Spelling and punctuation standards. Modern Russian spelling
Phonemic principle relies on the connection between writing and pronunciation and, highlighting phoneme, establishes cases when a letter reproduces and when it does not reproduce phonemes. The basis of this principle of orthography is the understanding that the letters of the alphabet do not represent actually pronounced sounds, but phonemes in their basic form, i.e. regardless of position. For example, the letter O in words water And water conveys the phoneme in the same way, i.e. in writing it is expressed by the same letter, although in the first word it is in a weak position, and in the second - in a strong position. In words gases And gas the letter is spelled the same h, although the sounds it denotes are pronounced differently: in the first case it is a voiced consonant, and in the second it is a voiceless consonant. Here are the rules of thumb:
- - unstressed vowels should be written in the same way as under stress (sailor, sea - because the sea);
- - voiced and voiceless consonants should be written in any position as they are written in the position before vowels, sonorant consonants and before V (labor - because labor, A tinder - because drone).
These rules practically follow from the morphological principle of spelling, but a number of discrepancies, primarily theoretical, are noted between heme and other principles (morphological and phonemic):
- 1. Each principle has different starting points: morphological principle comes from the graphic uniformity of the morpheme, and for it it is important to preserve the graphic uniformity of the morphemes; phonemic principle comes from the concept of phoneme and for it it is important to preserve the designated phonemes (but a strong position). Of course, the morphological principle cannot but take into account positional and traditional (non-positional) alternations; only the latter are transmitted in writing, and then the stable form of the morpheme is preserved.
- 2. Both principles differ in their understanding of the meaning of pronunciation for writing.
In addition, there are discrepancies in the justification of spellings, in the explanation of unverified spellings, etc.
The principles of Russian spelling reflect the peculiarities of Russian speech, contribute to the preservation of information in writing and its accurate transmission.
Control questions
- 1. What are the basic principles of Russian spelling called?
- 2. What is the morphological principle of spelling?
- 3. When is uniformity in the spelling of morphemes broken? What are their reasons?
- 4. What is the phonemic principle of spelling?
- 5. What is the basis for the separate spelling of words?
- 6. What are the transfer rules based on?
Workshop
Exercise 1. Read the examples and indicate:
- 1) verifiable morphological spellings of prefixes and roots;
- 2) unverifiable morphological (traditional) spellings of roots;
- 3) spellings of prefixes and roots that deviate from the morphological principle.
- 1. Planted, ran, low, river, steppe, confess, guardhouse, dog, ram, apparatus, station, stick up, break, exclaim, painting, receipt, tan, tanned, tangent, touch, request.
- 2. Untalented, helpless, smell, patronage, clayey, cabin, crimson, jump, bend, slippery, asphalt, grow, thicket, collect, will collect, corridor, gallery, collective.
Exercise 2. Rewrite, opening the brackets. Explain orally what the separation or continuous writing highlighted words.
Shelter from the rain under (the) weight, value (the) weight in gold, rush (into) the distance, peer (into) the distance of the steppe, move (into) the depths of the desert, move away (into) the depths, return home (in) time, get sick (during) holidays, enter (in) a dense mass of clouds, approach (in) a dense mass of clouds, pour coffee (in) a hand mill, process a part (in) manually.
Exercise 3. Rewrite, choosing from brackets the desired letter- lowercase or capital. Explain orally why the use of capital letters is based.
Watch (N, s) late night on the coast of (N, s) the sea; cross the (K,k)Aucasian mountains, lush (K,k)Aucasian vegetation, send spaceship from (3, h) earth to this satellite - (L, l) una, admire the light of (L, l) una, fight for peace on (3, h) cm, go down the marble (D, d) palace stairs, visit in Moscow on (K,k)Red Square.
Exercise 4. Read and indicate which letters are missing in the words.
F...nar, lo..motiv, n...gform, sem...for, p...rron, b...dug, v...gon, k...ndukgor, pass.. .fat, in...staff, receipt.
Non-state educational institution
Parochial school "Kosinskaya"
Moscow
Article
“Basic principles of Russian spelling”
prepared
teacher of Russian language and literature
Ganeeva Victoria Nikolaevna
Moscow 2014
Basic principles Russian spelling.
