Medieval culture of Western Europe: general characteristics. Abstract: Culture of medieval Europe

University

Chivalry

Carnival

Brief outline of the culture of the Middle Ages (V-XV centuries)

Lecture 4

Medieval culture: phenomena of carnival, chivalry, university

The culture of the Middle Ages powerfully and visibly expressed itself in architecture in the emerging artistic styles - Romanesque and Gothic. This topic is presented in detail in the course textbooks, so students will be able to study it on their own, paying special attention to the periods of development of the Romanesque and Gothic styles in France, Spain, Italy, and Germany.

The Middle Ages in Europe were defined by Christian culture. Feudalism was established with the rural community and man's dependence on it and the feudal lord. Many European countries have become self-determined and strengthened; the center of cultural improvement is not a collection of city-states or one Roman Empire, but the entire European region. Spain, France, Holland, England and other countries are coming to the forefront of cultural development. Christianity, as it were, unites their spiritual efforts, spreading and establishing itself in Europe and beyond. But the process of establishing statehood among the peoples of Europe is far from completed. Large and small wars arise, armed violence acts as both a factor and a brake on cultural development.

A person feels like a community member, and not a free citizen, as in ancient society. The value of “serving” God and the feudal lord, but not oneself or the state, arises. Slavery is replaced by circular communal guarantee and subordination to the community and feudal lord. Christianity supports feudal class, subordination to God and master. The Church extends its influence to all major spheres of social life, to family, education, morality, and science. Heretics and all non-Christian dissent are persecuted. With the establishment of Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire (325), it rigidly subjugated the entire life of European society, and this continued until the Renaissance.

Thus, the defining feature of medieval culture, the essence of the cultural phenomenon of the Middle Ages, is a worldview based on Christian doctrine. The theological system of Christianity covered any of the cultural phenomena, in turn, each of the phenomena had its own specific hierarchical place. Hierarchical ideas are embodied in public life(lords - vassals; ethics of personal service), in the spiritual sphere (God - Satan).

However, it would be wrong and one-sided to evaluate the culture of the Middle Ages only negatively. She developed and achieved success. In the 12th century. A loom without a mechanical engine was invented in Flanders. Sheep farming is developing. Italy and France learned how to produce silk. In England and France they began to build blast furnaces and use coal in them.

Despite the fact that knowledge was subordinated to the Christian faith, religious and secular schools, higher educational establishments. In the 10th-11th centuries, for example, philosophy, mathematics, physics, astronomy, law, medicine, as well as Muslim theology were already taught in higher schools in Spain. The activity of the Roman Catholic Church and the non-compliance of its ministers with the norms of morality and religious worship often caused discontent and ridicule among the broad masses. For example, in the 12th-13th centuries in France, the movement of vagantes - wandering poets and musicians - became widespread. They sharply criticized the church for greed, hypocrisy and ignorance. The poetry of minstrels and troubadours emerges.

Poetry and prose of chivalry are developing, masterpieces of folk epic are being written down (“The Song of the Nibelungs”, “The Song of My Side”, “Beowulf”). Biblical and mythological painting and icon painting are widespread. In the spirituality of people, Christianity affirmed not only obedience, but also a positive ideal of salvation. By following the commandments of God and honoring him, a person can achieve his desired state and the state of the whole world, which is characterized by overcoming all lack of freedom and evil.

Since the 14th century, European Catholicism has been experiencing acute crisis, generated by the internal struggle of popes and other hierarchs for religious and secular power, the non-compliance of many clergy with moral standards, their desire for wealth and luxury, and the deception of believers. The crisis of the Catholic Church worsened significantly as a result of the Inquisition and the Crusades. The Catholic faith was losing its status as the spiritual basis of European culture. Orthodoxy functioned more smoothly in Byzantium and other countries of Eastern Europe.

Byzantium, or the Eastern Roman Empire, arose in 325 after the split of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern. In 1054, the Christian Church was also divided. Orthodoxy is established in Byzantium.

Byzantine culture existed for 11 centuries, being a kind of “golden bridge” between Western and Eastern culture. In its historical development, Byzantium went through five stages:

First stage (IV - mid-VII centuries). The independence of Byzantium is affirmed, power, military bureaucracy, and the foundations of the “correct” faith are formed based on the traditions of pagan Hellenism and Christianity. Outstanding monuments of the mid-V-VI centuries. – Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna; Hippodrome; Temple of Sophia (Anthimius and Isidore); mosaic paintings of the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna; mosaics in the Church of the Assumption in Nika; icon "Sergius and Bacchus".

Second stage (second half of the 7th - first half of the 9th centuries). The invasions of Arabs and Slavs are repelled. The ethnic basis of culture is consolidated around the Greeks and Slavs. There is an alienation from Western Roman (European) cultural elements. The Church is victorious over secular power. The orthodox-conservative foundations of Orthodoxy are strengthening. Culture is becoming more and more localized, acquiring originality, and gravitating towards eastern cultures.

