Features of the development of romantic literature chronology features. Main features of romanticism

Romanticism - literary direction, which appeared in Western Europe at the end of the 18th century. Romanticism, as a literary movement, involves the creation of an exceptional hero and exceptional circumstances. Such trends in literature were formed as a result of the collapse of all the ideas of the Enlightenment period due to the crisis in Europe, which arose as a result of the unfulfilled hopes of the Great French Revolution.

Romanticism as a literary movement

In Russia, romanticism, as a literary movement, first appeared after the Patriotic War of 1812. After the dizzying victory over the French, many progressive minds were waiting for changes in the state structure. Alexander I's refusal to lobby liberal politics gave rise not only to the Decembrist uprising, but also to changes in public consciousness and literary preferences.

Russian romanticism is a conflict between the individual and reality, society and dreams, desires. But dream and desire are subjective concepts, therefore romanticism, as one of the most freedom-loving literary movements, had two main trends:

• conservative;
• revolutionary.

The personality of the era of romanticism is endowed with a strong character, a passionate zeal for everything new and unrealizable. A new person tries to live ahead of those around him in order to accelerate his knowledge of the world by leaps and bounds.

Russian romanticism

Revolutionaries of Romanticism half of the 19th century V. direct “their face” to the future, strive to embody the ideas of struggle, equality and universal happiness of people. A prominent representative of revolutionary romanticism was K.F. Ryleev, in whose works the image was formed strong man. His human hero is zealously ready to defend the fiery ideas of patriotism and the desire for freedom of his fatherland. Ryleev was obsessed with the idea of ​​“equality and free thinking.” It was these motives that became the fundamental tendencies of his poetry, which is clearly visible in the thought “The Death of Ermak.”

Conservatives of romanticism drew the plots of their masterpieces mainly from the past, as they took literary basis giving, epic direction or they were consigned to oblivion in the afterlife. Similar images took the reader to the land of imagination, dreams and reverie. A prominent representative of conservative romanticism was V.A. Zhukovsky. The basis of his works was sentimentalism, where sensuality prevailed over reason, and the hero knew how to empathize and sensitively respond to what was happening around him. His first work was the elegy “Rural Cemetery,” which was filled with landscape descriptions and philosophical discussions.

Romantic in literary works pays great attention to the stormy elements, philosophical reasoning about human existence. Where circumstances do not influence the evolution of character, and spiritual culture gave rise to a special, new type person in life.

The great representatives of romanticism were: E.A. Baratynsky, V.A. Zhukovsky, K.F. Ryleev, F.I. Tyutchev, V.K. Kuchelbecker, V.F. Odoevsky, I.I. Kozlov.

Romanticism as a literary movement. Main features and features.

Romanticism is one of the most significant literary movements of the 19th century.

Romanticism is not just a literary movement, but also a certain worldview, a system of views on the world. It was formed in opposition to the ideology of the Enlightenment, which reigned throughout the 18th century, in repulsion from it.

All researchers agree that the most important event that played a role in the emergence of Romanticism was the Great French Revolution, which began on July 14, 1789, when angry people stormed the main royal prison, the Bastille, as a result of which France became first a constitutional monarchy and then a republic. . The revolution became the most important stage in the formation of modern republican, democratic Europe. Subsequently, it became a symbol of the struggle for freedom, equality, justice, and improvement of the people’s lives.

However, the attitude towards the Revolution was far from clear. Many thinking and creative people soon became disillusioned with it, since its results were revolutionary terror, Civil War, the war of revolutionary France with almost all of Europe. And the society that arose in France after the Revolution was very far from ideal: the people still lived in poverty. And since the Revolution was a direct result of the philosophical and socio-political ideas of the Enlightenment, disappointment also affected the Enlightenment itself. It was from this complex combination of fascination and disillusionment with the Revolution and Enlightenment that Romanticism was born. The Romantics retained faith in the main ideals of the Enlightenment and the Revolution - freedom, equality, social justice, etc.

But they were disappointed in the possibility of their real implementation. There was an acute feeling of a gap between the ideal and life. Therefore, romantics are characterized by two opposing tendencies: 1. reckless, naive enthusiasm, optimistic faith in the victory of lofty ideals; 2. absolute, gloomy disappointment in everything, in life in general. These are two sides of the same coin: absolute disappointment in life is the result of absolute faith in ideals.

