monuments of Russian literature, is a significant indicator of the growth and national consciousness in Ancient Rus'. The language of the chronicle, preserving the vocabulary and form of the Church Slavonic language in church narratives and in quotations from biblical books in other cases, is especially informative in the patericon, which is part of the folk poetic living Russian language. New genres are partly formed at the intersection of folklore and literature.
The most outstanding monument of this era is “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” “The word was created in the 12th century. First pronounced at the congress in Lyubechi. The author saw the essence of this event as conveying the idea of unity. The theme of restoring the genre system. The work has a unity of composition. “The Word…” is dedicated to Igor’s campaign. In “The Lay...” it is natural to often have unexpected transitions from one part to another. the text of the Word is artistically homogeneous in mood, thanks to a single picture of the Russian land. The dominant theme is love and care. The connection between “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” and oral folk poetry is most clearly felt within two genres, most often mentioned in the word Lamentation and song glorifications - “Glory”: the lament of Yaroslavna is mentioned at least 5 times, the lamentations of the same Russian soldiers during the campaign Igor, the lament of Yaroslavna’s mother Lament is what the author of the word means when he talks about the groans of Kyiv and Chernigov and the entire Russian land after Igor’s campaign. Twice the author cites the most laments: the lament of Yaroslavna, the lament of Russian wives. Repeatedly distracted from the story by resorting to exclamations. The closeness of the Word to laments is strong in Yaroslavna’s lament. The author of the Tale of Igor's Campaign constantly resorts to images of the animal world, never introduces foreign animals into his work, resorting only to images of Russian nature.
Pagan elements in the word about Igor's campaign are, as we know, strongly exposed. The harmony of the composition is maintained by dividing the word into a number of songs; the picture ends with a refrain. The poem is divided into stanzas. The composition is determined by the design and lyro-epic nature; the author assesses the network of conciliar unity of the past and the present. Russian women embody care and love for their deceased son. I.P Eremin rightly notes in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” many techniques of oratory. Before us in the Word, as in many ancient Russian monuments, the author more often feels himself speaking than writing, his readers - listeners, not readers, his topic - a lesson, and not a story.
Victory weapons were forged in the righteous age. The focus is on people who do not call upon different forces. The Word about Igor's Host is a lyrical revelation to nature. In this era, genre formation occurs. Characteristic works are outside of traditional genres, which include the above-mentioned “Word” and “Prayer of Daniel the Imprisoner.”
“Prayer” was openly and partially published by N.M. Karamzin. The prayer came to us in copies XVI-XVIII no earlier, with traces of later insertions and interpolations. All famous lists The prayers are clearly divided into 2 editions. The prayer of Daniel the prisoner is a petition letter, from which it follows that a certain Daniel, judging by the text of the prayer, is in captivity. The prayer names different princes. The first is composed as follows: “The Word of Daniil the Sharper was written to his prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich.” The second edition dates back to the 12th century. in some sources, others - in the 13th century.
System folklore genres was sufficiently adapted, mainly, to reflect the needs of pagan tribal community. A cult of the brothers Boris and Gleb is created, who meekly submitted to the hand of the murderer, followers of Svyatopolk. Princes Boris and Gleb were the first saints canonized by the Russian Church. Boris and Gleb were the first married elects of the Russian Church, the first recognized miracle workers, its recognized heavenly prayer books for new Christian people. Boris and Gleb were not martyrs for Christ, but fell victims of a political crime in a princely feud, like many before and after them.
The literature of Ancient Rus' arose in the 11th century. and developed over seven centuries until the Petrine era. Old Russian literature is a single whole with all the diversity of genres, themes, and images. This literature is the focus of Russian spirituality and patriotism. On the pages of these works there are conversations about the most important philosophical, moral problems, about which heroes of all centuries think, speak, reflect. The works form a love for the Fatherland and one’s people, show the beauty of the Russian land, so these works touch the innermost strings of our hearts.