Third stage (second half of the 9th - mid-11th centuries). "Golden Age" of Byzantine culture. Schools, universities, and libraries emerge.

Fourth period (second half of the 11th - beginning of the 13th centuries). In 1071, Byzantium was defeated by the Turks; in 1204, the knights of the Fourth Crusade subjugated it. The resulting Latin Empire loses the authority of power. The Orthodox Church assumes protective and unifying functions. Cultural development is significantly slowing down.

Fifth stage (1261 - 1453). After liberation from the power of the Latin knights, Byzantium was unable to restore its former greatness due to internal unrest and civil strife. Religious and literary creativity, theology, philosophy, miniatures, icons, and fresco painting are being developed.

After the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, Byzantium ceased to exist.

Features of Byzantine culture are:

· Orthodoxy as an orthodox-conservative version of Christianity as a spiritual basis

· low degree of losses on the part of the conquerors in comparison with Western Roman culture

· cult of the emperor as a representative and exponent of secular and spiritual power

· protection of the power of the emperor, preservation of the unity of the state through the efforts of the Orthodox Church

· traditionalism and the canon of the creeds of Orthodoxy

Since 622, a new religion arose first in Mecca, then in Medina on the Arabian Peninsula - Islam (submissive to God). The spiritual foundations of medieval Arab-Muslim culture have some common features with Christianity in terms of ideas about God and monotheism, in the relationship between God and being, God and man.

The establishment of Christianity and Islam as monotheistic religions contributed to the general development of the culture of many peoples and the formation of historically new types of culture.

The lecture reveals in more detail the phenomenal phenomena of medieval culture: carnival, chivalry, university - which will make it possible to comprehend both the universalism and the depth of the contradictions of medieval culture, the features of which were preserved in culture until the 21st century.

Questions for self-control

1. Give a brief description of the culture of the European Middle Ages.

2. Explain what the essence of medieval culture is.

3. What, in your opinion, is the uniqueness of Byzantine culture?

4. Describe the most famous monument of Byzantine architecture - the Temple of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople.

5. What are the features of Byzantineism?

6. Give the realities of modern life that can be considered the heritage of the Middle Ages (institution, symbols, architectural monument, custom, tradition, clothing, food, drink, spices).

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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE REPUBLIC OF TATARSTAN

Almetyevsk State Oil Institute

Department of Enterprise Economics

CONTROLJOB

on the topic: "Culture of the European Middle Ages"

Completedstudentgroups

GorshkovA. N.

Almetyevsk 2014

Content

• Introduction
• Conclusion

Introduction

The Middle Ages are an important stage in the development of European culture. This is a period, the beginning of which coincided with the withering away of Hellenic-classical, ancient culture, and the end with its revival in modern times. It was a complex, diverse, contradictory culture, just as medieval society was a complex hierarchical formation.

Medieval culture is based on the traditions of the Western Roman Empire, representing the so-called “Romanesque beginning.” The main cultural heritage of Rome is law, science, art, philosophy, and Christianity. All these traditions were adopted during the struggle of the Romans with the barbarians and influenced their own culture of the pagan tribal life of the Franks, Britons, Saxons and other tribes of Western Europe, representing the so-called “Germanic beginning” of medieval culture. As a result of the interaction of these principles, a clash of two cultures arose - ancient and barbarian, which gave a powerful impetus to the formation and development of Western European medieval culture itself.

The purpose of this test is to examine the development of culture in the European Middle Ages.

Based on the goal, the following tasks will be considered:

give a general description of European medieval culture;

consider Christian consciousness as the basis of medieval mentality;

explore medieval science and education;

explore medieval art and architecture.

1. General characteristics of the emergence and development of European medieval culture

Western European medieval culture represents a qualitatively new stage in the development of European culture, following antiquity and covering more than a thousand-year period (V - XV centuries).

The transition from ancient civilization to the Middle Ages was due, firstly, to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire as a result of the general crisis of the slave-owning mode of production and the associated collapse of the entire ancient culture. Secondly, the Great Migration of Peoples (from the 4th to the 7th centuries), during which dozens of tribes rushed to conquer new lands.

Three stages can be distinguished in the development of Western European medieval society:

early Middle Ages (V-X centuries) - the process of folding the main structures characteristic of the Middle Ages is underway;

the classical Middle Ages (XI-XV centuries) - the time of maximum development of medieval feudal institutions;

late Middle Ages (XV-XVII centuries) - a new capitalist society begins to form.

The formation of medieval culture occurred as a result of a contradictory process of collision between two cultures - ancient and barbarian, accompanied, on the one hand, by violence, the destruction of ancient cities, the loss of the outstanding achievements of ancient culture, on the other hand, by the interaction and gradual merging of Roman and barbarian cultures.

The most important factor that determined the process of formation of European culture was Christianity. Christianity became not only its spiritual basis, but also the integrating principle that allows us to talk about Western European culture as a single integral culture.