Spelling (Greek o rthos – correct, grapho – I write) literally means 'spelling', i.e. correct writing that complies with the norms. But the meaning of the words “spelling” and “spelling” are not the same; the second word has a broader meaning that includes punctuation.
Russian orthography is a system of rules for writing words. It consists of five main sections: transmission of the phonemic composition of words in letters; continuous, separate and hyphenated (semi-continuous) spellings of words and their parts; use of uppercase and lowercase letters; ways to transfer words from one line to another; graphic abbreviations of words.
Representation of the phonemic composition of a word by letters.
This is the main section of spelling. It is directly related to graphics. Graphics establish rules for matching letters and phonemes in significatively strong positions. The area of orthography is significatively weak positions of phonemes. In some cases, spelling “interferes” in the area of graphics – an area of strong positions. Graphics determine the meanings of letters in their combinations with each other, regardless of specific words. Orthography gives rules for writing letters in words and morphemes.
The basic rule for spelling unstressed vowels: the same vowels are written in unstressed syllables as under stress in the same morpheme. We are writing o in the word water (although we pronounce [vada]) because under the stress in this root we hear [o] and write o: water, aquatic. We will write down the word pronounced [l`isa] fox, if we check the first vowel with a word foxes, and write down the forests , if we check with a word forest. This is how we determine which phoneme the sound of the weak position corresponds to, and write the letter denoting this phoneme.
The same general rule valid for voiced and voiceless consonants. At the end of a word and before a noisy consonant, the same consonant is written as before a vowel and a voiced consonant in the same morpheme. We are writing b in words tooth, teeth , although we pronounce [zup], [zupk`i], because before the vowel and before the sonorant consonant in this root we pronounce [b] and write b: teeth, dental. We are writing a request , although we pronounce [proz`ba], since before the vowel in this root we pronounce [s`] and write ask.
The principle of checking here is the same as for vowels: the sound of a weak position is checked by a strong position; In this way, the phoneme to which a given sound belongs is determined, and it is designated by the corresponding letter. The same letter denotes a phoneme in strong and weak positions - this is the phonemic principle, the basic principle of Russian orthography.
The phonemic principle also determines the spelling of hard and soft consonants: ь does not indicate the softness of the sound, but the softness of the phoneme, that is, softness that does not depend on position. For example, in the word climb pronounced [s`] before [t`], but the softness of [s`] here is due to the following [t`] (the same position before [t`] also determines the deafness of [s`]). In a position that is strong in terms of hardness ~ softness - at the end of a word - this softness is not present: climbed The phoneme here is hard, so in the form climb is not written after s . In the form of the imperative mood climb is also pronounced [s`t`], but the phoneme is soft, since the softness of the sound is preserved at the end of the word: lez - le [s`]. The softness of a phoneme is indicated soft sign. In a word go to sleep pronounced [s`n`], but when [n`] is replaced with [n], [s`] is also replaced with [s]: y [sn] y . Therefore, softness [s`] is not independent here; it is not indicated in writing. In a word ice floe pronounced [l`d`], when replacing [d`] with [d], the softness of [l`] is preserved: [l`d] s . Here the softness of the phoneme is indicated in writing by a soft sign.
The phonemic principle determines the spelling of all morphemes of a word: prefixes, roots, suffixes, endings. In a word approach pronounced [pts-], but the prefix is written under- , since the check shows phonemes: p [o] access, along [d] steer . In the suffix of wordsbirch, aspenpronounced [ъ], but written O, since in the same suffix in a strong position [o] is pronounced: oak. In words on a chair and from a bullet the final vowel is the same - [and], but in the first case it refers to the phoneme (cf. per hundred [l`e`]), and in the second - to the phoneme (cf. from the earth [l`i`]). After soft consonants, the phoneme is indicated by the letter e, phoneme – and.
