The difference between romanticism and classicism. Traditional (classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism) and innovative (modernism, postmodernism) directions in the development of Russian literature

Classicism(from Latin “classicus” - exemplary) – one of the most important areas of art, art style, which is based on normative aesthetics, requiring strict adherence to a number of rules, canons and unities. The rules of classicism are designed to provide the main goal - to educate and instruct the public, turning it to sublime examples. The aesthetics of classicism reflected the desire to idealize reality, due to the refusal to depict a complex and multifaceted reality. Classicism dates back to the end of the 16th century. It existed until the beginning of the 19th century, when it was replaced by sentimentalism and romanticism.

Romanticism – ideological and artistic direction in European and American culture from the end of the 18th century to the first half of the 19th century. Born in Germany. It is characterized by the affirmation of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the depiction of strong and rebellious passions and characters, and a spiritualized and healing nature.

Philosophy of Romanticism. The category of the sublime is central to romanticism and was formulated by Kant in his work “Critique of Judgment.” Romanticism contrasts the educational idea of ​​progress and the tendency to discard everything “outdated and outdated” with an interest in folklore, myth, fairy tales, to the common man and to returning to one's roots and nature. For romantic works characterized by a rejection of rationality and rigid literary rules.

The Romantics openly proclaimed the triumph of individual taste and complete freedom of creativity.

What is “surrealism” as a cultural phenomenon? Surrealism and psychoanalysis. Basic techniques and ideology of surrealism, surrealists’ ideas about creativity. The ideological and functional-pragmatic significance of surrealism for the modern sociocultural situation.

Surrealism – a movement in art that was formed by the early 1920s in France. Distinctive features: the use of allusions and paradoxical combinations of forms. Bosch is considered the founder of surrealism.

Allusion – stylistic figure, containing an indication, analogy or allusion to a certain literary, historical, mythological or political fact, enshrined in textual culture or in colloquial speech.

The main concept of surrealism is surreality - the combination of dream and reality. The surrealists proposed a controversial combination of naturalistic images through collage and technology. ready-made».

The term "ready-made" in context visual arts first time using French artist Marcel Duchamp in 1913 to designate his works, which are everyday objects removed from the environment of their normal functioning and displayed without any changes on art exhibition as works of art, i.e. moving an object from a non-artistic space to an artistic one. Duchamp’s first “ready-made” - “Bicycle Wheel” (1913) “He took a standard household product, placed it in an unusual environment, so much so that its usual meaning disappeared in the new environment. With a new look and a new name, he created new idea subject,” wrote Beatrice Wood.

For example, the poet Vera Pavlova rewrites a note from encyclopedic dictionary. This “borrowing” is called "found poetry"- found poetry.

What is “automatic writing” and “unconscious creativity”? “Automatic writing” within the framework of aesthetic and psychiatric ideas. "Unconscious creativity" as creative principle. The ideological and functional-pragmatic significance of surrealism for the modern sociocultural situation.

The main category of surrealist aesthetics, the main technical technique, the method of surrealism is automatic writing, i.e. creativity without consciousness control, when the speed of writing outstrips the speed of the author’s reflection. For surrealists, the subconscious is the only source of truth.

Automatic writing is high-speed writing “from dictation” of the unconscious, unconscious recording of everything that comes to mind, recording hallucinations, dreams, daydreams - any images of the imagination.

The main condition for automatic writing is writing speed and no corrections. Breton believed that automatic writing is not only reification, verbalization of thought, but “thought-speaking.”

The theory of automatic writing is associated with special status poet: the poet as a neutral-external recording apparatus.

It should be noted that surrealist works often arose as a result of collective creativity.

1) orientation towards mythological creativity;

2) a consequence of automatism;

3) one of the working conditions is “the interests of the group are above the interests of the individual” and it was necessary to part with one’s own interests;

In formulating the principles of automatic writing, the theorists of surrealism relied on the teachings of the French intuitionist philosopher Henri Bergson and on the psychoanalysis of Freud and Jung. Automatic writing is based on the method of free association, first used by Freud in psychoanalytic sessions. The principle of psychoanalysis, developed by Freud, was based on the method of free association: when a person, starting from a word or image, expresses all, indiscriminately, the thoughts that come to his mind. A surreal work is born in the same way: it arises as a result of an arbitrary, from the point of view of logic, combination of various words and images in the text.