So, medieval culture is the result of a complex, contradictory synthesis of ancient traditions, the culture of barbarian peoples and Christianity.

However, the influence of these three principles of medieval culture on its character was not, and could not be, equivalent. The social basis of medieval culture was feudal relations, which were characterized by:

conditionality of land ownership: the feudal lord “held” the fief - land with peasants on the right of ownership, received from a higher feudal lord, who was also a vassal of the feudal lord occupying a higher level in the political hierarchy;

personal and economic subordination of the peasants to the “holders of the land.” The main forms of dependence are patronage and serfdom;

mutual obligations of lord and vassal, strict unity of rights and obligations.

On the basis of feudal land ownership, two

The main poles of the sociocultural field of medieval culture were feudal lords (secular and spiritual) and feudal-dependent producers - peasants, which, in turn, led to the existence of two poles of the Middle Ages:

scientific culture of the spiritual and intellectual elite.

the culture of the “silent majority” (the culture of the common people, who are mostly illiterate).

Medieval culture was formed under the following conditions:

the dominance of the natural economy, which existed until approximately the 13th century, when it began to turn into a commodity-money economy as a result of the growth and strengthening of cities;

culture european middle ages christian

a closed feudal fiefdom - seigneury, which is the main economic, judicial and political unit;

weak central government;

feudal fragmentation, which gave rise to endless wars, death, and destruction.

2. Christian consciousness is the basis of medieval mentality

The most important feature of medieval culture is the special role of the Christian religion and the Christian church. It acts as a new ideological support of consciousness, an expression of the request for the holy, clean life, arising from a person tired of the carnal activism of late Roman antiquity. Christianity was the “golden mean”, a compromise of spirit and flesh, for Christ is resurrected as a bodily being, having flesh and blood.

In the conditions of the general decline of culture immediately after the destruction of the Roman Empire, only the church for many centuries remained the only social institution, common to all countries, tribes and states of Europe. The church was the dominant political institution, but even more significant was the influence that the church had directly on the consciousness of the population.

The medieval worldview and attitude, which was based on Christian consciousness, has the following features:

Two-worldness.

The perception and explanation of the world comes from the idea of ​​two-worldliness - the division of the world into the real and the otherworldly, the opposition in it of God and nature, Heaven and Earth, “above” and “below”, spirit and flesh, good and evil, eternal and temporary, sacred and sinful .

Symbolism.

Huge role played symbol. Everything, one way or another, was a sign, all objects were just signs of entities. The Bible itself was filled with secret symbols that hid the true meaning. Medieval man viewed the world around him as a system of symbols, which, if correctly interpreted, could be understood divine meaning. The Church taught that the highest knowledge is revealed not in concepts, but in images and symbols.

Versatility.

At the heart of medieval universalism is the idea of ​​God as the bearer of a universal, universal principle. The spiritual universalism of Christianity has formed a spiritual community of people - fellow believers. Christianity affirmed the universality of man, interpreting him, as already noted, regardless of ethnicity and social status as the earthly incarnation of God, called to strive for spiritual perfection (although this idea was in deep contradiction with the class structure of society). The idea of ​​the religious unity of the world, the predominance of the universal over the individual, transient, played a huge role.

Traditionalism.

The older, the more authentic. Innovation is pride; deviation from the archetype was seen as moving away from the truth. Hence the limitation of creative freedom within the framework of a theologically normalized worldview.

Integrity.

The worldview of medieval man was characterized by integrity. All areas of knowledge - science, philosophy, aesthetic thought, etc. - represented an indivisible unity. Philosophy and aesthetics set the goal of understanding God, history was seen as the implementation of the Creator's plans.

The holistic embrace of everything that exists, characteristic of the medieval mentality, was expressed in the fact that already in the early Middle Ages, culture gravitated towards encyclopedicism, the universality of knowledge.

Didacticism.

Figures of medieval culture were primarily preachers and teachers of theology. The main thing in their activity is to convey the greatness of the divine plan to other people. Therefore, special attention is paid to the art of argumentation, discussions, etc.

Historicism.

The historicism of the Middle Ages is determined by the Christian idea of ​​​​the uniqueness of events, their singularity, caused by the uniqueness of the fact of the appearance of Christ as the beginning of history. The Middle Ages were imbued with the expectation of the Last Judgment, the desire for the ultimate goal, the fate of man and the world as a whole.

3. Spiritual culture of the Middle Ages under the omnipotence of the church - science and education

Medieval science was subject to a strictly defined hierarchical order. Medieval science is divided into lower science, based on human cognitive abilities, and higher science, the custodian of Divine revelation. The highest place in the hierarchy of its spheres was given to philosophy, the purpose of which was seen as proving the truth of the Christian doctrine. The “lower” sciences (astronomy, geometry, mathematics, historical knowledge, etc.) were subordinate to and served philosophy.

