Depiction of time and space in a work of art. Time and space in a literary work

The world of heroes (the reality of a literary work through the eyes of its characters, in their horizons = the narrated event) in literary theory is described in a system of categories: chronotope, event, plot, motive, type of plot. Chronotope – literally "timespace" = a work of art represents a "little universe". The concept of chronotope characterizes the general features (characteristics) of the world depicted in the work. From the side of the hero (characters)- these are the essential conditions of his (their) existence; the hero’s action is his reaction to the state of the artistic world. From the author's side chronotope is the author’s value reaction to the world he depicts, the actions and words of the hero. Spatial and temporal characteristics do not exist in isolation from each other; in the picture of the world, the categories of space and time are basic, they determine other characteristics of this world = the nature of connections in the artistic world follows from the spatio-temporal organization of the work = from the chronotope. “Space is comprehended and measured time” = the reality of the artistic world looks different for the author who contemplates it from the outside and from another time and the hero who acts and thinks inside this reality.

Artistic space is not measured in universal units (meters or minutes). Artistic space and time is a symbolic reality. Therefore, artistic time for the participants in the event (the hero, the narrator and the characters surrounding the hero) can flow at different speeds: The hero can be completely excluded from the flow of time. IN fairy tale long time period. But, despite this, the heroes remain as young as they were at the beginning of the fairy tale. Time in may be inverted - events do not occur in a “natural” sequence, but in a special one; here space and time are perceived as forms of consciousness, i.e. a form of human understanding of existence, and not its “objective” reproduction. (for example, Tolstoy’s story “The Death of Ivan Ilyich” begins with an image of how the hero’s friends, having learned about his death, come to say goodbye to the deceased. And only after that the whole life of the hero, starting from childhood, unfolds before the reader. The space of any work of art is organized as a number of value oppositions: Opposition “closedness - openness”.

In the novel “Crime and Punishment,” images of a closed space are directly associated with death and crime (the closet where Raskolnikov’s “idea” matures is directly called a “coffin,” and he himself is correlated with the Gospel Lazarus, who “has been stinking for three days now”).

Raskolnikov wanders around the city, moving further and further from his closet-coffin = instinctively strives to break the vicious circle of St. Petersburg, which in this regard is associated with the closet-coffin. It is no coincidence that Raskolnikov’s renunciation of his “idea” takes place on the banks of the Irtysh, from where a view of the endless steppes opens up. Opposite value orientation. For example, the idyll as a literary genre is organized by the opposition of an open, open space “ big world", as a world of anti-values ​​to a world of closed space as a world of genuine values, in which only they can exist, and the hero’s exit beyond this world is the beginning of his spiritual or physical death.Vertical organization of space. Example - " The Divine Comedy» Dante with his hierarchically ordered picture of the world.Horizontal organization artistic space. Center-periphery relationship: landscape or portrait, focusing on the details that come to the center of the image. For example, the emphasis on the eyes of the hero (Pechorin), or the “red hands” of Bazarov. When one and the same historical event occupies a different place in the picture of the world: in Mayakovsky’s poem “Vladimir Ilyich Lenin” Lenin’s death is the center of artistic space, and in Nabokov’s novel “The Gift” it is said in passing about the same event “Lenin somehow died imperceptibly "The opposition of "right" and "left".For example, in a fairy tale, the world of people is invariably located on the right, and on the left is a “different” world in everything, including, first of all, the value opposite. The same patterns can be found when analyzing artistic time. The nature of artistic time is manifested in the fact that in a work of art the time of coverage of events and the time of events almost never coincide. Because such slowing down and speeding up time is a form of assessment (self-esteem) of the hero’s life as a whole. Events covering a large period of time can be given in one line, or not even mentioned, but simply implied, while events that take up moments can be depicted in extreme detail (Praskukhin’s dying thoughts in “ Sevastopol stories») . The opposition of cyclical, reversible and linear, irreversible time: Time can move in a circle, passing through the same points. For example, natural cycles (change of seasons), age cycles, sacred time, when all events occurring in time realize some invariant, i.e. changing only externally the situation = behind the variety of events occurring in it, there is one and the same repeating situation, revealing their true and unchanging, repeating meaning “A lamb went to the stream to drink on a hot day.” When did this event happen? In the world of fables, this question makes no sense, because in the world of fables it is repeated at any time . While in the world of a historical or realistic novel this question is of fundamental importance. Historical time can act as an anti-value, it can act as destructive time, then cyclical time acts as a positive value. For example, in the book of a Russian writer of the 20th century. Ivan Shmelev’s “Summer of the Lord”: here life, organized according to the church calendar, from one sacred holiday to another, is the key to preserving authentic spiritual values,

and involvement with historical time is the key to spiritual catastrophe as a separate human personality, and the human community as a whole. A common option in the literature is when, in the value hierarchy, open-ended time is placed higher in value than cyclic time, for example, in a Russian realistic novel, the degree of the hero’s involvement with the forces of historical renewal turns out to be a measure of his spiritual value. The chronotope, being unified, is nevertheless internally heterogeneous. Within the general chronotope there are private. For example, within the general chronotope of Gogol’s “Dead Souls”, separate chronotopes can be distinguished roads, "estates", Let's start with the chronotope of the city and country in the work. Thus, in the general chronotope of Russia, given in Eugene Onegin, the division of the spaces of the village and the capital is significant. Chronotopes are historically changeable; the spatio-temporal organization of literature as a whole of one historical era is significantly different from the spatio-temporal organization of literature as a whole of another historical era. Chronotopes also have genre variability. = All the real diversity of chronotopes of the same genre can be reduced to one model, one type.

The concept of the space-time continuum is essential for the philological analysis of a literary text, since both time and space serve as constructive principles for the organization of a literary work. Artistic time is a form of existence of aesthetic reality, a special way of understanding the world.

Features of time modeling in literature are determined by the specifics of this type of art: literature is traditionally viewed as art temporary; unlike painting, it recreates the concreteness of the passage of time. This feature of a literary work is determined by the properties linguistic means, forming its figurative structure: “grammar determines for each language an order that distributes ... space in time,” transforms spatial characteristics into temporal ones.

The problem of artistic time has long occupied literary theorists, art historians, and linguists. So, A.A. Potebnya, emphasizing that the art of words is dynamic, showed limitless possibilities organization of artistic time in the text. He considered the text as a dialectical unity of two compositional speech forms: descriptions (“depiction of features, simultaneously existing in space") and narration ("Narration transforms a series of simultaneous signs into a series of sequential perceptions, into an image of the movement of gaze and thought from object to object"). A.A. Potebnya distinguished between real time and artistic time; Having examined the relationship between these categories in works of folklore, he noted the historical variability of artistic time. Ideas by A.A. Potebnya received further development in the works of philologists of the late XIX - early - la XX century However, interest in the problems of artistic time especially revived in the last decades of the 20th century, which was associated with the rapid development of science, the evolution of views on space and time, the acceleration of the pace of social life, and, in connection with this, increased attention to the problems of memory, origins, tradition , On the one side; and the future, on the other hand; finally, with the emergence of new forms in art.

“The work,” noted P.A. Florensky - aesthetically forcibly develops... in a certain sequence.” Time in a work of art is the duration, sequence and correlation of its events, based on their cause-and-effect, linear or associative relationship.

Time in the text has clearly defined or rather blurred boundaries (events, for example, can cover tens of years, a year, several days, a day, an hour, etc.), which may or, on the contrary, not be designated in the work in relation to the historical time or time set conditionally by the author (see, for example, E. Zamyatin’s novel “We”).

Artistic time wears systemic character. This is a way of organizing the aesthetic reality of a work, its inner world, and at the same time an image associated with the embodiment of the author’s concept, reflecting precisely his picture of the world (remember, for example, M. Bulgakov’s novel “The White Guard”). From time as an immanent property of a work, it is advisable to distinguish the time of the passage of the text, which can be considered as the time of the reader; Thus, when considering a literary text, we are dealing with the antinomy “the time of the work - the time of the reader.” This antinomy in the process of perceiving the work can be resolved different ways. At the same time, the time of the work is not uniform: for example, as a result of temporary displacements, “omissions”, highlighting close-up central events, the depicted time is compressed, shortened, but when juxtaposing and describing simultaneous events, it, on the contrary, stretches.

A comparison of real time and artistic time reveals their differences. The topological properties of real time in the macroworld are one-dimensionality, continuity, irreversibility, orderliness. In artistic time, all these properties are transformed. It may be multidimensional. This is due to the very nature of a literary work, which has, firstly, an author and presupposes the presence of a reader, and secondly, boundaries: a beginning and an end. Two time axes appear in the text - the “axis of storytelling” and the “axis of events described”: “the axis of storytelling is one-dimensional, while the axis of events described is multidimensional.” Their relationship destroys the multidimensionality of artistic time, makes temporal shifts possible, and determines the multiplicity of temporal points of view in the structure of the text. So, in prose work usually the conditional present tense of the narrator is established, which correlates with the narration about the past or future of the characters, with the characteristics of situations in various time dimensions. The action of a work can unfold in different time planes (“The Double” by A. Pogorelsky, “Russian Nights” by V.F. Odoevsky, “The Master and Margarita” by M. Bulgakov, etc.).

Irreversibility (unidirectionality) is also not characteristic of artistic time: the real sequence of events is often disrupted in the text. According to the law of irreversibility, only folklore time moves. In the literature of modern times, temporal shifts, disruption of temporal sequence, and switching of temporal registers play a large role. Retrospection as a manifestation of the reversibility of artistic time is the principle of organization of a number of thematic genres (memoirs and autobiographical works, detective novels). Retrospective in a literary text can also act as a means of revealing its implicit content - subtext.

The multidirectionality and reversibility of artistic time is especially clearly manifested in the literature of the 20th century. If Stern, according to E.M. Forster, “turned the clock upside down,” then “Marcel Proust, even more inventive, swapped the hands... Gertrude Stein, who tried to banish time from the novel, smashed her clock into pieces and scattered its fragments around the world..." It was in the 20th century. a “stream of consciousness” novel arises, a “one day” novel, a sequential time series in which time is destroyed, and time appears only as a component of a person’s psychological existence.