What is characteristic of the “Silver Age” Russian culture? Social and ideological context " Silver Age» Russian culture. Changing the status of the “creator” and “creativity” in Russia during the “Silver Age”.

During the “Silver Age” people are looking for new foundations for their spiritual and religious life.

The “Silver Age” is an age of oppositions. The main opposition of this period is the opposition of nature and culture. Vladimir Solovyov, a philosopher who had a huge influence on the formation of the ideas of the “Silver Age,” believed that the victory of culture over nature would lead to immortality, since “death is a clear victory of meaninglessness over meaning, chaos over space.”

In addition, the problems of death and love were closely connected. “Love and death become the main and almost the only forms of human existence, the main means of understanding him,” Solovyov believed.

Many people sought to break out of everyday life, in search of a different reality. They chased emotions, all experiences were considered good, regardless of their consistency and expediency. The lives of creative people were rich and full of experiences. However, the consequence of such an accumulation of experiences was often deep emptiness. Therefore, the fates of many people of the “Silver Age” are tragic. And yet, this difficult time of spiritual wandering gave birth to a beautiful and original culture.

In literature, the realistic trend at the turn of the 20th century was continued by L.N. Tolstoy and A.P. Chekhov, who created their own best works, the theme of which was ideological quest intelligentsia and the “little” man with his everyday problems and concerns.

Russian literature of the early 20th century produced wonderful poetry. One of the directions of poetry of this time was symbolism. For symbolists (A. Blok, Z. Gippius), who believed in the existence of another world, the symbol was its sign and represented the connection between two worlds. Representatives of this movement believed that the “symbols” and “mystical contents” of works are the basis of new art.

Later, a new movement in poetry appeared, which was called “Acmeism”. This direction was formed in the “Workshop of Poets” circle. It included N. Gumilev, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam and others. They focused on the intrinsic value of reality. This direction of poetry is characterized by “wonderful clarity” of language, realism and accuracy of details, and the picturesque brightness of figurative and expressive means.

In the 1910s, an avant-garde movement in poetry emerged, which was called “futurism.” Futurists denied the social content of art and cultural traditions. They are characterized by anarchic rebellion. In their collective program collections (“A Slap in the Face of Public Taste,” “Dead Moon,” etc.) they challenged the so-called “public taste and common sense.” Also, representatives of this direction (V. Khlebnikov, V. Mayakovsky) loved to experiment with words.

What is the difference between “psychology of perception”, “psychology of thinking”, “psychology of decision-making” and “psychology of creativity”? Basic principles and sections of classical, or “functional” psychology. Attempts to use “psychology of perception” and similar areas of psychology to analyze creativity and art.

Psychology of perception – a branch of psychology that studies the process of forming a subjective image of an integral object that directly affects analyzers. Unlike sensations, which reflect only individual properties of objects, in the image of perception the entire object, in the totality of its properties, is represented as a unit of interaction.

Psychology of thinking– a branch of psychology that studies thinking as one of the mental processes aimed at solving problem situations, tasks and consists in a generalized and indirect knowledge of reality. Thinking characterizes not the sensory (sensation, perception, idea), but the abstract-logical level of human cognitive activity. With the help of mental processes: analysis, synthesis, generalization, etc., mental operations (actions) and forms of thinking, sensory-perceptual data are processed. The result of such processing is the reflection of reality in concepts, judgments, theories, etc. One of the most important issues in the psychology of thinking is the description of the content of mental activity. In modern psychology, thinking is considered as a higher mental process. The content of thinking includes:

1) thought processes (analysis, synthesis, abstraction);

2) mental actions, operations ( mathematical operations– addition, subtraction);

3) forms of thinking (concept, judgment, inference);

4) a system of knowledge and concepts that are interconnected and used by the subject when solving problems;

5) generalized personal characteristics that are updated in the course of thinking (motivation).

Making decisions Almost all psychologists recognize it as the central point of management. It is by this criterion that the main roles in labor process: leader and subordinate. Decision-making– this is a complex thought process that involves recognizing the problem, setting an adequate goal and choosing the means to implement it.

The psychology of managerial decision making is characterized by a number of psychological patterns:

1) for a decision maker individually:

· ability to make decisions in difficult conditions (limited time, high risk);

· limited rationality (when subjective biases limit the train of thought);

· Irwin's phenomenon (overestimation of the significance and probability of obtaining the desired result, and underestimation of the undesirable);

· analysis paralysis (when efforts to find a solution are concentrated on a certain stage for a long time);

· blindness by the decision (shift from the goal of the decision to the means of achieving it);

· the phenomenon of a favorite alternative (when a method is used that has previously achieved positive results).