The significance of Old Russian literature as the basis for the development of new Russian literature is very great. Thus, images, ideas, even the style of writings were inherited by A. S. Pushkin, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy.
Old Russian literature did not arise out of nowhere. Its appearance was prepared by the development of language, oral folk art, cultural ties with Byzantium and Bulgaria and is due to the adoption of Christianity as a single religion. First literary works, appeared in Rus', translated. Those books that were necessary for worship were translated.
The very first original works, i.e. written by ourselves Eastern Slavs, date back to the end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th century. V. The formation of Russian national literature was taking place, its traditions and features were taking shape, determining its specific features, a certain dissimilarity with the literature of our days.
The purpose of this work is to show the features of Old Russian literature and its main genres.
II. Features of Old Russian literature.
2. 1. Historicism of content.
Events and characters in literature, as a rule, are the fruit of the author's imagination. Authors works of art, even if they describe true events real persons, they conjecture a lot. But in Ancient Rus' everything was completely different. The ancient Russian scribe only talked about what, in his opinion, really happened. Only in the 17th century. Everyday stories with fictional characters and plots appeared in Rus'.
Both the ancient Russian scribe and his readers firmly believed that the events described actually happened. Thus, chronicles were a kind of legal document for the people of Ancient Rus'. After the death of Moscow Prince Vasily Dmitrievich in 1425, his younger brother Yuri Dmitrievich and son Vasily Vasilyevich began to argue about their rights to the throne. Both princes turned to the Tatar Khan to arbitrate their dispute. At the same time, Yuri Dmitrievich, defending his rights to reign in Moscow, referred to ancient chronicles, which reported that power had previously passed from the prince-father not to his son, but to his brother.
2. 2. Handwritten nature of existence.
Another feature of Old Russian literature is the handwritten nature of its existence. Even the appearance of the printing press in Rus' changed the situation little until mid-18th century V. Existence literary monuments in manuscripts led to special veneration of the book. What even separate treatises and instructions were written about. But on the other hand, handwritten existence led to the instability of ancient Russian works of literature. Those works that have come down to us are the result of the work of many, many people: the author, editor, copyist, and the work itself could last for several centuries. Therefore, in scientific terminology, there are such concepts as “manuscript” (handwritten text) and “list” (rewritten work). The manuscript may contain lists various works and can be written either by the author himself or by scribes. Another fundamental concept in textual criticism is the term “edition,” i.e., the purposeful processing of a monument caused by social political events, changes in the function of the text, or differences in the language of the author and editor.
Closely connected with the existence of a work in manuscripts is such a specific feature of Old Russian literature as the problem of authorship.
The author's principle in Old Russian literature is muted, implicit. Old Russian scribes were not thrifty with other people's texts. When rewriting, the texts were processed: some phrases or episodes were excluded from them or inserted into them, and stylistic “decorations” were added. Sometimes the author's ideas and assessments were even replaced by the opposite ones. The lists of one work differed significantly from each other.
Old Russian scribes did not at all strive to reveal their involvement in literary composition. Many monuments have remained anonymous; the authorship of others has been established by researchers based on indirect evidence. So it is impossible to attribute to someone else the writings of Epiphanius the Wise, with his sophisticated “weaving of words.” The style of Ivan the Terrible’s messages is inimitable, boldly mixing eloquence and rude abuse, learned examples and the style of simple conversation.
It happens that in a manuscript one or another text was signed with the name of an authoritative scribe, which may equally both correspond and not correspond to reality. Thus, among the works attributed to the famous preacher Saint Cyril of Turov, many, apparently, do not belong to him: the name of Cyril of Turov gave these works additional authority.
The anonymity of literary monuments is also due to the fact that the ancient Russian “writer” did not consciously try to be original, but tried to show himself as traditional as possible, that is, to comply with all the rules and regulations of the established canon.
2. 4. Literary etiquette.