Artistic time is characterized as continuity, so and discreteness.“Remaining essentially continuous in the sequential change of temporal and spatial facts, the continuum in textual reproduction is simultaneously divided into separate episodes.” The selection of these episodes is determined by the author’s aesthetic intentions, hence the possibility of time gaps, “compression” or, conversely, expansion of plot time. - nor, see, for example, the remark of T. Mann: “At the wonderful festival of narration and reproduction, omissions play an important and indispensable role.”

The possibilities of expanding or compressing time are widely used by writers. So, for example, in the story by I.S. Turgenev's "Spring Waters" highlights Sanin's love story for Gemma in close-up - the most striking event in the hero's life, its emotional peak; At the same time, artistic time slows down, “stretches out,” but the course of the hero’s subsequent life is conveyed in a generalized, summary way: And there - living in Paris and all the humiliation, all the disgusting torments of a slave... Then- return to homeland, poisoned, devastated life, petty fuss, petty troubles...

Artistic time in the text acts as a dialectical unity final And infinite. In the endless flow of time, one event or a chain of events is singled out; their beginning and end are usually fixed. The ending of the work is a signal that the time period presented to the reader has ended, but time continues beyond it. Such a property of real-time works as orderliness is also transformed in a literary text. This may be due to the subjective determination of the reference point or measure of time: for example, in the autobiographical story “Boy” by S. Bobrov, the measure of time for the hero is a holiday:

For a long time I tried to imagine what a year was... and suddenly I saw in front of me a rather long ribbon of grayish-pearl fog, lying horizontally in front of me, like a towel thrown on the floor.<...>Was this towel divided for months?.. No, it was unnoticeable. For seasons?.. It’s also somehow not very clear... It was clearer something else. These were the patterns of the holidays that colored the year.

Artistic time represents unity private And general.“As a manifestation of the private, it has the features of individual time and is characterized by a beginning and an end. As a reflection of the limitless world, it is characterized by infinity; temporary flow." As a unity of discrete and continuous, finite and infinite, and can act. a separate temporary situation in a literary text: “There are seconds, five or six of them pass at a time, and you suddenly feel the presence of eternal harmony, completely achieved... As if you suddenly feel all of nature and suddenly say: yes, this is true.” The plane of the timeless in a literary text is created through the use of - the use of repetitions, maxims and aphorisms, various kinds of reminiscences, symbols and other tropes. In this regard, artistic time can be considered as a complementary phenomenon, to the analysis of which N. Bohr’s principle of complementarity is applicable (opposite means cannot be combined synchronously; to obtain a holistic view, two “experiences” separated in time are needed). The antinomy “finite - infinite” is resolved in a literary text as a result of the use of conjugate, but spaced apart in time and therefore ambiguous means, for example, symbols.

Fundamentally significant for the organization of a work of art are such characteristics of artistic time as duration / brevity the event depicted, homogeneity / heterogeneity situations, the connection of time with subject-event content (its full/unfilled,"emptiness"). According to these parameters, both works and fragments of text in them, forming certain time blocks, can be contrasted.

Artistic time is based on a certain system of linguistic means. This is, first of all, a system of tense forms of the verb, their sequence and opposition, transposition (figurative use) of tense forms, lexical units with temporal semantics, case forms with the meaning of time, chronological marks, syntactic constructions that create a certain time plan (for example, nominative sentences represent in the text there is a plan of the present), names of historical figures, mythological heroes, nominations of historical events.

Of particular importance for artistic time is the functioning of verb forms; the predominance of statics or dynamics in the text, the acceleration or slowdown of time, their sequence determines the transition from one situation to another, and, consequently, the movement of time, depends on their correlation. Compare, for example, the following fragments of E. Zamyatin’s story “Mamai”: Mamai wandered lostly through the unfamiliar Zagorodny. The penguin wings were in the way; his head hung like the faucet of a broken samovar...

And suddenly his head jerked up, his legs began to prance like a twenty-five-year-old...

Forms of time act as signals of various subjective spheres in the structure of the narrative, cf., for example:

Gleb lying on the sand, resting my head in my hands, it was a quiet, sunny morning. He wasn't working on his mezzanine today. It's all over. Tomorrow are leaving, Ellie fits, everything is re-drilled. Helsingfors again...

(B. Zaitsev. Gleb’s Journey )

The functions of types of tense forms in a literary text are largely typified. As noted by V.V. Vinogradov, narrative (“event”) time is determined primarily by the relationship between the dynamic forms of the past tense of the perfect form and the forms of the past imperfect, acting in a procedural-long-term or qualitative-characterizing meaning. The latter forms are correspondingly assigned to the descriptions.

The time of a text as a whole is determined by the interaction of three temporal “axes”:

1) calendar time, displayed mainly by lexical units with the seme “time” and dates;

2) event-based time, organized by the connection of all predicates of the text (primarily verbal forms);

3) perceptual time, expressing the position of the narrator and the character (in this case, different lexical and grammatical means and temporal shifts are used).

Artistic and grammatical tenses are closely related, but they should not be equated. “Grammatical tense and the tense of a verbal work can diverge significantly. The time of action and the author’s and reader’s time are created by a combination of many factors: among them, only partly grammatical time...”

Artistic time is created by all elements of the text, while the means expressing temporal relations interact with the means expressing spatial relations. Let's limit ourselves to one example: for example, change of designs C; predicates of motion (we left the city, drove into the forest, arrived in Nizhneye Gorodishche, drove up to the river etc.) in the story of A.P. Chekhov ) “On the Cart,” on the one hand, determines the temporal sequence of situations and forms the plot time of the text, on the other hand, reflects the character’s movement in space and participates in the creation of artistic space. To create an image of time, spatial metaphors are regularly used in literary texts.

Ancient works are characterized mythological time a sign of which is the idea of ​​cyclical reincarnations, “world periods”. Mythological time, not in the opinion of K. Levi-Strauss, can be defined as the unity of such characteristics as reversibility-irreversibility, synchronicity-diachronicity. The present and the future in mythological time appear only as different temporal hypostases of the past, which is an invariant structure. The cyclical structure of mythological time turned out to be significantly significant for the development of art in different eras. “The exceptionally powerful orientation of mythological thinking towards establishing homo- and isomorphisms, on the one hand, made it scientifically fruitful, and on the other, determined its periodic revival in various historical eras.” The idea of ​​time as a change of cycles, “eternal repetition”, is present in a number of neo-mythological works of the 20th century. So, according to V.V. Ivanov, this concept is close to the image of time in the poetry of V. Khlebnikov, “who deeply felt the ways of science of his time.”

Therefore, artistic time for the participants in the event (the hero, the narrator and the characters surrounding the hero) can flow at different speeds: The hero can be completely excluded from the flow of time. medieval culture time was viewed primarily as a reflection of eternity, while the idea of ​​it was predominantly of an eschatological nature: time begins with the act of creation and ends with the “second coming.” The main direction of time becomes orientation towards the future - the future exodus from time to eternity, while the metrization of time itself changes and the role of the present, the dimension of which is connected with the spiritual life of a person, significantly increases: “... for the present of past objects we have memory or memories; for the present of real objects we have a look, an outlook, an intuition; for the present of future objects we have aspiration, hope, hope,” wrote Augustine. Thus, in ancient Russian literature, time, as D.S. notes. Likhachev, not as egocentric as in the literature of modern times. It is characterized by isolation, one-pointedness, strict adherence to the real sequence of events, and a constant appeal to the eternal: “Medieval literature strives for the timeless, for overcoming time in the depiction of the highest manifestations of existence - the divine establishment of the universe.” The achievements of ancient Russian literature in recreating events “from the angle of eternity” in a transformed form were used by writers of subsequent generations, in particular F.M. Dostoevsky, for whom “the temporary was... a form of realization of the eternal.” Let us limit ourselves to one example - the dialogue between Stavrogin and Kirillov in the novel “Demons”:

There are minutes, you get to minutes, and time suddenly stops and will be forever.

Are you hoping to get to that point?

“This is hardly possible in our time,” Nikolai Vsevolodovich responded, also without any irony, slowly and as if thoughtfully. - In the Apocalypse, the angel swears that there will be no more time.

I know. This is very true there; clearly and accurately. When the whole person achieves happiness, there will be no more time, because there is no need.

Since the Renaissance, the evolutionary theory of time has been affirmed in culture and science: spatial events become the basis for the movement of time. Time, thus, is understood as eternity, not opposed to time, but moving and being realized in every instantaneous situation. This is reflected in the literature of modern times, which boldly violates the principle of irreversibility of real time. Finally, the 20th century is a period of particularly bold experimentation with artistic time. The ironic judgment of Zh.P. is indicative. Sartre: “...most of the largest modern writers- Proust, Joyce... Faulkner, Gide, W. Wolf - each in their own way tried to cripple time. Some of them deprived him of his past and future in order to reduce him to the pure intuition of the moment... Proust and Faulkner simply simply “decapitated” him, depriving him of the future, that is, the dimension of action and freedom.”

Consideration of artistic time in its development shows that its evolution (reversibility → irreversibility → reversibility) is a forward movement in which each higher stage negates, removes its lower (preceding) one, contains its richness and again removes itself in the next , third, stage.

Features of modeling artistic time are taken into account when determining the constitutive characteristics of the genus, genre, and movement in literature. So, according to A.A. Potebni, "lyrics" - praesens","epic - perfectum"; the principle of recreating times - can distinguish between genres: aphorisms and maxims, for example, are characterized by a constant present; reversible artistic time is inherent in memoirs, autobiographical works. Literary direction is also definitely connected with the concept of mastering time and the principles of its transmission, while, for example, the measure of adequacy of real time is different. Thus, symbolism is characterized by the implementation of the idea of ​​eternal movement-becoming: the world develops according to the laws of the “triad (the unity of the world spirit with the Soul world - rejection of the Soul of the world from unity - defeat of Chaos).

At the same time, the principles of mastering artistic time are individual, this is a feature of the artist’s idiostyle (thus, artistic time in the novels of L.N. Tolstoy, for example, differs significantly from the model of time in the works of F.M. Dostoevsky).

Taking into account the peculiarities of the embodiment of time in a literary text, considering the concept of time in it and, more broadly, in the writer’s work is necessary component analysis of the work; underestimation of this aspect, absolutization of one of the particular manifestations of artistic time, identification of its properties without taking into account both objective real time and subjective time can lead to erroneous interpretations of the artistic text, making the analysis incomplete and schematic.