2) For group decision making:

“grouping” (when people in a group have a deformed individual decision, and there is an illusion of innocence for a poor-quality decision);

unconditional faith in the norms of behavior professed by the group;

a stereotypical view of a group member (characterized by open pressure on those who think individually in the group).

Psychology of creativity(eng. psychology of creative activity) - a branch of psychology that studies the creation of new, original things by a person in various fields of activity, primarily in science, technology, art, as well as in everyday life. The psychology of creativity also deals with the formation, development and structure of human potential.

Basic sections psychology:

§ General psychology;

§ Social Psychology;

§ Age-related psychology;

§ Pedagogical psychology;

§ Labor psychology;

§ Psycholinguistics;

§ Differential psychology;

§ Psychometry;

§ Psychophysiology;

§ Psychology of management.

Functional psychology- a direction in psychology that considers the mental life and behavior of a person from the point of view of his active and purposeful adaptation to conditions environment. (The fundamental ideas of functional psychology belong to the evolutionary doctrine developed by Charles Darwin and G. Spencer).

Classicism (French classicisme, from Latin classicus - exemplary) - artistic style and aesthetic direction V European culture XVII-XIX centuries

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which found vivid expression in the philosophy of Descartes. Piece of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, the unchangeable - in each phenomenon it strives to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual characteristics. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined characteristics, the mixing of which is not allowed.

Romanticism (French romantisme) is an ideological and artistic movement in European and American culture of the late 18th century - the first half of the 19th century. It is characterized by an affirmation of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the depiction of strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature. Spread to various areas human activity. In the 18th century, everything strange, picturesque and existing in books, and not in reality, was called romantic. At the beginning of the 19th century, romanticism became the designation of a new direction, opposite to classicism and the Enlightenment.

Classicism of the 18th – early 19th centuries (in foreign art history it is often called neoclassicism), which became a pan-European style, was also formed mainly in the bosom of French culture, under the strong influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. In architecture, new types of an elegant mansion, a ceremonial public building, an open city square were defined (Gabriel Jacques Ange and Soufflot Jacques Germain), the search for new, orderless forms of architecture, the desire for severe simplicity in the work of Ledoux Claude Nicolas anticipated the architecture of the late stage of classicism - Empire. Civil pathos and lyricism were combined in plastic art (Pigal Jean Baptiste and Houdon Jean Antoine), decorative landscapes (Robert Hubert). The courageous dramatism of historical and portrait images is inherent in the works of the head of French classicism, the painter Jacques Louis David. In the 19th century, the painting of classicism, despite the activities of individual major masters, such as Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres, degenerated into official apologetic or pretentious erotic salon art. International Center European classicism The 18th – early 19th century was Rome, where the traditions of academicism with their characteristic combination of nobility of forms and cold idealization dominated ( German painter Anton Raphael Mengs, sculptors: Italian Canova Antonio and Dane Thorvaldsen Bertel). The architecture of German classicism is characterized by the stern monumentality of the buildings of Karl Friedrich Schinkel, while the contemplative and elegiac painting and sculpture are characterized by the portraits of August and Wilhelm Tischbein, and the sculpture of Johann Gottfried Schadow. In English classicism, the antique structures of Robert Adam, the Palladian-style park estates of William Chambers, the exquisitely austere drawings of J. Flaxman and the ceramics of J. Wedgwood stand out. Own versions of classicism developed in the artistic culture of Italy, Spain, Belgium, Scandinavian countries, USA; Russian classicism of the 1760s–1840s occupies a prominent place in the history of world art.

Manticism as a method and direction in artistic culture was a complex and contradictory phenomenon. In every country it had a strong national expression. Romantics occupied various social and political positions in society. They all rebelled against the results of the bourgeois revolution, but they rebelled in different ways, since each had their own ideal. But for all its diversity and diversity, romanticism has stable features:

All of them came from the denial of the Enlightenment and the rationalistic canons of classicism, which fettered the artist’s creative initiative.

They discovered the principle of historicism (the enlighteners judged the past ahistorically; for them there was “reasonable” and “unreasonable”). We saw human characters in the past, shaped by their time. Interest in the national past has given rise to a lot of historical works.