In conditions of theocratism (the dominance of religious views), theology became the most developed form of theoretical thinking. In the 11th century It was theology that gave birth to such a phenomenon of medieval science as scholasticism - a philosophy inextricably linked with theology, but not identical to it. Scholasticism is, first of all, a method of knowing God and the world he created. She proceeded from the conviction that faith and knowledge, revelation and reason can be reconciled with each other, and, relying on them, one can comprehend God and the world. The essence of scholasticism was the understanding of Christian dogma from a rationalistic position using logical methods.

Representatives of this movement are Northern Boethius, John Scotus Eriugena, Roger Bacon, Thomas Aquinas and others.

The pinnacle of medieval scholasticism was the work of Thomas Aquinas (13th century). By affirming the harmony of reason and faith, he was able to carry out a synthesis of the philosophy of Aristotle and Christian dogma.

Medieval education was mainly religious education. Since the early Middle Ages, the entire education system was controlled by the church. In cathedral monastery schools, students read and commented on the Bible, the works of the church fathers, and also studied the “seven liberal arts"(grammar, dialectics, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy are educational disciplines that developed in late antiquity). Until the end of the 9th century, all schools were in the hands of the church (both future priests and those not intended were trained in them for the church career of a young man). However, in the second half of the 11th century, secular schools appeared in cities, universities emerged, which became centers for the development of scientific thought of their time. The first university was opened in Bologna (1088), later in Paris (1160). ), Oxford (1167), Cambridge (1209). Teaching at universities was conducted in Latin, which allowed students from all over Europe to study at any university. The Church exercised control over teaching at universities, and expelled unsuitable teachers.

University as an institution scientific knowledge and education - outstanding achievement medieval culture.

4. Art of the Middle Ages: Romanesque and Gothic styles, architecture, icon painting. Medieval cathedral as a model of the world

Artistic creativity was also strongly influenced by the church. The artists of the Middle Ages paid their main attention to the otherworldly, Divine world; their art was considered as the Bible for the illiterate, as a means of introducing man to God and comprehending his essence. Since the language of the Bible and worship was Latin, unfamiliar to most laypeople, the sculptural and pictorial images had a didactic meaning - to convey to believers the foundations of Christian dogma. In the temple, the entire Christian teaching unfolded before the eyes of a medieval man. The idea of ​​the sinfulness of the world was reflected by the leading plot in the design of churches, sculptures and reliefs - scenes of the Last Judgment and the Apocalypse. Looking at the cathedral, a medieval person could, as it were, read Holy Scripture in the images depicted there.

Strictly following the universal church canons, medieval artists were called upon to demonstrate divine beauty in figurative form. The aesthetic ideal of medieval art was the opposite of ancient art, reflecting the Christian understanding of beauty. The idea of ​​the superiority of the spirit over the physical and carnal is represented in the asceticism of the images of monumental painting and sculpture, their severity and detachment from the outside world.

The most important feature of medieval art is symbolism. A sculptural or pictorial image is, first of all, a symbol, a certain religious idea captured in stone or paint. The main genre was icon painting, which is seen as an emotional connection with God, accessible to illiterate people.

The entire figurative structure of medieval art is symbolic (the long, almost sexless bodies of the apostles and saints express the idea of ​​the spiritual principle overcoming sinful matter - the flesh).

The diversity of figures is another feature of medieval art. The size of the figures was determined by the hierarchical significance of what was depicted (which, by the way, made it easy to “recognize” the characters depicted). Christ is always greater than the apostles and angels, who, in turn, are greater than ordinary laymen.

Western Europe during the Early Middle Ages was characterized by the Romanesque style, which became widespread from the end of the 10th century.

The contrast between the heavy, squat outlines of the cathedral and the spiritual expression of its images reflected the Christian formula of beauty - the idea of ​​​​the superiority of the spiritual over the physical. The Romanesque cathedral was a symbol of the stronghold of the human spirit in art. Architecture, paintings, door reliefs necessarily complemented each other, forming a unity based on the subordination of the small to the large, reflecting the principle of the medieval hierarchy. The paintings of the Romanesque church create a special closed world, where the layman became a participant in the depicted scenes. Drama and expressiveness, intense spiritual expressiveness of pictorial images, characteristic of Romanesque painting (scenes of the Last Judgment, the struggle between angels and the devil for human souls - a common subject of temple paintings) had a huge emotional impact, reflecting the idea of ​​​​the sinfulness of the world, the idea of ​​redemption and salvation. The flat, two-dimensional image of paintings and sculptures of the Romanesque style, the generality of forms, the violation of proportions, and the monumental significance of the images symbolized the timeless, eternal in the understanding of the world.

Secular buildings of the Romanesque style are distinguished by their massive forms, narrow window openings, and significant height of the towers, as they served as fortifications. Temple buildings are also characterized by massive features, covering the inside with wall paintings - frescoes, and the outside - with brightly colored reliefs. The main types of Romanesque buildings that have survived to this day are a knight's castle, a church, and a monastery ensemble.