The analysis of artistic time includes the following main points:

1) determination of the features of artistic time in the work in question:

Unidimensionality or multidimensionality;

Reversibility or irreversibility;

Linearity or violation of time sequence;

2) highlighting the temporal plans (planes) presented in the work in the temporal structure of the text and considering their interaction;

4) identifying signals that highlight these forms of time;

5) consideration of the entire system of time indicators in the text, identifying not only their direct, but also figurative meanings;

6) determining the relationship between historical and everyday, biographical and historical time;

7) establishing a connection between artistic time and space.

Let us turn to the consideration of individual aspects of the artistic time of the text based on the material of specific works (“The Past and Thoughts” by A. I. Herzen and the story “Cold Autumn” by I. A. Bunin).

“The Past and Thoughts” by A. I. Herzen: features of temporary organization

In a literary text, a moving, often changeable and multidimensional time perspective arises; the sequence of events in it may not correspond to their real chronology. The author of the work, in accordance with his aesthetic intentions, either expands, or “thickens” time, or slows it down; it speeds up.

A work of art correlates different aspect of artistic time: plot time (the temporal extent of the depicted actions and their reflection in the composition of the work) and plot time (their real sequence), author's time and subjective time of the characters. It presents different manifestations(forms) of time (everyday historical time, personal time and social time). The center of attention of a writer or poet can be himself image of time, associated with the motive of movement, development, formation, with the opposition of the transitory and the eternal.

Of particular interest is the analysis of the temporal organization of works in which different time plans are consistently correlated, a broad panorama of the era is given, and a certain philosophy of history is embodied. Such works include the memoir-autobiographical epic “The Past and Thoughts” (1852 - 1868). This is not only the pinnacle of A.I.’s creativity. Herzen, but also the work “ new form"(according to L.N. Tolstoy's definition) It combines elements of different genres (autobiography, confession, notes, historical chronicles), combines different forms of presentation and compositional and semantic types of speech, "gravestone and confession, past and thoughts, biography and speculation , events and thoughts, heard and seen, memories and... more memories” (A.I. Herzen). “The best... of the books devoted to a review of one’s own life” (Yu.K. Olesha), “The Past and Thoughts” is the history of the formation of a Russian revolutionary and at the same time the history of social thought of the 30-60s of the 19th century. “There is hardly another work of memoirs so imbued with conscious historicism.”

This is a work characterized by a complex and dynamic temporal organization, involving the interaction of various time plans. Its principles are defined by the author himself, who noted that his work is “and a confession around which, about which, here and there, captured memories from the past, here and there, stopped thoughts and other m" (highlighted by A.I. Herzen. - N.N.). This author’s characteristic, which opens the work, contains an indication of the basic principles of the temporal organization of the text: this is an orientation toward the subjective segmentation of one’s past, the free juxtaposition of different time plans, the constant switching of time registers; The author’s “thoughts” are combined with a retrospective, but devoid of strict chronological sequence. - stories about past events include characteristics of persons, events and facts from different historical eras. The narration of the past is supplemented by stage reproduction of individual situations; the story about the “past” is interrupted by fragments of text that reflect the immediate position of the narrator at the moment of speech or the reconstructed period of time.

This construction of the work “clearly reflected the methodological principle of “The Past and Thoughts”: the constant interaction of the general and the particular, the transitions from the author’s direct reflections to their substantive illustration and back.”

Artistic time in “Bygone...” reversible(the author resurrects past events), multidimensional(the action unfolds in different time planes) and nonlinear(the story about past events is disrupted by self-interruptions, reasoning, comments, assessments). The starting point that determines the change of time plans in the text is mobile and constantly moving.

The plot time of the work is time first of all biographical, The “past”, reconstructed inconsistently, reflects the main stages in the development of the author’s personality.

At the heart of biographical time is the end-to-end image of a path (road), which in symbolic form embodies the life path of the narrator, seeking true knowledge and going through a series of tests. This traditional spatial image is realized in a system of expanded metaphors and comparisons, regularly repeated in the text and forming a cross-cutting motif of movement, overcoming oneself, and passing through a series of steps: The path we chose was not easy, we never left it; wounded, broken, we walked, and no one overtook us. I reached... not to the goal, but to the place where the road goes downhill...; ...the June of coming of age, with its painful work, with its rubble on the road, takes a person by surprise.; Like lost knights in fairy tales, we waited at a crossroads. You'll go right- you will lose your horse, but you yourself will be safe; if you go to the left, the horse will be intact, but you yourself will die; if you go forward, everyone will leave you; If you go back, this is no longer possible, the road there is overgrown with grass for us.

These tropical series developing in the text act as a constructive component of the biographical time of the work and form its figurative basis.

Reproducing past events, evaluating them ("Past- not a proof sheet... Not everything can be corrected. It remainsas cast in metal, detailed, unchanging, dark as bronze. People generally forget only what is not worth remembering or what they do not understand") and refracting through his subsequent experience, A.I. Herzen makes maximum use of the expressive capabilities of the tense forms of the verb.

The situations and facts depicted in the past are assessed by the author in different ways: some of them are described extremely briefly, while others (the most important for the author in an emotional, aesthetic or ideological sense), on the contrary, are highlighted “close-up”, while time “stops” or slows down. To achieve this aesthetic effect, imperfective past tense forms or present tense forms are used. If the forms of the past perfect express a chain of successively changing actions, then the forms of the imperfect form convey not the dynamics of the event, but the dynamics of the action itself, presenting it as an unfolding process. Performing in a literary text not only a “reproducing”, but also a “visually pictorial”, “descriptive” function, the forms of the past imperfect stop time. In the text of “Past and Thoughts” they are used as a means of highlighting in “close-up” situations or events that are especially significant for the author (the oath on Vorobyovy Mountain, the death of his father, a meeting with Natalie, leaving Russia, a meeting in Turin, the death of his wife). The choice of forms of the past imperfect as a sign of a certain author’s attitude towards the depicted performs in this case an emotional and expressive function. Wed, for example: The nurse in a sundress and a shower jacket is still watched follow us and cried; Sonnenberg, that funny figure from childhood, waved foulard- All around is an endless steppe of snow.

This function of the past imperfect forms is typical for artistic speech; it is associated with the special meaning of the imperfect form, which presupposes the obligatory presence of a moment of observation, a retrospective point of reference. A.I. Herzen also uses the expressive possibilities of the past imperfect form with the meaning of multiple or habitually repeated action: they serve for typification, generalization of empirical details and situations. Thus, to characterize life in his father’s house, Herzen uses the technique of describing one day - a description based on the consistent use of imperfective forms. “Past and Thoughts” is thus characterized by a constant change in the perspective of the image: isolated facts and situations, highlighted in close-up, are combined with the reproduction of long-term processes, periodically repeating phenomena. Interesting in this regard is the portrait of the Chaadaevs, built on the transition from the author’s specific personal observations to a typical characteristic:

I loved to look at him in the midst of this tinsel nobility, flighty senators, gray-haired rakes and honorable nonentities. No matter how dense the crowd, the eye found him immediately; summer did not distort his slender figure, he dressed very carefully, his pale, tender face was completely motionless, when he was silent, as if made of wax or marble, “a forehead like a naked skull”... For ten years he stood with folded arms , somewhere near a column, near a tree on the boulevard, in halls and theaters, in a club and - the embodiment of veto, he looked with lively protest at the whirlwind of faces spinning meaninglessly around him...

The forms of the present tense against the background of the forms of the past can also perform the function of slowing down time, the function of highlighting events and phenomena of the past in close-up, but they, unlike the forms of the past imperfect in the “picturesque” function, recreate, first of all, the immediate time of the author’s experience associated with the moment of lyrical concentrations, or (less often) convey predominantly typical situations, repeatedly repeated in the past and now reconstructed by memory as imaginary:

The peace of the oak forest and the noise of the oak forest, the continuous buzzing of flies, bees, bumblebees... and the smell... this grass-forest smell... which I so greedily sought in Italy, and in England, and in the spring, and in the hot summer, and almost never found it. Sometimes it seems to smell like it, after mown hay, in broad daylight, before a thunderstorm... and I remember a small place in front of the house... on the grass, a three-year-old boy, lying in clover and dandelions, between grasshoppers, all sorts of beetles and ladybugs, and ourselves, both youth and friends! The sun has set, it’s still very warm, we don’t want to go home, we’re sitting on the grass. The catcher picks mushrooms and scolds me for no reason. What is this, like a bell? to us, or what? Today is Saturday - maybe... The troika rolls through the village, knocking on the bridge.

The forms of the present tense in “The Past...” are associated primarily with the author’s subjective psychological time, his emotional sphere; their use complicates the image of time. The reconstruction of events and facts of the past, again directly experienced by the author, is associated with the use of nominative sentences, and in some cases with the use of forms of the past perfect in the perfect meaning. The chain of forms of the historical present and nominatives not only brings the events of the past as close as possible, but also conveys a subjective sense of time and recreates its rhythm:

My heart was beating strongly when I again saw familiar, dear streets, places, houses that I had not seen for about four years... Kuznetsky Most, Tverskoy Boulevard... here is Ogarev’s house, they stuck some kind of huge coat of arms on him, it’s someone else’s already... here Povarskaya - the spirit is engaged: in the meso- - Nina, in the corner window, a candle is burning, this is her room, she writes to me, she thinks about me, the candle burns so cheerfully, so to me is on.

Thus, the biographical plot time of the work is uneven and discontinuous, it is characterized by a deep but moving perspective; recreation of real biographical facts combined with the transfer of various aspects of subjective awareness and measurement of time by the author.

Artistic and grammatical time, as already noted, are closely related, however, “grammar appears as a piece of smalt in the overall mosaic picture of a verbal work.” Artistic time is created by all elements of the text.

Lyrical expression and attention to the “moment” are combined in the prose of A.I. Herzen with constant typification, with a social-analytical approach to what is depicted. Considering that “it is more necessary here than anywhere else to take off masks and portraits,” since “we are terribly falling apart from what has just passed,” the author combines; “thoughts” in the present and a story about the “past” with portraits of contemporaries, while restoring the missing links in the image of the era: “the universal without personality is an empty distraction; but a person only has full reality to the extent that he is in society.”

Portraits of contemporaries in “The Past and Thoughts” are conditionally possible; divided into static and dynamic. Thus, in Chapter III of the first volume a portrait of Nicholas I is presented, it is static and emphatically evaluative, speech means, participating in its creation, contain a common semantic feature “cold”: a cropped and shaggy jellyfish with a mustache; His beauty filled him with cold... But the main thing was his eyes, without any warmth, without any mercy, winter eyes.