Another important point regarding the attitude of the romantics to the Enlightenment: the ideology of the Enlightenment itself at the beginning of the 19th century began to be perceived as outdated, boring, and not living up to expectations. After all, development proceeds on the principle of repulsion from the previous one. Before Romanticism there was the Enlightenment, and Romanticism started from it.

So, what exactly was the impact of the repulsion of Romanticism from the Enlightenment?

In the 18th century, during the Enlightenment, the cult of Reason reigned - rationalism - the idea that reason is the main quality of a person, with the help of reason, logic, science, a person is able to correctly understand, know the world and himself, and change both for the better.

1. The most important feature of romanticism was irrationalism(anti-rationalism) - the idea that life is much more complex than it seems to the human mind; life cannot be explained rationally or logically. It is unpredictable, incomprehensible, contradictory, in short, irrational. And the most irrational, mysterious part of life is the human soul. A person is very often controlled not by a bright mind, but by dark, uncontrolled, sometimes destructive passions. The most opposite aspirations, feelings, and thoughts can illogically coexist in the soul. Romantics converted serious attention and began to describe strange, irrational states of human consciousness: madness, sleep, obsession with some kind of passion, a state of passion, illness, etc. Romanticism is characterized by mockery of science, scientists, and logic.

2. Romantics, following the sentimentalists, highlighted feelings, emotions, defy logic. Emotionality- the most important human quality from the point of view of Romanticism. A romantic is someone who acts contrary to reason and petty calculations; romance is driven by emotions.

3. Most of the enlighteners were materialists, many romantics (but not all) were idealists and mystics. Idealists are those who believe that in addition to the material world there is some ideal, spiritual world, which consists of ideas, thoughts and which is much more important, paramount than the material world. Mystics are not just those who believe in the existence of another world - mystical, otherworldly, supernatural, etc., they are those who believe that representatives of another world are able to penetrate into the real world, that in general a connection is possible between worlds, communication. Romantics willingly let mysticism into their works, describing witches, sorcerers and other representatives evil spirits. Romantic works often contain hints of a mystical explanation for the strange events that occur.

(Sometimes the concepts “mystical” and “irrational” are identified and used as synonyms, which is not entirely correct. Often they actually coincide, especially among the romantics, but still, in general, these concepts mean different things. Everything mystical is usually irrational, but not everything the irrational is mystical).

4. Many romantics have mystical fatalism- belief in Fate, Predestination. Human life is controlled by certain mystical (mostly dark) forces. Therefore, in some romantic works there are many mysterious predictions, strange hints that always come true. Heroes sometimes perform actions as if not themselves, but someone pushes them, as if some outside force is infused into them, which leads them to the fulfillment of their Destiny. Many works of the romantics are imbued with a sense of the inevitability of Fate.

5. Dual world- the most important feature of romanticism, generated by a bitter feeling of the gap between ideal and reality.

Romantics divided the world into two parts: the real world and the ideal world.

The real world is an ordinary, everyday, uninteresting, extremely imperfect world, a world in which ordinary people, philistines, feel comfortable. Philistines are people who do not have deep spiritual interests; their ideal is material well-being, their own personal comfort and peace.

The most characteristic feature of a typical romantic is dislike for the philistines, for ordinary people, to the majority, to the crowd, contempt for real life, isolation from it, not fitting into it.

And the second world is the world romantic ideal, a romantic dream, where everything is beautiful, bright, where everything is as a romantic dreams, this world does not exist in reality, but it should be. Romantic Getaway- this is an escape from reality into the world of the ideal, into nature, art, into your inner world. Madness and suicide are also options for romantic escape. Most suicides have a significant element of romanticism in their character.

7. Romantics do not like everything ordinary and strive for everything unusual, atypical, original, exceptional, exotic. A romantic hero is always unlike the majority, he is different. This is the main quality of a romantic hero. He is not included in the surrounding reality, is unadapted to it, he is always a loner.

The main romantic conflict is the confrontation between a lonely romantic hero and ordinary people.

The love for the unusual also applies to the choice of plot events for the work - they are always exceptional, unusual. Romantics also love exotic settings: distant hot countries, sea, mountains, and sometimes fabulous imaginary countries. For the same reason, romantics are interested in the distant historical past, especially the Middle Ages, which the enlighteners really disliked as the most unenlightened, unreasonable time. But the romantics believed that the Middle Ages were the time of the birth of romanticism, romantic love and romantic poetry, the first romantic heroes were knights serving their beautiful ladies and writing poetry.