Outstanding monuments of Romanesque architecture include the Notre Dame Cathedral in Poitiers, the cathedrals in Toulouse, Orcinval, Arne (France), the cathedrals in Oxford, Winchester, Norwich (England), and the cathedral in Lund (Sweden). The Romanesque style is widely represented in the decorative arts in the illustration of manuscripts (book miniatures, drawings of capital letters are often “populated” with fantastic characters characteristic of Romanesque architecture).

Romanesque art, at first glance, seems crude and primitive in comparison with contemporary Byzantine art or the Gothic art that follows it. Meanwhile, the creators of the Romanesque style - architects, sculptors, artists - having mastered and developed new construction and artistic crafts, managed to bring to life a grandiose plan - to create structures that symbolize the stronghold of the human spirit in art.

By the end of the 12th century. Romanesque style gives way to Gothic.

It flourished in the XIII-XV centuries. V. This is the period when in medieval culture begins to play an increasingly important role urban culture. In all areas of life in medieval society, the importance of the secular, rational principle increases. The Church is gradually losing its dominant position in the spiritual sphere.

With the development of urban culture, on the one hand, church restrictions in the field of art began to weaken, and on the other hand, trying to make maximum use of the ideological and emotional power of art for its own purposes, the church finally developed its attitude towards art. Medieval scholastics argued that art is an imitation of nature. The scholastics did not deny the emotional power of art, its ability to evoke admiration.

The design of the Gothic cathedral revealed new ideas of the Catholic Church, the increased self-awareness of the urban strata, and new ideas about the world. The dynamic upward thrust of all forms of the cathedral reflected the Christian idea of ​​the aspiration of the soul of the righteous to heaven, where it is promised eternal bliss. Religious subjects retain their dominant position in Gothic art. The images of Gothic sculpture, personifying the dogmas and values ​​of Christianity, the very appearance of the cathedral, and all forms of Gothic art were intended to promote a mystical perception of God and the world. At the same time, there is an awakening of the mind and feelings, and a growing interest in man.

The main feature of a Gothic cathedral is its stable frame system. The entire weight of the cathedral's bulk fell on its frame. This made it possible to make thin walls in which huge windows were cut out. The most characteristic motif of Gothic architecture was the pointed arch, which seemed to stretch the building to the heavens.

The development of sculpture, which played a leading role in fine arts this period. Gothic sculpture is more subordinate to architecture and has a more independent meaning than Romanesque. Numerous niches on the facades of cathedrals housed figures embodying the tenets of the Christian faith. The most significant figures were attached to columns in the openings on the sides of the entrance to the cathedral.

Thus, Gothic art revived sculpture itself, unknown to medieval culture since antiquity. The characteristic features of Gothic sculpture can be summarized as follows: interest in phenomena real world; figures representing the dogmas and beliefs of the Catholic Church become more realistic; the role of secular subjects is increasing; round plastic appears and begins to play a dominant role (although the relief does not disappear).

The most famous monuments of French Gothic are the cathedrals of Amiens and Reims (XIII century), the Church of Saint Chapelle (XIII century). The most famous monument of English Gothic is Westminster Abbey (XIII - XVI centuries).

The Gothic style has changed its appearance medieval city, contributed to the development of secular construction. Town halls are starting to be built in cities open galleries. The castles of aristocrats increasingly resemble palaces. Rich townspeople build houses with peaked gable roofs, narrow windows, lancet doorways, and corner turrets.

During the Gothic era, decorative and applied arts flourished.

Conclusion

This test shows that when managing an organization, it is impossible for managers to use only one established leadership style. They tend to constantly make changes to the existing style, in accordance with surrounding reality. Currently, managers need to pay more attention human relations within the team. Constant changes in modern society force us to always be ready to carry out reforms in the field of organizational management and production. Therefore, it becomes obvious that it is impossible to meet any of the styles we have considered in its extreme manifestation, since not every style may suit the current situation. Thus, not only the efficiency of production in the organization and his authority, but also the moral and psychological atmosphere in the team will depend on the choice of a leader. A sense of stability, job satisfaction, mutual understanding between the manager and subordinates become the main key to successful production.

List of used literature

1. Knorring V.I. General and social management. M, 1997.

2. Marx K. Capital. T.1/ Marx K., Engels F. - Op. - 2nd ed. T.23. - M.: Politizdat, 1975.

3. Vasilyeva Yu.V., Parakhina V.N., Ushvitsky.L.I. Control Theory: Textbook - 2nd ed., additional. - M., 2005.

4. Bazarova T.Yu., Eremina B.L. Personnel management: Textbook - M.: "Unity", 2001.

5. Knorring V.I. Theory, practice and art of management: Textbook. 3rd ed. change, add. - M.: Norma, 2007

6. Kabushkin N.I. Fundamentals of Management: Textbook. allowance. - 4th ed. - M.: New knowledge, 2001.

7. Kuzina R.Z., Bikmukhametova N.Z., Guidelines for conducting seminars, performing tests and organizing independent work in the discipline "Psychology", Educational and methodological manual- 2013

8. Fundamentals of management: Textbook. manual for universities / Edited by A. A. Radugina - M: Center, 1998

9. Shekshnya S.V. Personnel management of a modern organization: Educational and practical manual - M.: ZAO "Business School", 1998.