The phonemic principle ensures uniform spelling of the same morpheme in different forms the same word in in different words. Yes, in a word city as part of different word forms it is written the same, although it is pronounced differently: [gor't], [gor'd] a, [grad] a, [garat] ki, at [gart], at [gard], foreign [garod']niy, [garats] skoy. Writing city-
in all these cases reflects the phonemic composition of this root – . Spelling the same morphemes in the same way makes it easy to recognize words with those morphemes, which promotes quick comprehension and reading. The basic principle of Russian orthography is also defined as morphological. The morphological principle consists in the requirement of uniform spelling of the same morphemes. In fact, the same morphemes in writing are often conveyed differently: the historical alternations reflected in writing destroy the unity of the writing of morphemes. Yes, in words city and citizen burn - burning - burning - ignite - arson; mouse onok - mouse onk and - mouse onok.
Historical alternations are transmitted in writing (hence, a single spelling of the same morphemes is not preserved), but phonetic alternations are not transmitted in writing (hence, the same letter denotes the entire series of positionally alternating sounds, i.e., a phoneme in the understanding of the Moscow Phonological schools). Thus, uniform spellings of the same morphemes are usually a manifestation of the phonemic principle of orthography.
In some cases, our orthography is built on a morphological principle that operates contrary to the phonemic one. Thus, graphic uniformity of morphemes is maintained when writing her) under stress after sibilants:yellow - turn yellow, acorn - acorns, bakes - cries, shuttle - shuttle, cheeks - cheek.In these cases, after the sibilants, the phoneme appears under stress, but it is written her) to maintain uniformity with the same morphemes, where it alternates with or may be in an unstressed position: whisper () – whisper () – whisper ().
The spellings also correspond to the morphological principledisinformation, counterplay, pedagogical institute, super-ideal– with and after consonants corresponding to hard phonemes. Here the appearance of the root is preserved, contrary to the rule of writing graphics s after such consonants (cf.:unprincipled, background).
The phonemic principle operates when the phoneme is in a strong position (this is, in fact, the principle of graphics), and when the phoneme is in a weak position and can be determined by a strong position. 80% of such writings.
In some cases, verification is impossible, since in this morpheme the phoneme does not occur in a strong position: dog, axe, boot, barn, passage, picky, young, to the hall, football, table, health, sit, sit t. In this case, a hyperphoneme appears: from tank, from pog, fu ball etc. The phonemic principle here limits the choice of letters, but does not provide an unambiguous solution: you can write dog and dog, football and fudball . Writings in similar cases carried out on the basis of phonemic and traditional principles.
The traditional principle of spelling is that the spelling fixed by tradition is used. The choice of letter is not motivated by modern linguistic patterns. From the point of view of sound correspondences, for example, it makes no difference o or a write in the pre-stressed syllable in words boot, dog . Traditional spellings must be memorized.
The traditional principle comes into play not only in cases where a phoneme cannot be placed in a strong position, but also when there is an alternation of phonemes in the strong position of the same morpheme: glow - dawn . In unstressed position there is also a hyperphoneme here: for good reason. Choosing a letter in words z arya, ripen determined by tradition. Vowels in the root clone- – clan- can be shock: bows, bows. Choice about for unstressed syllables is based on tradition:inclination, incline.
In most cases, the traditional principle does not contradict the phonemic one, but complements it; 15% of such writings. But in a number of cases the traditional principle contradicts the phonemic one. In a strong position this is written u in the word assistant, h in the words of course, boring etc. In a weak position this is, for example, spelling rootsmountains- – gar-, swim- – swim-, in which only [a] is stressed, and without stress is written and o, and a.
In contrast to the phonemic principle is also the phonetic principle, which is that a letter denotes not a phoneme, but a sound. This principle is used to write final consonants in prefixes.without-/bes-, from-/res-, from-/is-, bottom-/nis-, once-/ras-, through-/through-: cloudless, joyless, boundless – useless; find, cut, publish – redeemetc. The final phoneme of the prefix is here, this is evidenced by the pronunciation [z] before vowels and sonorant consonants, but the letter is written h , if pronounced [z], and With , if pronounced [s]. The phonetic principle is not applied quite consistently here: in wordsbad taste, tastelessat the end of the prefix it is pronounced [s]; in wordssilent, frypronounced [sh, zh]; in wordsto become generous, to split on site with zero sound. Thus, the phonetic principle here is complicated by the traditional one.