In romanticism (especially poetry) the motif of flight, separation from ordinary life and the desire for something unusual and beautiful is very common.

8. Basic romantic values.

The main value for romantics is Love. Love is the highest manifestation of the human personality, the highest happiness, the most complete disclosure of all the abilities of the soul. This is the main goal and meaning of life. Love connects a person with other worlds; in love all the deepest, most important secrets of existence are revealed. Romantics are characterized by the idea of ​​lovers as two halves, of the non-accidentality of the meeting, of the mystical destiny of this particular man for this particular woman. Also the idea that true love can only happen once in a lifetime, that it occurs instantly at first sight. The idea of ​​the need to remain faithful even after the death of a beloved. At the same time, Shakespeare gave the ideal embodiment of romantic love in the tragedy “Romeo and Juliet”.

The second romantic value is Art. It contains the highest Truth and the highest Beauty, which the artist (in in a broad sense words) descend at the moment of inspiration from other worlds. The artist is an ideal romantic person, endowed with the highest gift, with the help of his art, to spiritualize people, to make them better, purer. The highest form of art is Music, it is the least material, the most uncertain, free and irrational, music is addressed directly to the heart, to the feelings. The image of the Musician is very common in romanticism.

The third most important value of romanticism is Nature and her beauty. The Romantics sought to spiritualize nature, to endow it with a living soul, a special mysterious mystical life.

The secret of nature will be revealed not through the cold mind of a scientist, but only through the feeling of its beauty and soul.

The fourth romantic value is Liberty, internal spiritual, creative freedom, first of all, free flight of the soul. But so does socio-political freedom. Freedom is a romantic value because it is possible only in the ideal, but not in reality.

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Romanticism as a method and direction in artistic culture was a complex and contradictory phenomenon. In every country it had a strong national expression. In literature, music, painting and theater it is not easy to find features that unite Chateaubriand and Delacroix, Mickiewicz and Chopin, Lermontov and Kiprensky.

Romantics occupied different social and political positions in society. They all rebelled against the results of the bourgeois revolution, but they rebelled in different ways, since each had their own ideal. But for all its many faces and diversity, romanticism has stable features.

Disillusionment with modernity gave rise to a special interest in the past: to pre-bourgeois social formations, to patriarchal antiquity. Many romantics had the idea that the picturesque exoticism of the countries of the south and east - Italy, Spain, Greece, Turkey - was a poetic contrast to the boring bourgeois everyday life. In these countries, then little touched by civilization, romantics looked for bright, strong characters, an original, colorful way of life. Interest in the national past has given rise to a lot of historical works.

Striving to rise above the prose of existence, to liberate the diverse abilities of the individual, to achieve maximum self-realization in creativity, the romantics opposed the formalization of art and the straightforward and reasonable approach to it, characteristic of classicism. They all came from denial of the Enlightenment and the rationalistic canons of classicism, which fettered the artist’s creative initiative. And if classicism divides everything in a straight line, into good and bad, into black and white, then romanticism divides nothing in a straight line. Classicism is a system, but romanticism is not. Romanticism advanced the advancement of modern times from classicism to sentimentalism, which shows the inner life of man in harmony with the wider world. And romanticism contrasts harmony with the inner world. It is with romanticism that real psychologism begins to appear.

The main goal of romanticism was image of the inner world, spiritual life, and this could be done on the material of stories, mysticism, etc. It was necessary to show the paradox of this inner life, its irrationality.

In their imagination, romantics transformed the unsightly reality or retreated into the world of their experiences. The gap between dream and reality, the opposition of beautiful fiction to objective reality, lay at the heart of the entire romantic movement.

Romanticism first raised the problem of the language of art. “Art is a language of a completely different kind than nature; but it also contains the same miraculous power, which equally secretly and incomprehensibly affects the human soul” (Wackenroder and Tieck). The artist is an interpreter of the language of nature, a mediator between the world of spirit and people. “Thanks to artists, humanity emerges as a complete individuality. Through modernity, artists unite the world of the past with the world of the future. They are the highest spiritual organ in which the vital forces of their outer humanity meet each other and where the inner humanity manifests itself first of all” (F. Schlegel).