The portrait description of Ogarev is constructed differently in Chapter IV of the same volume. A description of his appearance is followed by an introduction; elements of prospection related to the hero’s future. “If a pictorial portrait is always a moment stopped in time, then verbal portrait characterizes a person in “actions and deeds” relating to different “moments” of his biography.” Creating a portrait of N. Ogarev in adolescence, A.I. Herzen, at the same time, names the traits of a hero in maturity: Early on one could see in him that anointing that not many people receive,- for bad luck or for good luck... but probably so as not to be in the crowd... unaccountable sadness and extreme meekness shone through the big gray eyes, hinting at the future growth of the great spirit; That's how he grew up.

The combination of different time points of view in portraits when describing and characterizing the characters deepens the moving time perspective of the work.

The multiplicity of time points of view presented in the structure of the text is increased by the inclusion of fragments of the diary, letters of other characters, excerpts from literary works, in particular from the poems of N. Ogarev. These elements of the text are correlated with the author's narration or the author's descriptions and are often contrasted with them as genuine, objective - subjective, transformed by time. See for example: The truth of that time, as it was then understood, without the artificial perspective that distance gives, without the cooling of time, without the corrected illumination by rays passing through a series of other events, was preserved in the notebook of that time.

The biographical time of the author is supplemented in the work with elements of the biographical time of other heroes, while A.I. Herzen resorts to extensive comparisons and metaphors that recreate the passage of time: The years of her life abroad passed luxuriantly and noisily, but they went and plucked flower after flower... Like a tree in the middle of winter, she retained the linear outline of her branches, the leaves flew around, the bare branches chilled bonyly, but the majestic growth and bold dimensions were seen all the more clearly. The image of a clock is repeatedly used in “The Past...”, embodying the inexorable power of time: The large English table clock, with its measured*, loud spondee - tick-tock - tick-tock - tick-tock... seemed to be measuring out the last quarter of an hour of her life...; And the spondee English clock continued to measure out days, hours, minutes... and finally reached the fateful second.

The image of fleeting time in “The Past and Thoughts,” as we see, is associated with an orientation towards the traditional, often general linguistic type of comparisons and metaphors, which, repeated in the text, undergo transformations and affect the surrounding elements of the context; as a result, the stability of tropical characteristics is combined with their constant update.

Thus, biographical time in “My Past and Thoughts” consists of plot time, based on the sequence of events of the author’s past, and elements of the biographical time of other characters, while the subjective perception of time by the narrator, his evaluative attitude to the reconstructed facts are constantly emphasized. “The author is like an editor in cinematography”: he either speeds up the time of the work, then stops it, does not always correlate the events of his life with chronology, emphasizes, on the one hand, the fluidity of time, on the other hand, the duration of individual episodes resurrected by memory.

Biographical time, despite the complex perspective inherent in it, is interpreted in the work of A. Herzen as private time, presupposing subjectivity of measurement, closed, having a beginning and an end (“Everything personal quickly crumbles away... Let “The Past and Thoughts” settle accounts with personal life and be its table of contents”). It is included in the broad flow of time associated with the historical era reflected in the work. Thus, closed biographical time contrasted open historical time. This opposition is reflected in the features of the composition of “The Past and Thoughts”: “in the sixth and seventh parts there is no longer a lyrical hero; in general, the personal, “private” fate of the author remains outside the boundaries of what is depicted,” the dominant element of the author’s speech becomes “thoughts” that appear in a monologue or dialogized form. One of the leading grammatical forms organizing these contexts is the present tense. If the plot biographical time of “The Past and Thoughts” is characterized by the use of the actual present (“the author’s current ... the result of moving the “observation point” to one of the moments of the past, the plot action”) or the historical present, then for “thoughts” and the author’s digressions, constituting the main layer of historical time, characterized by the present in an expanded or constant meaning, acting in interaction with the forms of the past tense, as well as the present of direct author’s speech: The nationality, like a banner, like a battle cry, is only surrounded by a revolutionary aura when the people fight for independence, when they overthrow the foreign yoke... The War of 1812 greatly developed a sense of popular consciousness and love for the homeland, but the patriotism of 1812 did not have the Old Believer-Slavic character. We see him in Karamzin and Pushkin...

““The past and thoughts,” wrote A.I. Herzen, is not a historical monograph, but a reflection of history in a person, accidentally caught on her way."

The life of an individual in “Bydrm and Thoughts” is perceived in connection with a certain historical situation and is motivated by it. A metaphorical image of the background appears in the text, which is then concretized, gaining perspective and dynamics: A thousand times I wanted to convey a series of unique figures, sharp portraits taken from life... There is nothing gregarious in them... one common connection- em them or better yet one general unhappiness; Peering into the dark gray background, you can see soldiers under sticks, serfs under rods... wagons rushing to Siberia, convicts trudged there, shaved foreheads, branded faces, helmets, epaulettes, sultans... in a word, St. Petersburg Russia.. They want to run away from the canvas and cannot.

If the biographical time of a work is characterized by a spatial image of a road, then to represent historical time, in addition to the image of the background, images of the sea (ocean) and elements are regularly used:

Impressive, sincerely young, we were easily caught up in a powerful wave... and early we swam across that line at which whole rows of people stop, fold their arms, walk back or look around for a ford - across the sea!

In history, it is easier for him [man] to be passionately carried away by the flow of events... than to peer into the ebb and flow of the waves that carry him. A man... grows by understanding his position into a helmsman who proudly cuts through the waves with his boat, forcing the bottomless abyss to serve him through communication.

Characterizing the role of the individual in the historical process, A.I. Herzen resorts to a number of metaphorical correspondences that are inextricably linked with each other: a person in history is “at once a boat, a wave and a helmsman,” while everything that exists is connected by “ends and beginnings, causes and actions.” A person’s aspirations “are clothed in words, embodied in images, remain in tradition and are passed on from century to century.” This understanding of the place of man in the historical process led to the author’s appeal to the universal language of culture, the search for certain “formulas” to explain the problems of history and, more broadly, of existence, to classify particular phenomena and situations. Such “formulas” in the text of “Past and Thoughts” are a special type of tropes, characteristic of the style of A.I. Herzen. These are metaphors, comparisons, periphrases, which include the names of historical figures, literary heroes, mythological characters, names of historical events, words denoting historical and cultural concepts. These “point quotes” appear in the text as metonymic replacements for entire situations and plots. The paths of which they are included serve to figuratively characterize phenomena of which Herzen was a contemporary, persons and events of other historical eras. See for example: Student young ladies- Jacobins, Saint-Just in the Amazon - everything is sharp, pure, merciless...;[Moscow] with murmuring and contempt she received into her walls a woman stained with the blood of her husband[Catherine II], this Lady Macbeth without repentance, this Lucretia Borgia without Italian blood...

Phenomena of history and modernity, empirical facts and myths, real persons and literary images are compared, as a result the situations described in the work receive a second plan: through the particular the general appears, through the individual - the repeating, through the transitory - the eternal.

The relationship in the structure of the work of two time layers: private time, biographical time and historical time - leads to a complication of the subjective organization of the text. Copyright I alternates sequentially with We, which in different contexts takes on different meanings: it points either to the author, or to persons close to him, or, with the strengthening of the role of historical time, serves as a means of pointing to the entire generation, a national collective, or even, more broadly, to the human race as a whole:

Our historical vocation, our deed lies in this: through our disappointment, through our suffering, we reach the point of humility and submission before the truth and deliver the next generations from these sorrows...

In the connection of generations, the unity of the human race is affirmed, the history of which seems to the author to be a tireless striving forward, a path that has no end, but presupposes, however, the repetition of certain motives. The same repetitions of A.I. Herzen also finds in human life, the course of which, from his point of view, has a peculiar rhythm:

Yes, in life there is an addiction to the returning rhythm, to the repetition of the motive; who doesn’t know how close old age is to childhood? Take a closer look and you will see that on both sides of the full height of life, with its wreaths of flowers and thorns, with its cradles and coffins, eras are often repeated, similar in the main features.

It is historical time that is especially important for the narrative: the formation of the hero of “Past and Thoughts” reflects the formation of the era; biographical time is not only contrasted with historical time, but also acts as one of its manifestations.

Dominant images that characterize in the text both biographical time (the image of the path) and historical time (the image of the sea, the elements) interact, their connection gives rise to the movement of particular end-to-end images associated with the deployment of the dominant: I'm not coming from London. There is nowhere and no reason... It was washed here and thrown by the waves, which so mercilessly broke and twisted me and everything close to me.

The interaction of different time plans in the text, the correlation in the work of biographical and historical time, “the reflection of history in a person” are the distinctive features of the memoir-autobiographical epic of A.I. Herzen. These principles of temporal organization determine the figurative structure of the text and are reflected in the language of the work.

In art, the categories of space and time are a specific system of signs that serve to embody and transmit cognitive and evaluative artistic information. This dependence was first discovered and formulated by G. E. Lessing in the treatise “Laocoon, or On the Boundaries of Painting and Poetry.” According to the philosopher, fine Arts and poetry can artistically recreate bodies and actions, i.e. spatial and temporal relations. As for spatial arts, they are able to depict bodies directly, but actions only indirectly, thanks to the depiction of the body in some fixed moment of movement. Temporary arts, on the contrary, are able to directly depict actions, and indirectly - bodies.

I. Kant considered time and space as a priori forms of sensory intuition. The philosopher substantiated the position that a prerequisite for any experience is a person’s ability to organize his sensations in space and time.

Following the theoretical principles of G. E. Lessing and I. Kant, developing them, many cultural theorists give the following classification of arts: spatial (painting, graphics, sculpture, architecture), temporal (verbal and musical creativity) and spatio-temporal (stage art, dance, cinema). It should, however, be borne in mind that any scheme is relative, since the boundaries between the arts are often violated.

Each type of literature has its own laws of the relationship between time and space. In classical drama, place and time are determined by the specific principles of this type verbal creativity. Since stagecraft involves the presentation of events, time must be concentrated to the duration of dialogues, and space is limited to mise-en-scène.