Interest in folk culture, folklore During the era of romanticism, collections of folk songs and fairy tales (fairy tales of the brothers Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm) were published.

Interest in strong personality, which opposes itself to the entire surrounding world and relies only on itself. - Attention to the inner world of a person.

Developing in many countries, romanticism everywhere acquired a strong national identity, determined by local historical traditions and conditions.

Regarding aesthetic orientations to past eras, it should be noted that classicists and enlighteners absolutized the role of antiquity, its transparency, harmonious simplicity and clearly thought out symmetry (like the colonnades of famous ancient temples). They usually ignored the Middle Ages and openly opposed the Baroque. The Middle Ages were perceived by them as an era of complete barbarism. Moreover, they considered the folklore of their own peoples: the French, Germans, English, and Russians to be barbaric. Thus, N. Boileau wrote: “It happens: we only find a barbaric name, / And the whole poem seems barbaric to us.” So, according to this leading theorist of classicism, even the names of the characters in works must be Greek or Roman: Antigone, Caesar, Cicero, etc., otherwise the work will immediately look like barbarian.
This vision also occurred in other forms of art. In Odessa there is famous monument Richelieu, Armand-Emmanuel du Plessis (Governor General of New Russia), made in the style of Classicism. The sculptor knew perfectly well how Richelieu actually dressed (this is the period of the Napoleonic warriors), but depicted a Russian official French origin in ancient Roman form. That is, thanks to the canons of classicism, the Russian Frenchman “turned” into a Roman. For classicists, the highest, once and for all chosen ideal was antiquity. Yes, this is not surprising if we take into account that the heroes of classic works were mainly Greeks and Romans, mythological and historical characters (Phaedra, Oedipus, Julius Caesar, etc.). The classicists even created a formula of harmony “Greek taste and the Roman spirit,” and Napoleonic generals (and not only them), brought up on the examples of classicism, wore hairstyles “a la Titus,” that is, like the Roman Emperor Titus - barely wavy hair, which covered the forehead and temples.
The Romantics, on the contrary, paid less attention to the clarity and transparency of antiquity and the Renaissance, preferring vagueness, allegorical complexity, mysticism and fantasy, as well as the gloomy tonality (which was so in harmony with the romantic “world sorrow”) of the Middle Ages and Baroque. And if the romantics did turn to antiquity, they would rather give preference to the song-inspired Greeks rather than to the strictly normative Romans. Therefore, it is not surprising that Virgil, who was dominant in classicism, lost the palm to Homer.
It was the Romantics who placed Calderon above Shakespeare and decisively abandoned the ancient cultural heritage as a single and unchanging standard for art. They said: even if someone drinks only the juice of a tall palm tree, he still will not reach its height, and modern artists and art themselves will not become outstanding, even if they feed exclusively on the developments of “high antiquity.”

(No Ratings Yet)