However, romanticism was not a homogeneous movement: its ideological development went in different directions. Among the romantics were reactionary writers, adherents of the old regime, who glorified the feudal monarchy and Christianity. On the other hand, romantics with a progressive worldview expressed a democratic protest against feudal and all kinds of oppression, and embodied the revolutionary impulse of the people for a better future.

Romanticism left an entire era in world artistic culture, its representatives were: in literature V. Scott, J. Byron, Shelley, V. Hugo, A. Mickiewicz, etc.; in fine arts E. Delacroix, T. Gericault, F. Runge, J. Constable, W. Turner, O. Kiprensky and others; in music F. Schubert, R. Wagner, G. Berlioz, N. Paganini, F. Liszt, F. Chopin and others. They discovered and developed new genres, paid close attention to the fate of the human personality, revealed the dialectic of good and evil, masterfully revealed human passions, etc.

The types of art more or less equalized in importance and produced magnificent works of art, although the romantics gave primacy to music in the ladder of the arts.

Romanticism is a concept that is difficult to define precisely. In different European literatures it is interpreted in its own way and in the works of different “romantic” writers it is expressed differently. Both in time and in essence, this literary movement is very close to; For many writers of the era, both of these directions even merge completely. Like sentimentalism, the romantic movement was, throughout European literature, a protest against pseudo-classicism.

Romanticism as a literary movement

Instead of the ideal of classical poetry - humanism, the personification of everything human, at the end of the 18th century - early XIX century, Christian idealism appeared - the desire for everything heavenly and divine, for everything supernatural and miraculous. Wherein main goal human life was no longer supplied with the enjoyment of happiness and joys of earthly life, but with purity of soul and peace of conscience, patient enduring of all the disasters and sufferings of earthly life, hope for the future life and preparation for this life.

Pseudoclassicism demanded from literature rationality, subordination of feeling to reason; he chained creativity in those literary shapes, which were borrowed from the ancients; he obliged writers not to go beyond ancient history And ancient poetics. Pseudoclassicists introduced strict aristocracy content and form, brought in exclusively “court” moods.

Sentimentalism opposed all these features of pseudo-classicism with the poetry of free feeling, admiration for one’s free, sensitive heart, one’s “beautiful soul,” and nature, artless and simple. But if the sentimentalists undermined the significance of false classicism, then it was not they who began a conscious struggle against this trend. This honor belonged to the “romantics”; They put forward more energy, a broader literary program and, most importantly, an attempt to create a new theory of poetic creativity against the false classics. One of the first points of this theory was the denial of the 18th century, its rational “enlightenment” philosophy, and its forms of life. (See Aesthetics of Romanticism, Stages of development of Romanticism.)

Such a protest against the rules of outdated morality and social forms of life was reflected in the passion for works in which the main characters were protesting heroes - Prometheus, Faust, then “robbers”, as enemies of outdated forms of social life... With light hand Schiller, even a whole “robber” literature arose. Writers were interested in the images of “ideological” criminals, fallen people, but retaining high human feelings (such was, for example, the romanticism of Victor Hugo). Of course, this literature no longer recognized didacticism and aristocracy - it was democratic, was far from edifying and, in the manner of writing, approached naturalism, accurate reproduction of reality, without choice and idealization.

This is one movement of romanticism created by the group protesting romantics. But there was another group - peaceful individualists, whose freedom of feeling did not lead to social struggle. These are peaceful enthusiasts of sensitivity, limited by the walls of their hearts, lulling themselves to quiet delight and tears by analyzing their sensations. They, pietists and mystics, can adapt to any church-religious reaction, and get along with the political one, because they have moved away from the public into the world of their tiny “I”, into solitude, into nature, which speaks of the goodness of the Creator. They only admit " inner freedom", "nurture virtue." They have a “beautiful soul” – the schöne Seele of the German poets, the belle âme of Rousseau, the “soul” of Karamzin...

Romantics of this second type are almost no different from “sentimentalists.” They love their “sensitive” heart, they know only tender, sad “love”, pure, sublime “friendship” - they willingly shed tears; “sweet melancholy” is their favorite mood. They love sad nature, foggy or evening landscapes, and the gentle glow of the moon. They willingly dream in cemeteries and around graves; they like sad music. They are interested in everything “fantastic”, even “visions”. Paying close attention to the whimsical shades of the various moods of their hearts, they take on the depiction of complex and unclear, “vague” feelings - they try to express the “inexpressible” in the language of poetry, to find a new style for new moods unknown to the pseudo-classics.