10. Vershigora E.E. Management: Proc. Benefit. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: Infra-M, 2000.

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CULTURE OF MEDIEVAL WESTERN EUROPE".

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IMPORTANT FEATURES OF MEDIEVAL CULTURE

The medieval era covers more than a thousand years of dominance of feudalism, which replaced the Greco-Roman slave civilization. With the birth of medieval society, new territories and peoples entered history, no longer limited to the Mediterranean and surrounding areas.

The Western European cultural type was formed on the basis of a synthesis of the ancient heritage, Christianity and the spiritual development of Germanic tribes. Christianity played the main role in the formation and development of medieval culture.

The term " middle Ages» was introduced into use by Italian humanists of the Renaissance (XV century). They called the era separating them the Middle Ages. Modern times, from classical antiquity. Since then, the division has become firmly established in historical science. world history into ancient, middle and modern.

The assessment of medieval culture by Italian humanists was generally negative: they considered the Middle Ages to be “dark centuries”, “the dark night of Christianity”, a break in the development of culture, etc. However, while stating the fact of the largely negative role of the church in the Middle Ages, we should not forget that the medieval era laid the foundations of the cultural community of Europe, that then modern European languages ​​arose, new states arose, new lands were discovered, printing was invented and much more. And if in ancient Greece and Rome many outstanding discoveries and brilliant guesses of Greek and Roman scientists were not used (because cheap slave labor made the use of machines and mechanisms unnecessary), then the Middle Ages began with the widespread use of water wheels and windmills.

Medieval culture had a number of distinctive features: it symbolism And allegory(allegory), craving for generality, universalism, anonymity most works of art, etc.

The most important feature of medieval culture is its theocentrism, the dominance of a religious worldview based on Christian theology. The medieval worldview was based on the idea of duality of the world, which, according to theological views, was divided into visible, tangible, perceived by human senses earthly world And heavenly peace, ideal, otherworldly, existing in our imagination. At the same time, the highest, heavenly, “ mountain"the world, and earthly existence (" the world below") was considered only as a reflection of the existence of the heavenly world. From the doctrine of the dualism of the world came symbolism medieval art: only symbols were taken into account, i.e. hidden meaning real objects and phenomena.

Just as the world is divided into two parts, so in a person, from the point of view of Christianity, there are two principles - body and soul. Of course, the soul takes precedence over the body, called the “prison of the soul.” Therefore, in the Middle Ages, pacification of the flesh was considered the highest virtue, and the ideal of man was monks and ascetics who voluntarily renounced worldly goods.

The dominance of the religious worldview in the Middle Ages predetermined the characteristics of medieval art. Almost all of his creations served a religious cult, reproducing images not of the real, but of the other world, using the language of symbols and allegories. Unlike ancient art, medieval art almost did not express the joy of earthly existence, but was conducive to contemplation, deep thinking and prayer. He was not interested in a detailed, concrete image of space or a person: after all, only the “high” world seemed truly real, true. Therefore, the art of the Middle Ages conveyed only the typical, general, and not the individual and unique.

The dominant role of the church in the Middle Ages led to the fact that the most widespread and popular genre of medieval literature (especially in the early Middle Ages) was lives of saints; the most typical example of architecture was Cathedral; the most common genre of painting - icon, and favorite images of sculpture - scripture characters.

The influence of religion and the Christian church was especially strong in the first centuries of the Middle Ages. But as secular trends in culture strengthened, secular genres of literature, theater, urban culture, developing scientific knowledge, etc. gradually emerged from the control of the church.

Historians divide the medieval era into three stages, corresponding to the stages of formation, flourishing and decline of feudalism. So, V-X centuries cover the period early Middle Ages, when a new feudal Europe was born on the ruins of the Western Roman Empire. Massive invasions of various tribes (Celts, Germans, Slavs, Huns, etc.) into Roman territory (this process was called the Great Migration) led to the formation of so-called barbarian kingdoms in Europe: Visigothic - in Spain, Ostrogothic - in Italy, Frankish - in Gaul, etc. During this period, there was a significant economic, political and cultural decline associated with endless wars and the destruction that accompanied them.

Since the end of the 10th century in Western Europe, a period of rapid development begins, affecting a variety of spheres: economic, technological, political, social, religious, artistic, etc. The barbarian kingdoms are being replaced by strong national states - France, England, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Germany - in which medieval culture is experiencing its heyday. The rise of cultural life found expression in the emergence and flourishing of new architectural styles - Romanesque And Gothic, in development secular schools And universities, in the broad intellectual movement and spread of education, in the flowering of literature and medieval scholasticism (school science).