Spelling o or a in the prefix once-/time- – rose-/grown-also meets the phonetic principle - O written under stress when pronounced [o], A written without accent:sledge, search, placer; collapse, search, scatter. And here the phonetic principle is complicated by the traditional one (cf.: wanted ). It is written phonetically s after c: gypsies, cucumbers, Kuritsyn, pale-faced.
Differential spellings are based on the differentiation in writing of words or forms that match in phonemic composition: burn - burn, arson - arson, cry - cry, rye - rye, carcass - carcass, coccyx - coccyx, company - campaign, o rel - Eagle.
Also in the Russian language there are rules for continuous, separate and hyphenated spellings.
List of used literature
- Granik G.G. Secrets of spelling. – M.: Education, 1991.
- Kustareva V. A. History of the Russian language. – M.: Education, 1982.
- Rozhdestvensky N. S. Properties of Russian spelling as the basis of its teaching methods. – M., 1960.
- Modern Russian literary language. / Ed. P. A. Lekanta. – M.: Higher. school, 1988.
- Totsky P.S. Spelling without rules. – M., 1991.
- Filina L.V. Russian language. Encyclopedia. – M.: Education, 1979.
Establishing the relationship between principles and spellings allows us to move on to considering those principles and spellings that linguists highlight in their works on Russian spelling.
According to scientists from the Moscow linguistic school, the leading principle of Russian orthography is the phonemic principle. How do they define this principle?
A.A. Reformatsky wrote: “The phonemic principle of writing is that each phoneme is expressed by the same letter, regardless of the position in which it falls...” (Reformatsky 1960: 373). As an example, he cites the words oak, oaks. We pronounce them differently: [d°up], [d°uby], but we write them the same way, since in writing we denote a certain phoneme with a letter, regardless of its real sound. This point of view is shared by L.L. Kasatkin (Kasatkin 1982: 132-133), L.N. Bulatova (Bulatova 1998: 15) and M.V. Panov (Panov 1981: 122-125).
Yu.S. Maslov (Maslov 1975: 307-308) notes that “this (i.e. phonemic - E.Z.) principle consists in transmitting the same grapheme to a phoneme, regardless of its real sound,” i.e. defines the phonemic principle in the same way as the linguists listed above, but differs from them in examples. So, Yu.S. Maslov explains the spelling of the letter a in the word pocket by the phonemic principle, since, being a representative of the Leningrad Phonological School (LPS), he puts a completely different meaning into the concept of phoneme than representatives of the MPS. He understands a phoneme as a sound type, and not as a set of positionally alternating sounds.
Phonemic principle as main principle Russian spelling was identified as a result of the analysis of basic spelling rules, namely:
- 1) To check an unstressed vowel, you need to choose a related word where this vowel in the same morpheme is in a strong position, that is, under stress. By placing a sound in a strong position, we find the phoneme of which the sound is a representative. Then we look for the letter that denotes this phoneme. For example, in the word water in the first pre-stressed syllable we write the letter o, although we pronounce [L], since in a strong position this sound is representative of the phoneme
- 2) The “doubtful” consonant must be placed in a strong position, that is, before a vowel or sonorant consonant. For example, in the words tooth, little teeth we write b, since in a strong position (teeth, tooth) the sound [b] is pronounced: phoneme
Thus, in writing we use letters to represent phonemes. This method is given as evidence by M.V. Panov (Panov 1981: 123) and L.L. Kasatkin (Kasatkin 1982: 133).
Another proof of the primacy of the phonemic principle is the results of a study of texts for the relationship in them different types writings carried out by I.S. Ilyinskaya and V.N. Sidorov and showed that the absolute majority of writings (approximately 96%) corresponds precisely to this principle (see about this: Ilyinskaya, Sidorov 1952: 27-40).
CM. Kuzmina argues that “all representatives of the International Football Federation consider the phonemic principle to be the main principle, and the rest are recognized as deviations from it. This is explicitly expressed by I.S. Ilyinskaya and V.N. Sidorov, who, giving a classification of types of spellings, divide all spellings into two groups: phonemic and non-phonemic...” (Kuzmina 1981: 249).