Therefore, artistic time for the participants in the event (the hero, the narrator and the characters surrounding the hero) can flow at different speeds: The hero can be completely excluded from the flow of time. theatrical text the compositional order is predetermined and finally fixed. “The limitation of space by a ramp or backstage,” writes Yu. M. Lotman, “with the complete impossibility of transferring artistically real (and not implied) action beyond these limits is the law of the theater. This closedness of space can be expressed in the fact that the action takes place indoors ( house, room) with the image of its boundaries (walls) on the scenery. The absence of walls from the side. auditorium does not change the matter, since it is not spatial in nature: in the language of the theater it is equivalent to the condition for constructing a verbal literary text, according to which the author and reader have the right to know everything they need about the characters and events."

In the poetics of the theater of the absurd, there is no intrigue, which gives the plays a static character. In the dramaturgy of the 20th century, which has acquired the status of an intellectual game, space and time persistently declare their relativity. In S. Beckett's play "Waiting for Godot" the present and the past are simultaneously presented, and the place of action in this aesthetic system does not require designation at all. The closed space of the stage captures the boundaries of the human cosmos, the extreme temporal and spatial extent of life, and the anticipation of the characters creates stage tension of time.

Poetic time moves faster than real time. In works in which there are no events, the style-forming principle becomes lyrical, extra-fabular time, for which, according to E. Vinokur, the past and the future are “one and the same continuous present.”

The structure-forming beginning of epic time, as a rule, is the combination of various time layers. Direct speech in the novel is synchronous with real time. Indirect speech may vary the tempo depending on the artistic preferences of the author.

Therefore, artistic time for the participants in the event (the hero, the narrator and the characters surrounding the hero) can flow at different speeds: The hero can be completely excluded from the flow of time. piece of music two time lines are revealed. This is, first of all, objective time, measured by the duration of the work itself. Another type lies in the specific organization of sound material, reflecting the thinking style of the composer and the era. In music, time cannot be analyzed in isolation from space. The uniform pulsation of rhythmic beats, the principle of contrast, the presence of main and secondary themes create a chain of events that reflects the present, memory and premonition. Space in works of classical music, due to its continuity, plays an exceptional formative role. Time in music is manifested in the change of chords, melodic peaks, and rhythmic accents.

In musical experiments of the 20th century. time breaks up into separate self-sufficient moments. Composers, in their desire to break the shackles of time, strive to free musical sound from associations, to make it an end in itself due to the destruction of intonation and the absence of harmonic tonal gravity. Modernist music concentrates attention on one sound, how it is produced, and the duration of the sound. The indivisibility and uniformity of the musical fabric leads to a synthesis of the moment and eternity. The task of modernist music is to divide eternity into many unique moments.

Time and space in cinema should not be reduced to the analysis of technical techniques or to the features of dramaturgy. In the film, the director combines mental, physical and dramatic time. The editing technique and the rhythmic change of frames contribute to the emergence in the viewer’s mind of the illusion of spatial unity.

The director, depending on the need, can concentrate the chronology, unfolding the action only in space. When necessary, the film is constructed as a chain of events, sometimes time is reduced to a single moment. A number of images are similar to the clarity of a literary phrase, marked by musicality, which allows you to express the most vague sensations. The author's attitude to events is often embodied using the techniques of compressed time, coincidence of times, or reverse time. The continuity of movement in cinema and the impression of integrity arises from a sequence of discrete shots.

V. E. Meyerhold denied the right of “photography” to be called art, since in mechanical copying there is no movement and measurement of time, which are the basis of cinema. The director argued that “the screen is something located in time and space, and that developing the consciousness of time in the game is the task of the actor of the future.”

Cinema is based on montage. The technique itself was opened by the literature of romanticism. Editing is one of the leading methods of film construction. Cinema experiments with the categories of space and time, disrupts the relationship between causes and effects, creates a paradoxical shift in event plans, achieving a sophisticated transmission of the director's intention.

The universality of aesthetic laws makes different types of art and their perception similar.

To understand the specifics of art, it is necessary to take into account the time of reception of the work. Perception is subject to certain laws. Repeated presentation of the theme with anticipation and recognition of it, preservation of the plot texture in memory throughout long sections of the form, metrical organization of sound material - patterns related to the time of perception of a musical work.

A piece of music is perceived as sequence of sounds film - how sequential personnel organization, static works of painting, sculpture and architecture in human perception unfold in time as sequence of images. The perception of spatial arts is marked by the following composition: the viewer is revealed to the aesthetic complex of the work - the plastic subordination of profiles and projections, the combination of shadows and light.

The perception of plastic arts presupposes the initiative of the viewer when considering the subject: the angle of observation, the speed of transition from one point to another, the total duration of perception.

This does not mean absolute arbitrariness and uncontrollability of perception. P. Florensky reflects on this in his work “Analysis of spatiality in works of art”: “Nothing prevents me from tearing a ball of thread anywhere or opening a book anywhere, but if I want to have a solid thread, I look for the end of the ball and from it I am already going through all the turns of the thread. In the same way, if I want to perceive the book as a logical or artistic whole, I open it on the first page and proceed according to the page numbering sequentially. The visual work, of course, is accessible to my inspection from any place, starting from any place. order, but if I approach it as an artistic one, then with an involuntary instinct I find the first thing to start with, the second, the next one, and, unconsciously following its guiding pattern, I straighten it with an internal rhythm.

The work is structured in such a way that this transformation of pattern into rhythm occurs automatically.”

It is obvious that P. Florensky’s reflection is aimed at a prepared viewer. Be that as it may, the perception of the plastic arts in any sequence ultimately creates a holistic view. Works of painting, sculpture, and architecture are static, two-dimensional or three-dimensional plastic. They are excluded from the flow of time. Meanwhile, the act of perception is the reading of human experience into artistic creation– overcomes the limitations of a particular type of art.

Therefore, artistic time for the participants in the event (the hero, the narrator and the characters surrounding the hero) can flow at different speeds: The hero can be completely excluded from the flow of time. various types arts categories of space and time manifest themselves especially. The existence of words and musical art marked by process. The act of reading presupposes strict determinism, determined by the time of perception, which does not exclude the need to slow down or speed up reading or return to places you like. The world of artistic images affects the reader, viewer and listener, breaks the spatial locality of the work and gives rise to various associations.

The categories of space and time in art have figurative And expressive meanings. More than once, lyrical masterpieces have attracted composers. Many works of world literature have been influenced by music. The poets enthusiastically describe ancient statues, translating perfect plasticity into the sphere of images and rhymes. “Prose of moods” and “musical prose” are marked by the tension of the melodic atmosphere. In the picturesque arrangement of objects on the canvas, in the special elaboration of the “light-air environment”, a clear rhythm of space is felt. Musical themes evoke associations with color schemes and color contrasts.

The undoubted relationship between music and painting allows us to liken a pictorial image to a harmonious sound. The composer, turning only to the ear, can evoke the same sensations that painting conveys with the help of paints. The Romantics insisted that architecture is frozen music. As for poetry, the definition of lyrical landscapes as “painting with words” has long ceased to be conventional - the images created by the great artists of words are so bright and plastic.

A work of art is a source of information and is perceived in different ways. This differs from scientific texts, the information capacity of which is always strictly fixed and does not imply, as in communication with a work of art, the effect of empathy and sensory contemplation.

“What happens in the process of reading?” J. Carey discusses the role of time in the formation of reading impressions. “At first, the reader perceives physiologically. In fact, the reader is presented with only combinations of signs written on paper. They are inert and meaningless in themselves. They are not able to convey him something “with his own forces.” Reading is a creative process, subject to the same rules, the same restrictions, as the spiritual activity through which a person contemplating a work of art turns a block of stone, paints applied to a canvas, i.e. that is, things that in themselves mean nothing, into a meaningful impression.”

Each era creates its own vision of the world, its own style of thinking and, accordingly, its own concept of time and space.

Ancient forms of thinking are marked by an anthropomorphic perception of time, endowing it with moral meaning. Archaic time is ahistorical, it is cyclical and does not need precise measurement, events are reduced to categories, and individual stories are reduced to archetypal ones. Life, freed from chance, is included in the structure of eternity. The future in the mythopoetic tradition is identified with fate, the time duration of wanderings is measured by the space overcome.

In folklore, event time is determined by circumstances external to the hero. Folklore storytelling documents non-event time as “pauses” and expresses it using sacred numbers indicating not so much duration as immeasurability (three, seven, ten, thirty-three).

The epic is based on the principles of cyclization. The chronology of epic tales is alien to reliable dates. "Empty" time does not change heroes. They are not subject to aging. The hero begins to undergo changes only when he is included in the action.

The mythopoetic tradition has become a fruitful source of many artistic solutions in the literature of recent centuries.

A work of art is the embodiment of philosophical and ethical-aesthetic quests, which are materialized in a composition, a system of images, in the space-time continuum, giving the plot the necessary dynamics, argumentation and recognition. The original, fundamentally heterogeneous material of reality is interpreted by the author and proposed as a dynamic figurative and artistic phenomenon, which unfolds in the form of a sequential series of stages and is translated into a space-time continuum - a chronotope.

The category "chronotope" is introduced into the research arsenal of literary criticism Μ. M. Bakhtin, who developed the theory of the poetics of the novel from a historical perspective. The pictorial function of the chronotope is to make events visible and tangible. “An event,” writes M. M. Bakhtin, “can be reported, informed, and precise instructions can be given about the place and time of its occurrence. But the event does not become an image. The chronotope provides essential ground for display - the image of events.”

This happens due to the condensation of the time of human life or historical event in certain areas of the artistic space. All abstract elements of the novel, not marked by artistic imagery, philosophical reasoning, generalizations and representations of various kinds of ideas are filled with “flesh and blood, attached to artistic imagery through the chronotope.”

The chronotope, according to Bakhtin, creates an image, and this is where its pictorial function is manifested. General meaning The chronotope is that events in a work of art are characterized by a certain spatiotemporal interdependence. Event time can be marked by duration, discreteness or continuity, finiteness or infinity, closedness or openness.

The concept of chronotope does not exhaust the scope of a single work; it is associated with the aesthetic trends of the era, the author's style, the genre of works, and is often marked by a direct relationship with the typology of reader reactions.

In art, time can shrink and stretch, stop, go back, spatial relationships can shift and deform. On this basis, the distance between artistic form and reality, which is usually called artistic convention.

D. S. Likhachev wrote that “time is a phenomenon of the very artistic fabric of a work, subordinating its grammatical and philosophical understanding by the writer to its artistic tasks.”