THE BIRTH OF MEDIEVAL CULTURE was the result of the meeting between antiquity and the barbarian world:

1. The most important source of the culture of the early Middle Ages was the ancient heritage, which was assimilated and creatively processed in the 5th-10th centuries. Played a huge role in the development of medieval culture Latin, which has retained its significance as the language of the church, government office-work, international communication, science and scholarship. Interacting with various local dialects (Germans, Celts, etc.), the Latin language soon became different from itself and at the same time became the basis for the development of European national languages. Latin alphabet was also accepted by non-Romanized peoples. Latin was not only the language of learning, but also the only language that was taught. In the Middle Ages, “to be able to read” meant “to be able to read Latin.” On the other hand, a large number of local vernacular dialects and languages ​​continued to exist in the early Middle Ages. The Latin language in the Middle Ages was sacred language, guarantor of the unity of faith. Due to the dominance of Latin in the early Middle Ages, historians often call this era " Latin Middle Ages" Everywhere, the entire Middle Ages passed in the conditions of the coexistence of two languages ​​- local and Latin.

In the process of assimilation cultural heritage played a major role in antiquity rhetoric. In Ancient Rome, it was both part of education and an integral element of the Roman way of life. In the Middle Ages, rhetorical culture retained its importance and significantly influenced the appearance of medieval culture.

The culture of the early Middle Ages was also greatly influenced by roman education system, which survived until the 7th century. The Middle Ages adopted such an important element of it as the system “ seven liberal arts"-septem artes liberates, a compulsory set of school disciplines, which included grammar, dialectics (logic), rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy. But if in the Roman rhetorical school the audience was quite narrow and consisted of selected members of Roman society, then in the early Middle Ages, peasants, townspeople, knights, and clergy began to be accepted into schools. Nevertheless, the old Roman classical education turned out to be unnecessary in the Middle Ages. Therefore, the ancient school was replaced by a new one - monastery, or episcopal school(the latter studied the “seven liberal arts”). In the early Middle Ages, the quality of education was low, because... the content of the items was as close as possible to the needs of the church. So, rhetoric considered as the art of composing sermons, dialectics- how to conduct a conversation, astronomy boiled down to the ability to use a calendar and calculate the dates of Christian holidays. Each school student was supposed to know chants and prayers, the main events of sacred history and several quotes from the Bible. Thus, the education system in the early Middle Ages was quite primitive and had a utilitarian character.

2. Another important source of culture in the Middle Ages was spiritual life of barbarian tribes, their folklore, art, customs, peculiarities of worldview. Although our knowledge of barbarian culture is very meager, we are quite knowledgeable about, for example, folding heroic epic peoples of Western and Northern Europe(Old German, Scandinavian, Anglo-Saxon, Irish). In the popular consciousness lived remnants of pre-Christian mythology and cults, which even penetrated into church art. Folklore, one of the components of medieval culture, which gave rise to both folk poetry and fairy tales, became the basis of the heroic epic.

Artistic creativity of the barbarians represented mainly by objects applied arts. These are richly decorated weapons, religious and ritual utensils, various brooches, buckles, clasps and household items, indicating a highly developed technology for processing metals, leather and other materials. In the works of art of the barbarians, preference was always given ornament.

Ideas about the mighty Germanic and Celtic gods, heroes and their struggle with evil forces gave rise to bizarre ornaments of the so-called “animal” style, in which images of fantastic animals were woven into intricate patterns. The “animal” style was subsequently widely used in applied art and Romanesque architecture. Images of Irish sagas (epics) and Celtic pagan symbols, found even in images of saints, penetrated early medieval Irish and English miniatures. And the construction technology of the barbarian tribes, embodied in wooden architecture, made up the glory of Burgundian and Norman carpenters.

Related information.

The Middle Ages in the history of Western Europe span more than a millennium - from the 5th to the 16th centuries. In this period, the stages of the early (V-IX centuries), mature, or classical (X-XIII centuries) and late (XIV-XVI centuries) Middle Ages are usually distinguished. From the point of view of socio-economic relations, this period corresponds to feudalism.

Until recently, the Middle Ages was often perceived as something dark and gloomy, filled with violence and cruelty. bloody wars and passions. It was associated with a certain savagery and backwardness, stagnation or failure in history, with a complete absence of anything bright and joyful.

Creating an image "Dark Middle Ages" the representatives of this era themselves contributed in many ways, and above all writers, poets, historians, religious thinkers and government officials. In their works, writings and testimonies, they often depicted quite gloomy picture their modern life. Their descriptions lack optimism and joy of being, no satisfaction from life, no desire for improvement existing world, there is no hope for the possibility of achieving happiness, peace and well-being in it.