All this indicates that the phonemic principle is the main principle of Russian orthography. However, not all linguists adhere to this point of view. CM. Kuzmina talks about two stages in the development of writing theory: pre-phonological and phonological. “Before the advent of phonology, writing was considered as a means of conveying pronunciation, the relationships between letters and... sounds were described” (Kuzmina 1981: 7). Even modern scientists - “pre-phonologists” believe that we represent sounds with letters. It follows from this that the number of letters must be equal to the number of sounds.
IMF phonologists believe that a letter conveys a phoneme and a letter should not reflect the entire abundance of sound shades. One cannot but agree with this position, since it is impossible and not necessary to convey all the variety of sound shades in writing.
The letters of the Russian alphabet do not represent sounds, but phonemes. So, in word forms Peter, about Peter, Peter in place of the letter R sounds [р], [р’], [р°] are pronounced. But the letter R denotes not these sounds, but a phoneme<р>, embodied in these sounds. One of the most common sounds of the Russian language is [ъ], but it does not have “its own” letter, since [ъ] does not represent a special phoneme. For example, in the word herbal he is a phoneme variant<а> A, in a word water- phoneme variant<о>, which is denoted by the letter O.
If the alphabetic meanings of the letters are compared with the sound system of the modern Russian language, the following will be revealed:
1) the alphabetical meanings of letters reflect only the main variants of phonemes; only one letter th denotes not the main, but a weak version of the phoneme yot - [And] non-syllabic;
2) the number of letters does not coincide with the number of phonemes: 33 letters with 42 or more phonemes - about 10 characters are missing. But such a relationship for the alphabet as a whole was formed only due to consonants; Vowels, on the contrary, have more letters than phonemes:
a) 21 consonants, 36 phonemes; 16 characters are missing, since there are no special letters for soft paired consonants;
b) there are 10 vowels and 6 phonemes; “extra” letters 4. If we assume that there are six vowel phonemes (sound [s]- independent phoneme ), then each vowel phoneme has a double letter designation: (1) the letter designates only the corresponding phoneme (its main variant) - letters a, o, y, e, and;(2) the letter denotes the corresponding phoneme with a preceding iota - letters I, yo, yu, e - or a variation of the corresponding phoneme - a letter s. With a six-phoneme system, the ratios will be slightly different.
The absence of special letters to indicate soft consonants and sounds of weak positions is an “objective gap” in the alphabet.
This gap in the alphabet is filled with graphics and its positional principle.
Positional principle of graphics(syllabic and letter combination)
The positional principle of graphics is that the phonemic correspondence to a letter can only be established taking into account its position - neighboring letters and other graphic signs.
So, e can denote a combination of phonemes
Some letters represent a phoneme only in conjunction with other letters. So, in the designation of phonemes<в">in a word led letters take part V And e, and in the phoneme designation<в>in a word ox- letters V And O. Therefore, if only the letter is visible V, then we will not be able to determine which phoneme -<в>or<в">- appears in the word. This can only be done by seeing what comes after the letter V, i.e., by determining its position.
The positional principle of graphics manifests itself in cases where the letter is ambiguous or does not convey the entire content of the phoneme. Almost all letters are like this.
Thus, if the phonemic principle of graphics is associated with what the letters represent, then the positional principle is associated with how phonemes are designated in writing.
Spelling (< гр. orthos- correct + grapho- writing; literally means “spelling”) is the science of the correct, normative spelling of significant units (morphemes and words). But the meanings of the words "spelling" and "spelling" are not the same: the second word has a broader meaning that includes punctuation.
Letter designation of the sound composition of a word - e then the main section of spelling. It is directly related to graphics, which also establishes the relationship between letters and phonemes. But graphics determine the meanings of letters in their combinations with each other, regardless of specific words, and orthography gives rules for writing letters in specific words and morphemes. In addition, the graphics establish correspondence between letters and phonemes in strong positions, and the spelling area establishes weak positions of phonemes.
In some cases, spelling “interferes” in the area of graphics - an area of strong positions. So, in accordance with