The problem of spatiotemporal relationships in the literature must be considered in connection with evolution artistic directions and styles. The classicist principle of “three unities,” which caused fierce criticism among the theorists of romanticism, aimed to concentrate events to the utmost, to offer a clear portrait of what was happening, opposing the chaos of reality and the artist’s willfulness. “Letter on the Rule of Twenty-Four Hours” by Jean Chaplin, “The Practice of the Theater” by François d’Aubignac, “The Art of Poetry” by Nicolas Boileau-Depreau develop the theoretical aspects of classicist poetics, set out the rules with the help of which conditions are created for the differentiated disclosure of characters, ideas and deep analysis of the collision of a private impulse with a rational norm.

The philosophical and aesthetic practice of classicism made it possible to organize the source material full of contradictions in a plot, to generalize the depicted reality, to present it in the form of an integral dramatic conflict.

In classicism, space and time are created in accordance with plastic models that have clear lines that are open to aesthetic contemplation. The frightening multidimensionality of objects is brought into line with the stylistic norm. The spatial argumentation of conflicts is intended to confirm artistic and figurative persuasiveness. In this sense, the subsequent polemic with the limitations of classicist aesthetics is a dispute between romanticism and a culture that chose temporal-spatial convention as an independent value, providing artistic practice with theoretically sound arguments.

Classicists often transfer the action of their works to the past, seeing in historical heroes the personification of the virtues and vices of their time. This solution characterizes all narrative aesthetics, but for classicism the principle of analogy is important, which allows us to illustrate the idea of ​​​​the transtemporal existence of the conflict between duty and passion.

The classicist idea of ​​a mandatory aesthetic “discipline” will be developed in the artistic creativity and literary critical activity of representatives of the early Enlightenment. Supporters of normative poetics and opponents of “unlimited freedom” in creativity rely on the idea of ​​measure, harmony and law. Meanwhile, the Age of Enlightenment expresses a skeptical attitude towards the desire of classicism to rationally order the world. Authors of novels strive to depict life in the realities of life itself: in its prejudices, dynamics, conflicts, epic temporal and spatial extent.

Romanticism defends the artist's right to free initiative in the artistic embodiment of the contradictions of the rebellious spirit. Writers comment extremely freely on the temporary circumstances of the characters’ lives, correlate the eternal and the temporary, and create an eschatological image of time, which measures the fatal step of inevitable death. The idea of ​​the doom of titanic passions encourages romantics to narrow the time and space limits of the character’s existence. The rebellious youth is defeated in his clash with the world. All attempts to overcome loneliness and melancholy are doomed. And even travel does not change anything in a soul marked by disappointment. The authors depict the hero's tragedy, reducing his physical representation in the world to a psychological reflection of what is happening. Such a subjective perspective of the image radically narrows reality itself, often making it unreal.

Romantics often resort to the technique of an asymmetrical image of the universe. Writers interrupt the usual flow of events that are not significant for the conflict with flashes of concentrated time, the metric of which is designed to reveal the dramatic climaxes of a restless spirit.

Understanding the tragic vicissitudes of fate in romantic art is often carried out in terms musical aesthetics. Music allows you to overcome space-time boundaries, turn to the past and look into the future, promises to fulfill hopes and fatally programs fate. Active appeal to Platonic ideas is embodied in the development of the theory of “two worlds” and “double vision”, which expands space romantic works: any plot situation correlates with the world of ideas, the specifics of life turn out to be a simplified sketch ideal program world order.

Romantic irony relieves the tension between the real and ideal worlds; it is assigned the role of expressing the author’s doubt in the triumph of harmony and revealing the ability of the romantic reader to be equal to the ideal.

The Romantics not only discovered the wealth of oral folk art, but were also the first to begin to study folklore. Turning to folklore helps expand the established boundaries of plots, and also introduces fantastic elements into culture that allow you to look into the future and discover in it the personification of an ideal, or an impending tragedy.

Romantics, in search of harmony, turn to the depiction of a patriarchal past, not overshadowed by the influence of a spiritless civilization. The past beckons with a utopian sense of the unattainable and is painted in idyllic tones. An original view of history is offered by W. Scott. The writer is not limited to the traditional opposition of the past to the present. Turning to the history of England, the author of "Ivanhoe" uses the principle of analogy, revealing in the past circumstances that determined the specific historical perspective of the country.

In the aesthetics of realism, space-time representations are focused on the scrupulous reproduction of reality.

In realism, space and time become one of the means of conveying thoughts, feelings of the characters and the author, but their main purpose is a figurative generalization of reality.

A. S. Pushkin traces the connection of individual time with eternity. M. Yu. Lermontov contrasts the present and the past, modernity saddens the poet, encourages him to draw gloomy pictures of the future. For F.I. Tyutchev, life is a fragile moment, marked by a tragic feeling of the finitude of life. N. A. Nekrasov strives to objectify the poetic content of his works, inscribing signs of real historical time into the lyrics.

A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, I. A. Goncharov, L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov, recreating a holistic and visible picture of human experiences, use effective techniques that allow them to “stop” time or, when it is necessary to increase its duration.

D. S. Likhachev, reflecting on the poetics of artistic time, makes an important generalization: “On the one hand, the time of a work can be “closed”, “closed in itself”, occurring only within the boundaries of the plot, not connected with events occurring outside the boundaries of the work , with historical time. On the other hand, the time of a work can be “open”, included in a broader flow of time, developing against the background of a precisely defined historical era. “Open” time of a work presupposes the presence of other events occurring simultaneously outside the work, its plot. ".

In the works of N.V. Gogol, the structure of time and space becomes one of the main means of expression. In "Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka" real and fantastic spaces collide. Closed in its geographical specificity, "Petersburg Tales" become a metaphor for a world that is destructive for humans, and the city depicted in "The Inspector General" appears as an allegory of bureaucratic Russia. Space and time can appear in everyday scenes or in marking the boundaries of the characters’ existence. In "Dead Souls" the image of the road as a form of space is identical to the idea of ​​the path as the moral norm of human life.

I. A. Goncharov in the novel “Oblomov,” emphasizing the slowness of the calendar of patriarchal existence, turns to comparing the hero’s life with the “slow gradualness with which geological modifications of our planet occur.” The novel is based on the principle of open time. The author deliberately neglects the clear metrics of the narrative, slows down the passage of time, persistently returning to the description of the patriarchal idyll.

The time depicted and the time of the image in literary texts may not coincide. Thus, the novel "Oblomov" reproduces several episodes from the life of the main character. Those points that the author considered important to dwell on are presented in detail, others are only indicated. Nevertheless, such a principle of organizing a work results in the creation of a holistic picture of a person’s life.

L. N. Tolstoy in the novel "War and Peace", reflecting on the laws of human society, turns to the mythopoetic tradition, which is based on the idea of ​​​​the cyclical development of the universe. The philosophical purpose of such a solution is the idea that everything in the world, chaotic and contradictory, is subordinated to man’s eternal desire to achieve harmony.

In the novel "War and Peace" the flow of time is determined by the law of nonlinear transformations, which is embodied in the intersection of "real time" and "literary time." In the work of L. N. Tolstoy, chronological order plays a special role. The writer carefully dates each chapter and even notes the time of day.

In the scenes describing the characters' experiences, the author of the epic manages to achieve rhythmic tension in the narrative and dynamic changes in emotional states. The characters' thoughts either speed up or seem to freeze, and accordingly, time itself accelerates its movement or petrifies in anticipation.

A work of art belongs to special types of mastery of reality. The artistic image is only indirectly related to the depiction of reality. A writer must always take into account the spatio-temporal boundaries of reality in his work and correlate them with the chronology of the text being created. Often in a literary work, physical time and plot time do not coincide.

As an example, we can turn to the poetics of F. M. Dostoevsky’s novels. The writer puts his heroes in crisis situations, the implementation of which requires an extremely long time. The events described in the novels of F. M. Dostoevsky, especially some scenes, do not fit into the framework of real time. But it is precisely this chronotope of the novel that conveys the tension of thought and will of the characters caught in the drama of life situations.

Readers may get the impression that F. M. Dostoevsky's novels are based on different time plans. This feeling stems from a tense interweaving of events, discussions, confessions, facts, internal monologues and internal dialogues. In fact, the writer’s works are marked by the unity of time, and all artistic material is presented in a holistic space of simultaneous implementation.

The aesthetics of naturalism in the reproduction of space and time chooses the technique of rigid spatiotemporal presentation of the material. E. Zola, E. and J. Goncourt record the facts of reality, correlate them with the voice of nature, revealing the conditionality of the heroes’ intuitive actions by the eternal laws of nature.

Symbolism overcomes the objectivity of phenomenal existence; metaphors and symbols expand the horizons of human existence. With the help of "lyrical alchemy" C. Baudelaire, P. Verlaine, A. Rimbaud, S. Mallarmé compare reality with the irrational meanings of the world, prove that the symbol embodies the ideal plan, the essence of things that were, are present or someday will certainly declare to yourself.

Yu. M. Lotman noted that “the artistic space in a literary work is a continuum in which the characters are located and the action takes place. Naive perception constantly pushes the reader to identify artistic and physical space. There is some truth in such a perception, because even when it is exposed its function of modeling extra-spatial relations, artistic space necessarily retains, as the foreground of metaphor, the idea of ​​its physical nature.”

According to the degree of convention, the categories of space and time can be relative and specific in a literary work. Thus, in the novels of A. Dumas, the action takes place in France in the 17th century, but the real historical place and time indicated by the writer is only an excuse for recreating heroic types. The main thing in this approach to the past, according to U. Eco, is that it is “not here and not now.”

The “concrete” principle of mastering reality includes Gogol’s principles of realistic typification. The image of the provincial town of N. is not at all a symbol of a Russian province, it is a symbol of bureaucratic Russia, an allegory of widespread lack of spirituality.

For the perception of a literary work, the difference between fictional and real topoi is not fundamental. The main thing is that St. Petersburg in the Russian novel, and the city of S. (A. P. Chekhov’s story “The Lady with the Dog”), and the city of Kalinov (A. Ostrovsky’s play “The Thunderstorm”) - they all artistically embody the author’s idea and are symbols of the world who has lost the concept of morality.

The conventionality and stereotyping of literary time is manifested in the calendar of seasonal preferences. Winter is the most dangerous time of year for the embodiment of intimate emotions. Many characters of romanticism in winter reflect inconsolably and remember the old glorious time that has passed into oblivion. The rare hero of romanticism in winter will be brought out of scrap by love needs. Time and space are subject to the laws of strict regulation. Images of blizzards and winter cold in literature are correlated with the struggle of infernal forces and often become, especially in realistic literature, allegories of social violence. No less common are winter landscape sketches, whose purpose is to glorify the intrinsic value of life.