1. The literature of classicism justified its status as an “exemplary” art by offering not only exemplary rules by which to write essays, but also an “exemplary hero of classicism,” who was an example to follow for the inhabitants of the state. Because the...
2. Chapter 4. Pierre Corneille and classicism 4.2. The demands of the theorists of classicism François Malherbe: a prominent lyricist of the beginning of the century. He holds the palm in establishing classicist norms in lyric poetry. Malherbe the creator of odes, stanzas,...
3. Pushkin often emphasized his disagreement with the most popular and widespread definitions of romanticism. “No matter how much I read about romanticism, everything is wrong,” he wrote to his friends. In the sixth chapter of “Eugene...
4. Condemning the callousness and callousness of Bashmachkin’s colleagues, who mocked him, and “ significant person”, who in fact turned out to be an immoral, insignificant cowardly type, the author uses the means of realism. This is the internal logic...
5. Chapter 4. Pierre Corneille and classicism 4.4. Theoretical views of Corneille The name of Corneille is inextricably linked with the establishment of the main genre of classicism - tragedy. Corneille was the first in history French literature raised dramaturgy to...
6. RUSSIAN LITERATURE OF THE 18TH CENTURY In Russian XVIII literature century is a time of intensive development based on the assimilation of the achievements of Western European culture - primarily classicism. Classicism (from Latin classicus - exemplary)...
7. Chapter 1. Characteristics of the European literature XVII century 1.2. Literary process: Renaissance realism of the 17th century continues to implement Renaissance traditions in literature in the context of a changing historical picture of the world. Renaissance realism did not take shape...
8. SPECIFICITY OF ART Determining the specificity of art is traditionally associated with two ways of thinking - artistic or scientific. These ways of thinking are two forms of reflection and mastery of reality. This understanding of artistic and scientific...
9. Chapter 1. Characteristics European literature XVII century 1.6. The main representatives of the literary trends of Classicism put forward their theorists - Jean de La Taille, Francois Malherbe, Pierre Corneille, N. Boileau-Depreo. The main theorist of this...
10. Problematic points of aesthetics The history of the emergence and development of art today has been studied quite well and does not present any special mysteries. Numerous finds of objects of primitive art have been described ( rock painting, primitive sculpture and...
11. Chapter 5. Jean Racine and Modern Time Practical lesson plan 1. Difference dramatic search Racine from the work of Corneille. 2. Racine’s figurative system and its difference from figurative system Corneille. 3....
12. Have you ever noticed how different times are for siblings, even twins? And, it would seem, where do those differences come from? They have only one parents, time and place...
13. Chapter 4. Pierre Corneille and classicism 4.8. The complexity of the composition of the tragedy “The Cid” The composition of Corneille’s drama is complicated by the second storyline - the infanta’s love for Rodrigo. In the image of the heroine, Corneille also reveals contradictions...
14. Literary directions and movements Romanticism One of the largest movements in European and American literature the end of the 18th – first half of the 19th centuries, which gained worldwide significance and distribution. In the 18th century, romantic...
15. One of my favorite works by this artist is the painting “After the Rain,” which was painted in 1879. Historians attribute it to the late period in Kuindzhi’s work. It seems to me that the artist was fascinated...
16. Years and centuries pass, people and countries change, some disappear and other civilizations are born. We have entered the rapid 21st century, which surprises with technical inventions and scientific discoveries. However, somehow...
17. Genres and styles of works by I. A. Bunin Among Bunin’s works there are stories in which the epic, romantic beginning is expanded - the whole life of the hero (“The Cup of Life”) comes into the writer’s field of view, Bunin...
18. FOREIGN LITERATURE ANACREON (CA. 570-478 BC) Anacreon (Anacreon) is the most prominent representative of ancient Greek lyric poetry of the 6th and early 5th centuries, originally from the city of Teos in Asia Minor. He was a court poet...
19. LYRICAL SONGS *** Lyrical songs, according to V.G. Belinsky’s definition, are a simple-minded outpouring of “grief or joy of the heart in a close and limited circle of social and family relationships. This or a complaint...
20. One of the components of happiness, one of the noblest goals of life and one of the greatest manifestations of humanity is love. We love not only people, we are imbued with this feeling for our brothers...
21. THEORY OF LITERATURE Lyrical genres 1. Ode is a genre that usually glorifies something important historical event, person or phenomenon (for example, A. S. Pushkin’s ode “Liberty”, M. V. Lomonosov’s ode “On the day of the accession...”)....
22. Art is creative knowledge of the surrounding world. And I believe that it is eternal, because the creative source in people is eternal. And that art is not subject to fashion. Of course, if this is true art...
23. Folklore. Genres of folklore Folklore (from English folk - people, lore - wisdom) is oral folk art. Folklore arose before the advent of writing. Its most important feature is that folklore is...
24. Born into the family of surveyor Ivan Tikhonovich Ivanov (1816–1871). After graduating from the First Moscow Gymnasium, he continued his studies, first at the Faculty of History and Philology of Moscow University (1884-1886, two courses), then at the University of Berlin (1886-1890), where, in addition to...
25. Each artist of the word, to one degree or another in his work, touched upon the question of the purpose of the poet and poetry. The best Russian writers and poets highly appreciated the role of art in the life of the state...
26. Gustave Flaubert was an outspoken pessimist. He believed the material world great illusion, everything around him was disappointing. In his opinion, only the inner peace of a person, her reconciliation with life, was worthwhile....
27. Chapter 1. Characteristics of European literature of the 17th century 1.3. Literary process: Baroque The Baroque was influenced to a certain extent by the Renaissance, cultural tradition, understanding of man as a new type. However, Baroque is first...
In the subtext of the work there is also aesthetic problems, associated primarily with Moliere’s assessment of the then aesthetic situation in France. Do not forget that the brilliant playwright, and now national pride France -...

Classicism (French classicisme, from Latin classicus - exemplary) - artistic style and aesthetic direction in European art XVII--XIX centuries

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, the unchangeable - in each phenomenon it strives to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual characteristics. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art(Aristotle, Horace).

Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined characteristics, the mixing of which is not allowed.

How a certain direction was formed in France, in the 17th century. French classicism affirmed the personality of man as the highest value of existence, freeing him from religious and church influence. Russian classicism not only adopted Western European theory, but also enriched it with national characteristics.

Painting

Interest in art ancient Greece and Rome appeared back in the Renaissance, which, after centuries of the Middle Ages, turned to the forms, motifs and subjects of antiquity. The greatest theorist of the Renaissance, Leon Batista Alberti, back in the 15th century. expressed ideas that foreshadowed certain principles of classicism and were fully manifested in Raphael’s fresco “ Athens school"(1511).

IN early XVII century, young foreigners flock to Rome to get acquainted with the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance. The most prominent place among them was occupied by the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin, in his paintings, mainly on the themes of ancient antiquity and mythology, who provided unsurpassed examples of geometrically precise composition and thoughtful relationships between color groups. Another Frenchman, Claude Lorrain, in his antique landscapes of the environs of the “eternal city”, organized the pictures of nature by harmonizing them with the light of the setting sun and introducing peculiar architectural scenes.

Poussin's coldly rational normativism won the approval of the Versailles court and was continued by court artists like Le Brun, who saw in classicist painting the ideal artistic language for praising the absolutist state of the "sun king." Although private customers preferred various options Baroque and Rococo, the French monarchy kept classicism afloat by funding academic institutions such as the École des Beaux-Arts. The Rome Prize provided the most talented students with the opportunity to visit Rome for direct acquaintance with the great works of antiquity.

In the 19th century, classicist painting entered a period of crisis and became a force holding back the development of art, not only in France, but also in other countries. David's artistic line was successfully continued by Ingres, who, while maintaining the language of classicism in his works, often turned to romantic subjects with oriental flavor(“Turkish Baths”); his portrait works marked by a subtle idealization of the model. Artists in other countries (like, for example, Karl Bryullov) also filled works that were classic in form with the spirit of reckless romanticism; this combination was called academicism. Numerous art academies served as its breeding grounds. IN mid-19th century, the young generation, gravitating towards realism, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers, rebelled against the conservatism of the academic establishment.

Architecture

An example of British Palladianism is the London mansion Osterley Park (architect Robert Adam).

Charles Cameron. Project for finishing the green dining room of the Catherine Palace in the Adam style.

The main feature of the architecture of classicism was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.

The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture to such an extent that they even applied them in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladian principles with varying degrees of fidelity until the mid-18th century.

By that time, satiety with the “whipped cream” of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. Born of the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, Baroque thinned out into Rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and decorative arts. This aesthetics was of little use for solving large urban planning problems. Already under Louis XV (1715-74), urban planning ensembles were built in Paris in the “ancient Roman” style, such as Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-92) a similar “noble Laconism" is already becoming the main architectural direction.

The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Church of Sainte-Geneviève in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his designs foreshadowed the megalomania of the Napoleonic Empire style and late classicism. In Russia, Bazhenov moved in the same direction as Soufflot. The French Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boullé went even further towards developing a radical visionary style with an emphasis on abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was of little demand; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by the modernists of the 20th century.

The architects of Napoleonic France drew inspiration from majestic images military glory left behind by imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of Napoleon, these images were transferred to Paris in the form of the triumphal arch of Carrousel and the Vendôme Column. In relation to monuments of military greatness from the era of the Napoleonic wars, the term “imperial style” is used - Empire style. In Russia, Carl Rossi, Andrei Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov proved themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style. In Britain, the empire style corresponds to the so-called. “Regency style” (the largest representative is John Nash).

In the period following the Napoleonic Wars, classicism had to coexist with romantically tinged eclecticism, in particular with the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the fashion for architectural neo-Gothic. In connection with Champollion's discoveries, Egyptian motifs are gaining popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture is replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek (“neo-Greek”), which was especially clearly manifested in Germany and the USA. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel built up, respectively, Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon. In France, the purity of classicism is diluted with free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque.

Romanticism

Ideological and artistic direction in European and American spiritual culture. 18 -- 1st half. 19th centuries As a style of creativity and thinking, it remains one of the main aesthetic and ideological models of the 20th century.