It is precisely this content of their poetry that was expressed in that unclear and one-sided definition of “romanticism” that Belinsky made: “this is a desire, aspiration, impulse, feeling, sigh, groan, a complaint about unfulfilled hopes that had no name, sadness for what was lost.” happiness, which God knows what it consisted of. This is a world alien to all reality, inhabited by shadows and ghosts. This is a dull, slowly flowing... present that mourns the past and does not see the future; finally, this is love that feeds on sadness and which, without sadness, would not have anything to support its existence.”

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..3

Main part:

1. The concept of romanticism………………………………………….4

2. Characteristics of romanticism…………………………………8

Conclusion……………………………………………………………...12

List of references………………………………………………………..13

Introduction

Relevance of the research topic.

In the development of art of the 19th century, two main stages can be distinguished: the era of romanticism (the first half of the 19th century) and the era of decadence (from the late 50s to the First World War). The constant unrest in Europe associated with the incompleteness of the cycle of bourgeois revolutions and the development of social and national movements could hardly have found a more adequate form of expression in art than romantic rebellion.

Goals and objectives of the work. The purpose of this work is to examine romanticism.

To achieve this goal, the work solves the following: particular problems :

consider the concept of romanticism;

describe romanticism.

Object of study– romanticism.

Subject of research are social relations associated with

Main part

1. Romanticism concept

The very etymology of the concept “romanticism” refers to the field of fiction. Initially, the word romance in Spain meant a lyrical and heroic song - romance; then big ones epic poems about knights; subsequently it was transferred to prose chivalric novels. In the 17th century the epithet “romantic” (French romantique) serves to characterize adventurous and heroic works written in Romance languages, as opposed to those written in classical languages.

In the 18th century this word begins to be used in England in relation to the literature of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. At the same time, the concept of “romance” began to be used to denote literary genre, implying a narrative in the spirit of chivalric romances. And in general, in the second half of the same century in England, the adjective “romantic” describes everything unusual, fantastic, mysterious (adventures, feelings, setting). Along with the concepts of “picturesque” and “Gothic” (gothic), it denotes new aesthetic values, different from the “universal” and “reasonable” ideal of beauty in classicism.

Although the adjective "romantic" has been used in European languages ​​since at least the 17th century, the noun "romanticism" was first coined by Novalis in the late 18th century. At the end of the 18th century. in Germany and at the beginning of the 19th century. in France and a number of other countries, romanticism becomes the name artistic direction, which opposed itself to classicism. As a designation for a certain literary style in general, it was conceptualized and popularized by A. Schlegel in lectures that he gave in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. in Jena, Berlin and Vienna (“Lectures on Fine Literature and Art”, 1801-1804). During the first two decades of the 19th century. Schlegel's ideas spread in France, Italy and England, in particular, thanks to the popularization activities of J. de Staël. The work of I. Goethe “Romantic School” (1836) contributed to the consolidation of this concept.

The term “romanticism” acquired a broader philosophical interpretation and cognitive meaning at this time. Romanticism, in its heyday, created its own movement in philosophy, theology, art and aesthetics. Having manifested itself especially clearly in these areas, romanticism also did not escape history, law, and even political economy.

Of course, being such a comprehensive movement, romanticism is very diverse. Perhaps the fundamental anti-universalism of romanticism and the accentuated freedom of self-expression explains the fact that among the romantics there was an unusually high specific gravity outstanding figures. In turn, the great ones, unlike the epigones, are more difficult to standardize. And as a result, romanticism contains so much (not to mention so many) that it provokes directly opposite interpretations. It is practically unproductive to qualify it according to stylistic and even ideological versions; rather, we can talk about differences across countries ( national characteristics) and closely related “specialization” in areas of knowledge.

Western Europe at that time was already a fairly integral cultural area, and the interaction of romantic schools turned out to be very whimsical. In spatial coordinates, we would single out the German, French and English variants of romanticism as fundamental. Setting the tone in European art and social thought, these national versions manifested themselves differently in different areas of knowledge. Thus, in Germany philosophers were “more romantic” than others, while in France a brilliant galaxy of romantic historians arose. In the field of literature, painting or music, it is difficult to single out a “national” leader. As for architecture, in this area, in addition to the revival of previous styles, it seems that it should only recognize the aestheticization of ruins as a purely romantic innovation.