The normativity of classicism in the depiction of regenerating nature - an appeal to ancient images, pathetic comparisons - is overcome by a sentimentalist conviction in the identity of nature and soul. Romanticism imbues the description of the awakening world with objectivity, expressive details, and a rich range of colors.

Nature awakening from its winter sleep provides convincing interiors to reveal the first sense. Spring favors the birth of love. A hubbub reigns in the forests, restless birds are absorbed in the construction of their homes. The world is tirelessly preparing for a date with passion.

The heroes of romantic poetry, faithful to the commanding call of nature, with a heart full of hope, rush into the whirlwind of spring delusions. Lyric poetry attributes the most sincere and exciting emotions to spring. In spring, as literature proves, it is simply necessary to fall in love. The characters feel they belong to the general unrest. Nature and soul awaken from grief. The time has come to experience for yourself what you have read, seen in your dreams and cherished in your dreams. Descriptions of the joy of innocent love sensations, languid nights, and multi-talking sighs become dominant in literary plots. The metric of experiences is designed in accordance with violent natural metamorphoses. Poetry enthusiastically describes the first thunder, the May thunderstorm - signs of a symbolic exposition of the renewal of nature and the birth of love.

Summer in literary works, as a rule, comes unnoticed and does not give the promised joys. Literature does not favor settings illuminated by bright sunlight. Everything sincere is afraid of publicity. For a love story, twilight is preferable. Evening walks evoke thoughts of eternity. Distant stars - the only witnesses of timid feelings - watch the lucky ones. The very mise-en-scène of an evening date, as shown by the works of the romantics and A.P. Chekhov, is structured in such a way that the plot of confession can be realized.

The autumn plot declares the need to complete everything started in spring and summer. The love and domestic mythology of literature warns about this. English cemetery poetry is permeated with autumn moods. It is at this time of year that the most painful events in the works of neo-romanticism occur. The range of “autumn” activity of the heroes is extremely limited. Realistic poetry condemns social injustice, and romantic heroes in the fall strive to put an end to love punctuation.

The literary category of the time is marked by a wide range of artistic solutions. Literature actively uses images that are symbols of measuring time: an instant, a minute, an hour, a pendulum, a dial. In poetry, there is a widespread opposition between the symbols of the measurable and the immeasurable - the moment and eternity.

The interpretation of the space-time continuum in the works of the last century is ambiguous.

Literature of the 20th century marked by a special relationship to the category of time, to the phenomenon of reconstruction of what happened. Beginning with St. Augustine's Confessions, the introduction of present and future plans into the past becomes one of the techniques of confessional and memoir literature. Integration of the future into the present allows you to analyze what happened and see it in a time perspective. V. Shklovsky, reflecting on the nature of the memoir genre, noted: “There are two dangers for a person who begins to write memoirs. The first is to write, inserting yourself today. Then it turns out that you always knew everything. The second danger is to remain only in the past when remembering Run through the past the way a dog runs along a wire on which its dog chain is attached. Then a person always remembers the same thing: trampling down the grass of the past, he is tied to it. It is necessary to write about the past, not. inserting today's self into the past, but seeing the past from today."

At the beginning of the 20th century. the genre of autobiography itself in the parameters outlined by Augustine and culminating in J.-J. Rousseau begins to demonstrate his insincerity. The fate of the autobiographical genre is changing.

The modernist experience of M. Proust shows that the author is faced with the need to choose what to prefer: an inspired presentation of life or the registration of a certain image of reality in the space of words. In other words, Proust does not tell the story of his life, but sets out to find ways and mechanisms for revealing the past. Otherwise, time may be “lost.” The leading tool for penetrating what once happened is narrative technique"automatic writing" It is this, according to Proust, that allows one to reveal and organize the images of the departed.

The theory of “automatic writing” casts doubt on the likelihood of reproducing the empirical content of the original reality. The fact of life, whatever it may be, competes with the self-sufficiency of writing. As a result, tension arises between the word, which is aware of the world, and the event, which initially does not have an artificial form of perpetuation and therefore needs a word. What is the source of “gained” time - a fact or a word - is a Proustian question, clearly resolved by the writer in favor of the word.

After the artistic experiments of M. Proust, a special philosophical and aesthetic configuration is created in literature, in which the parameters themselves, tested for centuries, undergo a qualitative metamorphosis narrative structure. The idea of ​​the feasibility of traveling into the past - auto(I) bio(life) graphite(I write) - is being repressed autograph, persistently proving the priority of writing over fact of life.

As a result, the idea of ​​self-sufficiency of the word and the mud of organization of the novel narrative born of it begin to triumph over any reality of life. Therefore, it turns out to be fundamentally impossible to comprehend real experience and complete it. M. Proust experiments with narrative time. The writer, studying in detail the mechanisms of recall, splits the hero's biography into a series of subjective images, excluding the objective flow of history from the narrative. Following the task of restoring what was lost, the writer ignores some impressions and poetically comprehends others. The hero’s conflict with objective time leads to the fact that it begins to fragment into many self-valuable absolutized moments, each of which destroys the physical reality of the previous one, marking it with hypertrophied subjectivity.

In the literature of the 20th century. Narrative time and real time, as a rule, do not coincide. J. Joyce in the novel "Ulysses" compares different time layers. The people of Dublin relate to Homeric characters, psychological world The hero is associated with ancient eras. The eternal, embodied in plots, genres, words, shines through in the modern. This type of narration illustrates the idea of ​​the endless existence of culture, embodied in the soul and consciousness of a person.

V. Wulf abandons the classical interpretation of time and reduces it to the study of intuition. Different episodes in the stream of consciousness lose their determinism, the past and present demonstrate their unity. Dos Passos develops a theory of mechanical memory. Time does not move in the works of W. Faulkner. In the novels of the American writer there is no linear order of events and correlation of episodes. The characters exist in the time of their memories. And therefore, the cause-and-effect relationships familiar to classical narratives turn out to be mystified.

The concept of the future in literature of the 20th century. inseparable from the idea of ​​the reversibility of time and space. This view is based on F. Nietzsche’s idea of ​​the “eternal return,” which outlines the connection of time with the transition of possibility into reality and vice versa. Moreover, this repeatability is not accidental, but natural, since it reflects the essence of system processes.

G. G. Marquez in the romance “One Hundred Years of Solitude” unfolds the narrative in the space of reality and historical time, which turn out to be subject to the laws of what has already been created. Everything that happens and will happen to the heroes has not only already happened, but is even described in a book, reading which means coming to the final plot of existence. The classic comparison of a book with life takes on a completely non-metaphorical meaning in Marquez’s poetic system.

M. Bulgakov in “The Master and Margarita” proves the connection of the past with the present and the future. “Manuscripts Don’t Burn” is an expressive illustration of well-known romantic concepts, polemics with which will be presented in W. Eco’s novel “The Name of the Rose.”

Postmodernist writers, abandoning the self-sufficient recording of history, the task of endowing it with exclusive ethical content, make the key to interpreting what happened the idea of ​​​​the impossibility of adequately understanding the meanings of things and concepts dissolved in time. U. Eco claims that from things that have passed into the past, only names remain, which, due to their historical and cultural oversaturation of meanings, disorient the modern reader, dooming to failure any attempt to offer an uncontested interpretation of what happened.

The future is often used as artistic technique disclosure of certain phenomena of reality. In science fiction, especially in the dystopian genre, the present is projected onto the future; time travel enhances the absurdity of phenomena that are just being born in modern times. The future, thus, explains the present day, expands its perception and understanding.

Many artistic experiments of the 20th century persistently strive to convey the indivisibility of the time-spatial planes experienced by man. As a result, each time slice of the works unites the already realized past, the directly experienced present and the not yet actualized future.

The categories of artistic space and time depend on the evolving artistic consciousness and specific attitudes creative method, psychological and ideological positions the artist and the specific tasks that authors set in their works.

Mikhailova Ekaterina Romanovna

Presentation on the topic "Time in a work of art"

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Time in a work of art

Time (in philosophy) is an irreversible flow, flowing in only one direction - from the past, through the present to the future, within which all processes existing in existence, which are facts, take place. Time (in literature) is a time series in various aspects of its embodiment, functioning and perception in works of fiction as a phenomenon of art.

Literature, more than any other art, becomes the art of time. Time is its object, subject and instrument of image.

Approaches to the study of tense in literature: one can study grammatical tense in literature. And this approach is very fruitful, especially in relation to lyric poetry (R. O. Yakobson); it is possible to analyze the manifestations of the understanding of time in literature and science, to establish a gradual increase in interest in the problem of time in modern literature and make assumptions about the significance of the problem of time in literature, in science, in philosophy, etc. (Pule and Meyerhoff); But the most essential for the study of literature is the study of artistic time: time as it is reproduced in literary works, time as an artistic factor in literature.

Features of artistic time 1) artistic time is a phenomenon of the very artistic fabric of a literary work, subordinating both grammatical time and its philosophical understanding by the writer to its artistic tasks;

2) Artistic time, in contrast to objectively given time, uses the diversity of subjective perception of time. Plot time, serving as an accelerator/decelerator of the narrative, is characterized by speed and consistency. Poetic time is faster than real time in narration, synchronous with it in dialogue, slower in comparison with it in description. A work of art makes this subjective perception of time one of the forms of depicting reality. However, objective time is also used at the same time: either observing the rule of unity of time of action and the reader-viewer in French classicist drama, then abandoning this unity, emphasizing the differences, leading the narrative primarily in the subjective aspect of time;

3) Actual time and depicted time are essential aspects of the whole artistic work. Their options are endlessly varied. They are combined with the artistic concept of the work, are in a state of continuous conditioning of their artistic whole of the work; 4) Time in fiction is perceived due to the connection of events - cause-and-effect or psychological, associative. Time in a work of art is not only and not so much calendar references, but the correlation of events;

5) the time of a work can be “closed”, self-contained, taking place only within the plot, not connected with events occurring outside the work, with historical time, and also the time of a work can be “open”, included in a broader flow of time developing against the backdrop of a precisely defined historical era. The “open” time of a work, which does not exclude a clear frame delimiting it from reality, presupposes the presence of other events occurring simultaneously outside the work, its plot.