The famous literary critic, researcher of ancient Russian literature, Academician D. S. Likhachev, proposed a special term to designate the canon in the monuments of medieval Russian literature - “literary etiquette”.
Literary etiquette consists of:
From the idea of how this or that course of events should have taken place;
From ideas about how one should behave actor according to your position;
From ideas about what words the writer should have described what was happening.
We have before us the etiquette of the world order, the etiquette of behavior and the etiquette of words. The hero is supposed to behave this way, and the author is supposed to describe the hero only in appropriate terms.
III. The main genres of ancient Russian literature.
The literature of modern times is subject to the laws of “genre poetics.” It was this category that began to dictate the ways of creating a new text. But in ancient Russian literature the genre did not play such an important role.
A sufficient amount of research has been devoted to the genre uniqueness of ancient Russian literature, but there is still no clear classification of genres. However, some genres immediately stood out in ancient Russian literature.
3. 1. Hagiographic genre.
Life is a description of the life of a saint.
Russian hagiographic literature includes hundreds of works, the first of which were written already in the 11th century. The Life, which came to Rus' from Byzantium along with the adoption of Christianity, became the main genre of ancient Russian literature, that literary form, in which the spiritual ideals of Ancient Rus' were clothed.
The compositional and verbal forms of life have been refined over the centuries. The high theme - a story about life that embodies ideal service to the world and God - determines the author’s image and the style of the narrative. The author of the life tells the story excitedly; he does not hide his admiration for the holy ascetic and his admiration for his righteous life. The author's emotionality and excitement color the entire narrative in lyrical tones and contribute to the creation of a solemn mood. This atmosphere is also created by the style of narration - high solemn, full of quotations from the Holy Scriptures.
When writing a life, the hagiographer (the author of the life) was obliged to follow a number of rules and canons. The composition of a correct life should be three-fold: introduction, story about the life and deeds of the saint from birth to death, praise. In the introduction, the author asks forgiveness from readers for their inability to write, for the rudeness of the narrative, etc. The introduction was followed by the life itself. It cannot be called a “biography” of a saint in in every sense this word. The author of the life selects from his life only those facts that do not contradict the ideals of holiness. The story about the life of a saint is freed from everything everyday, concrete, and accidental. In a life compiled according to all the rules, there are few dates, exact geographical names, names historical figures. The action of the life takes place, as it were, outside of historical time and specific space; it unfolds against the backdrop of eternity. Abstraction is one of the features of the hagiographic style.
At the end of the life there should be praise to the saint. This is one of the most important parts of life, which required great literary art and a good knowledge of rhetoric.
The oldest Russian hagiographic monuments are two lives of princes Boris and Gleb and the Life of Theodosius of Pechora.
3. 2. Eloquence.
Eloquence is an area of creativity characteristic of the most ancient period of the development of our literature. Monuments of church and secular eloquence are divided into two types: teaching and solemn.
Solemn eloquence required depth of concept and great literary skill. The speaker needed the ability to construct a speech effectively in order to capture the listener, set him in a high mood corresponding to the topic, and shock him with pathos. There was a special term for a solemn speech - “word”. (There was no terminological unity in ancient Russian literature. A military story could also be called “the Word.”) Speeches were not only pronounced, but written and distributed in numerous copies.
Solemn eloquence did not pursue narrow practical goals; it required the formulation of problems of broad social, philosophical and theological scope. The main reasons for creating “words” are theological issues, issues of war and peace, defense of the borders of the Russian land, domestic and foreign policy, the struggle for cultural and political independence.
The most ancient monument of solemn eloquence is the “Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, written between 1037 and 1050.
Teaching eloquence is teachings and conversations. They are usually small in volume, often devoid of rhetorical embellishments, and written in the Old Russian language, which was generally accessible to people of that time. Church leaders and princes could deliver teachings.