The “variegation” of romanticism is largely due to the fact that this movement was formed from the very beginning under the influence of fundamentally different ideological and political factors. On the one hand, romanticism was the quintessence of the anti-Enlightenment movement that swept at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. on all European countries. In this sense classic country Germany was romantic. The anti-Enlightenment spirit of German romanticism is largely connected with the specifics of German philosophical and scientific thought, which was strikingly different from the main ideological tradition of the 18th century. in Western Europe. It was not the philosophical materialism, rationalism and empiricism of the Enlightenment, but symbolism, organology, and mysticism that attracted a new generation of German thinkers.

On the other hand, “in the phenomenon of romanticism we find people re-establishing relations with their past after a shock French Revolution”, which radically determined its nature and dynamics. However, we should not forget that the romantics went through not only revolutions, but also restorations; their “century” was a rather short but unusually dynamic period of 1789-1848. with violent upheavals in the European order, wars, national liberation movements and short pauses of political calm. If at the first stage romanticism was inspired by the pathos of the revolution, then at the second it reacted violently to its consequences.

The events of the French Revolution, which became the decisive social prerequisite for the intensive development of romanticism throughout Europe, were experienced mostly “ideally” in Germany. This contributed to the transfer of social problems into the sphere of speculative philosophy, ethics and especially aesthetics. In the post-revolutionary era, when dissatisfaction with the political transformations that took place became general, the peculiar features of the spiritual culture of Germany acquired pan-European significance and had a strong impact on philosophy, social thought, aesthetics and art of other countries.

National variants of romanticism are distinguished by important substantive characteristics: German romanticism is determined by the unconditional priority of the Jena school, and on French and English soil a conservative version of romanticism arises, inspired by the works of E. Burke, J. de Maistre and F.R. de Chateaubriand. Two versions of romanticism arose almost simultaneously: the programmatic ideas of the Jena circle of romantics were formulated in the late 90s. 18th century in the magazine Athenaeum, published by the Schlegel brothers; works by Burke, de Maistre and Chateaubriand appeared in 1790 and 1797 respectively.

The main ideological and political premise of late romanticism is disappointment in the “embodied idea” of the revolution and, more broadly, in the results of social, industrial, political and scientific progress, which not only brought severe disasters, but also, as it seemed to artists and intellectuals, created the ground for the leveling and lack of spirituality of the individual. Therefore, for the romantics, the principle of “spiritualization” turned out to be so important, expressed in the desire to endow everything with a soul, including inorganic nature (as opposed to how representatives of the culture of the next century would exploit the idea of ​​despiritualizing everything).

2. Characteristics of romanticism

Specific to romantic art is the problem of two worlds. Dual worlds - i.e. comparison and contrast of the real and imaginary worlds - is the organizing, constructing principle of the romantic artistic and figurative model. Moreover, real reality, the “prose of life” with their utilitarianism and lack of spirituality are regarded as an empty “appearance” unworthy of a person, opposing the true world of values.

The affirmation and development of a beautiful ideal as a reality, realized at least in dreams, is the essential side of romanticism. Rejecting contemporary reality as the repository of all vices, romanticism flees from it, traveling through time and space. The flight beyond the real spatial boundaries of bourgeois society came in three main forms, namely:

1) withdrawal into nature, which was either a tuning fork of violent emotional experiences, or another existence of the ideal of freedom and purity (hence the criticism of the city, the idealization of ordinary workers, especially rural ones, interest in their

spirituality expressed in folklore).

2) romanticism looks into other regions, exotic countries, especially since the era of great geographical discoveries created the most favorable opportunities for this (the oriental theme in the poetry of Byron, in the paintings of Delacroix). Finally, in the absence of a real territorial address of escape, it is invented from the head, constructed in the imagination (fantastic worlds of Hoffmann, Heine, Wagner).

The second direction of escape is escaping reality at another time. Not finding support in the present, romanticism breaks the natural connection of times: it idealizes the past, especially the medieval one: its morals, way of life (the chivalric novels of W. Scott, the operas of Wagner), the craftsmanship (Novalis, Hoffmann), the patriarchal life of the peasants (Coleridge, J. Sand) and many others; construct an imagined future, freely manipulating the time flow.