Origin. Axiology

Romanticism emerged in the 1790s. first in Germany and then spread throughout the Western European cultural region. His ideological basis was the crisis of rationalism of the Enlightenment, the artistic search for pre-romantic movements (sentimentalism, “sturmerism”), the Great French revolution, German classical philosophy. Romanticism is an aesthetic revolution that replaces science and reason (the highest cultural authority for the Enlightenment) with artistic creativity individual, which becomes a model, a “paradigm” for all species cultural activities. The main feature of romanticism as a movement is the desire to contrast the burgher, “philistine” world of reason, law, individualism, utilitarianism, atomization of society, naive faith in linear progress with a new system of values: the cult of creativity, the primacy of imagination over reason, criticism of logical, aesthetic and moral abstractions, a call for the emancipation of human personal powers, following nature, myth, symbol, the desire to synthesize and discover the relationship of everything with everything. Moreover, quite quickly the axiology of romanticism goes beyond the scope of art and begins to determine the style of philosophy, behavior, clothing, as well as other aspects of life.

Paradoxes of Romanticism

Paradoxically, romanticism combined the cult of the personal uniqueness of the individual with a gravitation towards the impersonal, elemental, and collective; increased reflectivity of creativity - with the discovery of the world of the unconscious; play, understood as the highest meaning of creativity, with calls for the introduction of the aesthetic into “serious” life; individual rebellion - with dissolution in the people's, tribal, national. This initial duality of romanticism is reflected by its theory of irony, which elevates into a principle the discrepancy between conditional aspirations and values ​​with the unconditional absolute as a goal. The main features of the romantic style include the element of play, which dissolved the aesthetic framework of classicism; heightened attention to everything original and non-standard (and the special was not simply given a place in the universal, as the baroque style or pre-romanticism did, but the very hierarchy of the general and the individual was inverted); interest in myth and even understanding of myth as the ideal of romantic creativity; symbolic interpretation of the world; the desire for the utmost expansion of the arsenal of genres; reliance on folklore, preference for image over concept, aspiration over possession, dynamics over statics; experiments in the synthetic unification of the arts; aesthetic interpretation of religion, idealization of the past and archaic cultures, often resulting in social protest; aestheticization of life, morality, politics.

A new look at the inner world

The rejection of the Enlightenment axiom of rationality as the essence of human nature led romanticism to a new understanding of man: the atomic integrity of the “I”, obvious to past eras, was called into question, the world of the individual and collective unconscious was discovered, the conflict of the inner world with man’s own “nature” was felt. The disharmony of personality and its alienated objectifications was especially richly thematized by symbols romantic literature(double, shadow, machine gun, doll, finally - the famous Frankenstein, created by the imagination of M. Shelley).

Impact on science

Romantic natural philosophy, having updated the Renaissance idea of ​​man as a microcosm and introducing into it the idea of ​​similarity between the unconscious creativity of nature and the conscious creativity of the artist, played a certain role in the formation of natural science in the 19th century. (both directly and through scientists - adherents of early Schelling - such as Carus, Oken, Steffens). The humanities also receive from romanticism (from the hermeneutics of Schleiermacher, the philosophy of language of Novalis and F. Schlegel) an impulse that is significant for history, cultural studies, and linguistics.

Romanticism and religion

In religious thought, romanticism can be divided into two directions. One was initiated by Schleiermacher (Speeches on Religion, 1799) with his understanding of religion as an internal, pantheistically colored experience of “dependence on the infinite.” It significantly influenced the formation of Protestant liberal theology. The other is represented by the general tendency of late romanticism towards orthodox Catholicism and the restoration of medieval cultural foundations and values. (See the work of Novalis, programmatic for this trend, “Christianity, or Europe,” 1799.).

The historical stages in the development of romanticism were the birth in 1798-1801. the Jena circle (A. Schlegel, F. Schlegel, Novalis, Tieck, later Schleiermacher and Schelling), in whose bosom the basic philosophical and aesthetic principles of romanticism were formulated; emergence after 1805 of the Heidelberg and Swabian schools literary romanticism; publication of J. de Stael's book “On Germany” (1810), with which the European glory of romanticism began; the widespread spread of romanticism within Western culture in 1820-30; crisis stratification of the romantic movement in the 1840s, 50s. into factions and their fusion with both conservative and radical currents of “anti-burgher” European thought.

1. The central place is given to the symbol*
2. The desire for a higher ideal prevails
3. A poetic image is intended to express the essence of a phenomenon
4. Characteristic reflection of the world in two planes: real and mystical
5. Sophistication and musicality of verse