Teachings and conversations have purely practical purposes and contain the information a person needs. “Instruction to the Brethren” by Luke Zhidyata, Bishop of Novgorod from 1036 to 1059, contains a list of rules of behavior that a Christian should adhere to: do not take revenge, do not utter “shameful” words. Go to church and behave quietly in it, honor your elders, judge truthfully, honor your prince, do not curse, keep all the commandments of the Gospel.
Theodosius of Pechora is the founder of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery. He owns eight teachings to the brethren, in which Theodosius reminds the monks of the rules of monastic behavior: not to be late for church, make three prostrations, maintain decorum and order when singing prayers and psalms, and bow to each other when meeting. In his teachings, Theodosius of Pechora demands complete renunciation from the world, abstinence, and constant presence in prayer and vigil. The abbot sternly denounces idleness, money-grubbing, and intemperance in food.
3. 3. Chronicle.
Chronicles were weather records (by “summers” - by “years”). The annual entry began with the words: “Into the summer.” After this there was a story about events and incidents that, from the point of view of the chronicler, were worthy of the attention of posterity. These could be military campaigns, raids steppe nomads, natural disasters: droughts, crop failures, etc., as well as simply unusual incidents.
It is thanks to the work of chroniclers that modern historians have an amazing opportunity to look into the distant past.
More often ancient Russian chronicler There was a learned monk who sometimes spent many years compiling the chronicle. In those days, it was customary to start telling stories about history from ancient times and only then move on to the events of recent years. The chronicler had to first of all find, put in order, and often rewrite the work of his predecessors. If the compiler of the chronicle had at his disposal not one, but several chronicle texts at once, then he had to “reduce” them, that is, combine them, choosing from each what he considered necessary to include in his own work. When materials relating to the past were collected, the chronicler moved on to recounting the events of his time. The result of this great job the chronicle was forming. After some time, other chroniclers continued this collection.
Apparently, the first major monument of ancient Russian chronicle writing was the chronicle code compiled in the 70s of the 11th century. The compiler of this code is believed to have been the abbot of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nikon the Great (? - 1088).
Nikon's work formed the basis of another chronicle, which was compiled in the same monastery two decades later. In the scientific literature it received the code name “Initial arch”. Its nameless compiler replenished Nikon's collection not only with news of last years, but also chronicle information from other Russian cities.
“The Tale of Bygone Years”
Based on the chronicles of the 11th century tradition. The greatest chronicle monument of the era of Kievan Rus - “The Tale of Bygone Years” was born.
It was compiled in Kyiv in the 10s. 12th century According to some historians, its probable compiler was the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor, also known for his other works. When creating “The Tale of Bygone Years,” its compiler used numerous materials with which he supplemented the Primary Code. These materials included Byzantine chronicles, texts of treaties between Rus' and Byzantium, monuments of translated and ancient Russian literature, and oral traditions.
The compiler of “The Tale of Bygone Years” set as his goal not just to tell about the past of Rus', but also to determine the place of the Eastern Slavs among the European and Asian peoples.
The chronicler talks in detail about the settlement Slavic peoples in ancient times, about the settlement of territories by the Eastern Slavs that would later become part of the Old Russian state, about the morals and customs of different tribes. The Tale of Bygone Years emphasizes not only the antiquity of the Slavic peoples, but also the unity of their culture, language and writing, created in the 9th century. brothers Cyril and Methodius.
The chronicler considers the adoption of Christianity to be the most important event in the history of Rus'. The story of the first Russian Christians, the baptism of Rus', the spread of the new faith, the construction of churches, the emergence of monasticism, and the success of Christian enlightenment occupies a central place in the Tale.
The wealth of historical and political ideas reflected in “The Tale of Bygone Years” suggests that its compiler was not just an editor, but also a talented historian, a deep thinker, and a brilliant publicist. Many chroniclers of subsequent centuries turned to the experience of the creator of the Tale, sought to imitate him and almost necessarily placed the text of the monument at the beginning of each new chronicle.