6) story time can speed up and slow down. Plot time can be divided into a number of separate forms inherent in the consciousness of time. Very often, the time of action in a work gradually slows down or speeds up its pace. The entire work can have several forms of time, developing at different paces, moving from one flow of time to another, forward and backward; 7) The depiction of time can be illusionistic (especially in works of a sentimental direction) or introduce the reader into its unreal, conventional circle. It depends on artistic design the author, but it may also depend on natural, common for its era, ideas about the movement of time.

Artistic time is time as the “fourth coordinate” of the artistic world: the reality of the hero (conceptual time - the objectified background of artistic events, modeling of external reality in forms adequate for the recipient) and the reality of the subject of the image (perceptual time - the placement of real-life objects in other systems of relations, elements acquire features inherent in the real world to objects of a completely different nature, for example, landscape - mood traits, animals - traits of rationality and properties of human character). In the first case, the temporal characteristic (plot time, time of action - historical, biographical, natural, social, everyday, event (adventure)) acts as a condition for the performance of diverse actions (actions, reactions, emotional movements, gestures and facial expressions).

Correlation of time and literary genre Lyrics, which represent an actual experience, and drama, played out before the eyes of the audience, showing an incident at the moment of its occurrence, usually use the present tense, while the epic is mainly a story about what has passed, and therefore in the past time.

Classification of forms of time taking into account folklore and literary tradition Folklore time does not know a clear differentiation into the present, past and future (it presupposes individuality). Human life and the life of nature are perceived in single complex, all elements of which are equally worthy. A single life event is revealed in its various sides and moments. Time in the heroic epic is fenced off from all subsequent times, a closed and completed time of national tradition, a time of memory. The depicted world and the real reality of the singer and listeners are separated by an epic distance. The absolute past is a value-time category of the epic world. It localizes such categories as ideal, justice, perfection, harmony.

The wonderful time of the knightly novel - the world for the knight exists only under the sign of the miraculous “suddenly”, this is the normal state of the world, in contrast to the Greek novel, where a random event is a sign of a broken pattern of the temporal chain of existence. This time is characterized by fabulous hyperbolism: sometimes the hours stretch out, sometimes the days shrink to an instant; time can be bewitched until entire events disappear. Medieval eschatological time, which corresponds to a spatial vertical, a vertical chronotope. Everything that is separated by time on earth converges in eternity in the pure simultaneity of coexistence. To understand the world, you need to compare everything in one time (timeless plane).

Creative, productive, productive time of the Renaissance (universal chronotope created by Rabelais), destruction of the historical concept of the Middle Ages, in which real time was devalued and dissolved in timeless categories. The formation of the individual person is not separated from historical growth and cultural progress. The time of the hero’s “outlook”, the time of ignorance (classical novel) - the present is fundamentally incomplete, requires continuation in the future. The temporal model of the world is radically changing: the first word is gone, and the last has not yet been said. Time and the world become historical for the first time. The concept of environment contributes to the appearance in literature of chronicle-everyday time, which receives a special design: the sum of the circumstances repeatedly affecting a person is taken out of the scope of the time of action.

The time of memory, the “stream of consciousness” is the active work of the narrator’s memory, the detailing of the remembering mechanism, in which images of the past flow one upon another, interpenetrate, uniquely transforming in the consciousness of the hero. S. Bocharov about the psychology of the remembering process: “... reality is covered, it appears as separate objects... which consciousness has arbitrarily extracted and brought closer...” (Time in the works of M. Proust, V. Wulf, V. Bykov, Y. Trifonov). The time and space of dreams are a distortion of real perspectives (for example, dreams in the works of Dostoevsky). Artistic time is the most important characteristic of an artistic image, providing a holistic perception of the “poetic reality” created by the author in the work (V.V. Fedorov).

Analysis of artistic space and time

No work of art exists in a space-time vacuum. Time and space are always present in it in one way or another. It is important to understand that artistic time and space are not abstractions or even physical categories, although modern physics answers the question of what time and space are very ambiguously. Art, on the other hand, deals with a very specific space-time coordinate system. G. Lessing was the first to point out the importance of time and space for art, which we already discussed in the second chapter, and theorists of the last two centuries, especially the twentieth century, proved that artistic time and space are not only significant, but often the determining component of a literary work.

In literature, time and space are the most important properties of the image. Different images require different space-time coordinates. For example, in F. M. Dostoevsky’s novel “Crime and Punishment” we encounter with an unusually compressed space. Small rooms, narrow streets. Raskolnikov lives in a room that looks like a coffin. Of course, this is not accidental. The writer is interested in people who find themselves at a dead end in life, and this is emphasized by all means. When Raskolnikov finds faith and love in the epilogue, space opens up.

Each work of modern literature has its own space-time grid, its own coordinate system. At the same time, there are some general patterns of development of artistic space and time. For example, until the 18th century, aesthetic consciousness did not allow the author’s “interference” in the temporal structure of the work. In other words, the author could not begin the story with the death of the hero and then return to his birth. The time of the work was “as if real.” In addition, the author could not disrupt the flow of the story about one hero with an “inserted” story about another. In practice, this led to the so-called “chronological incompatibilities” characteristic of ancient literature.

For example, one story ends with the hero returning safely, while another begins with loved ones grieving for his absence. We encounter this, for example, in Homer's Odyssey. In the 18th century, a revolution occurred, and the author received the right to “model” the narrative without observing the logic of life-likeness: a mass of inserted stories and digressions appeared, and chronological “realism” was disrupted. A modern author can build the composition of a work, shuffling episodes at his own discretion. In addition, there are stable, culturally accepted spatiotemporal models. The outstanding philologist M. M. Bakhtin, who fundamentally developed this problem, called these models chronotopes (chronos + topos, time and space). Chronotopes are initially imbued with meanings; any artist consciously or unconsciously takes this into account. As soon as we say about someone: “He is on the threshold of something...”, we immediately understand that we're talking about about something big and important. But why exactly on the threshold ? Bakhtin believed that chronotope of the threshold

one of the most widespread in culture, and as soon as we “turn it on”, its semantic depth opens up. Today the term chronotope is universal and simply denotes the existing space-time model. Often in this case, “etiquette” they refer to the authority of M. M. Bakhtin, although Bakhtin himself understood the chronotope more narrowly - namely how sustainable

a model that appears from work to work. In addition to chronotopes, we should also remember the more general models of space and time that underlie entire cultures. These models are historical, that is, one replaces the other, but the paradox of the human psyche is that an “outdated” model does not disappear anywhere, continuing to excite people and give rise to literary texts. IN There are quite a few variations of such models, but several are basic. Firstly, this is a model zero time and space. It is also called motionless, eternal - there are a lot of options here. In this model, time and space become meaningless. There is always the same thing, and there is no difference between “here” and “there,” that is, there is no spatial extension. Historically, this is the most archaic model, but it is still very relevant today. Ideas about hell and heaven are based on this model, it is often “turned on” when a person tries to imagine existence after death, etc. The famous chronotope of the “golden age”, which manifests itself in all cultures, is built on this model. If we remember the ending of the novel “The Master and Margarita,” we can easily feel this model. It was in such a world, according to the decision of Yeshua and Woland, that the heroes ultimately found themselves - in a world of eternal good and peace.

Another model - cyclic(circular). This is one of the most powerful space-time models, supported by the eternal change of natural cycles (summer-autumn-winter-spring-summer...). It is based on the idea that everything is returning to normal. Space and time are there, but they are conditional, especially time, since the hero will still return to where he left, and nothing will change. The easiest way illustrate this model with Homer's Odyssey. Odysseus was absent for many years, the most incredible adventures befell him, but he returned home and found his Penelope still as beautiful and loving. M. M. Bakhtin called such a time adventurous , it exists as if around the heroes, without changing anything either in them or betweenthem. The cyclical model is also very archaic, but its projections are clearly perceptible in modern culture. For example, it is very noticeable in the work of Sergei Yesenin, in whom the idea of ​​the life cycle, especially in adulthood, becomes dominant. Even the well-known dying lines “In this life, dying is not new, / But living, of course, is also

, not newer” refer to the ancient tradition, to the famous biblical book of Ecclesiastes, entirely built on a cyclical model. The culture of realism is mainly associated with linear a model when space seems endlessly open in all directions, and time is associated with a directed arrow - from the past to the future. modern man and is clearly visible in a huge number of literary texts of recent centuries. Suffice it to recall, for example, the novels of L.N. Tolstoy. In this model, each event is recognized as unique, it can only happen once, and a person is understood as a constantly changing being. The linear model opened psychologism V modern sense, since psychologism presupposes the ability to change, which could not be the case either in the cyclic model (after all, the hero should be the same at the end as at the beginning), nor even more so in the zero time-space model. In addition, the linear model is associated with the principle historicism, that is, man began to be understood as a product of his era. The abstract “man for all times” simply does not exist in this model.

It is important to understand that in the minds of modern man all these models do not exist in isolation; they can interact, giving rise to the most bizarre combinations. Let's say, a person can be emphatically modern, trust the linear model, accept the uniqueness of every moment of life as something unique, but at the same time be a believer and accept the timelessness and spacelessness of existence after death. In the same way, different coordinate systems can be reflected in a literary text. For example, experts have long noticed that in Anna Akhmatova’s work there seem to be two parallel dimensions: one is historical, in which every moment and gesture is unique, the other is timeless, in which every movement freezes. The “layering” of these layers is one of the hallmarks of Akhmatova’s style.

Finally, modern aesthetic consciousness is increasingly mastering yet another model. There is no clear name for it, but it would not be wrong to say that this model allows for the existence parallel times and spaces. The point is that we exist differently depending on the coordinate system. But at the same time, these worlds are not completely isolated; they have points of intersection. Literature of the 20th century in the most active way uses this model. Suffice it to recall M. Bulgakov’s novel “The Master and Margarita”. The master and his beloved die in different places and for different reasons: The master is in a madhouse, Margarita is at home from a heart attack, but at the same time they are they die in each other's arms in the Master's closet from Azazello's poison. Different coordinate systems are included here, but they are interconnected - after all, the death of the heroes occurred in any case. This is the projection of the model of parallel worlds. If you carefully read the previous chapter, you will easily understand that the so-called multivariate the plot—a largely twentieth-century invention of literature—is a direct consequence of the establishment of this new space-time grid.