On the contrary, there is deep pessimism, complaints are constantly heard about life, which brings only disasters and suffering, the motive of fear of it and fatigue prevails, a feeling of defenselessness and deprivation is expressed, a feeling of the approaching end of the world, etc. Hence special attention to the theme of death, which acts as a way to get rid of the unbearable hardships of life. Medieval authors write about a sincere desire to quickly leave this mortal earthly world and go to the other world, where only it is possible to achieve happiness, bliss and peace.

To an even greater extent, poets, writers, philosophers and thinkers contributed to the creation of the image of the “dark Middle Ages” . It was they who declared the Middle Ages a “dark night” in the history of mankind, and the Renaissance that followed it as a “dawn”, a “bright day”, an awakening to life after a thousand years of hibernation.

The Middle Ages for them appeared as completely fruitless, wasted centuries. They also accused the Middle Ages of only destroying and not preserving anything of the great achievements of ancient culture. From here followed the logical conclusion about the complete rejection of the Middle Ages and the revival of Antiquity, about the restoration of the interrupted connection of times.

In fact, everything was much more complicated, not so simple, unambiguous and monochromatic. IN Lately views and assessments of the Middle Ages are becoming more and more adequate and objective, although some authors go to the other extreme, idealizing the Middle Ages.

In the Middle Ages, as in other eras, complex and contradictory processes took place on the European continent, one of the main results of which was the emergence of European states and the entire West in its modern form. Of course, the leader of world history and culture in this era was not the Western world, but semi-eastern Byzantium and eastern China, however, important events also took place in the Western world. As for the relationship between ancient and medieval cultures, in certain areas (science, philosophy, art) the Middle Ages were inferior to Antiquity, but overall it meant undoubted progress.

It turned out to be the most difficult and stormy stage of the early Middle Ages, when the new, Western world was born. Its emergence was due to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire (5th century), which in turn was caused by its deep internal crisis, as well as the Great Migration of Peoples, or the invasion of barbarian tribes - the Goths, Franks, Alemanni, etc. From IV to IX centuries. there was a transition from the “Roman world” to the “Christian world”, with which Western Europe arose.

The Western, “Christian world” was born not as a result of the destruction of the “Roman world”, but in the process of merging the Roman and barbarian worlds, although it was accompanied by serious costs - destruction, violence and cruelty, the loss of many important achievements of ancient culture and civilization. In particular, the previously achieved level of statehood was seriously damaged, since those that arose in the 6th century. barbarian states - the kingdoms of the Visigoths (Spain), the Ostrogoths (northern Italy), the Franks (France), the Anglo-Saxon kingdom (England) - were fragile and therefore short-lived.

The most powerful of them was the Frankish state, founded at the end of the 5th century. King Clovis and transformed under Charlemagne (800) into a huge empire, which, however, by the middle of the 9th century. also broke up. However, at the stage of the mature Middle Ages (X-XI centuries) all the main European states took shape - England, Germany, France, Spain, Italy - in their modern form.

Many were also seriously injured ancient cities: some of them were destroyed, while others died out due to the decline of trade or due to changes in the directions of trade routes. At the early stage of the Middle Ages, the level of development of many crafts dropped noticeably, and the entire economy became agrarian, in which the subsistence type of economy predominated. A certain stagnation was observed in the development of science and philosophy.

At the same time, in some areas of life, already at the early stage of the Middle Ages, there were progressive changes. IN social development The main positive change was the abolition of slavery, which eliminated the unnatural situation in which a huge part of people were legally and actually excluded from the category of people.

If theoretical knowledge successfully developed in Antiquity, the Middle Ages opened up more scope for applications of machines and technical inventions. This was a direct consequence of the abolition of slavery. In Antiquity, the main source of energy was the muscular power of slaves. When this source disappeared, the question arose about searching for other sources. Therefore, already in the 6th century. Water energy begins to be used thanks to the use of a water wheel, and in the 12th century. A windmill using wind energy appears.

Water and windmills made it possible to perform a variety of types of work: grinding grain, sifting flour, raising water for irrigation, felting and beating cloth in water, sawing logs, using a mechanical hammer in a forge, drawing wire, etc. The invention of the steering wheel accelerated the progress of water transport, which in turn led to a revolution in trade. The development of trade was also facilitated by the construction of canals and the use of sluices with gates.

Positive changes occurred in other areas of culture. Most of them were somehow related to , which formed the foundation of the entire way of medieval life and permeated all its aspects. It proclaimed the equality of all people before God, which greatly contributed to the elimination of slavery.

Antiquity strove for the ideal of a person in which soul and body would be in harmony. However, the body was much more fortunate in realizing this ideal, especially if we keep in mind Roman culture. Taking into account the bitter lessons of Roman society, in which a peculiar cult of physical pleasures and pleasures had developed, Christianity gave clear preference to the soul, the spiritual principle in man. It calls a person to self-restraint in everything, to voluntary asceticism, to suppress the sensual, physical attractions of the body.

Proclaiming the unconditional primacy of the spiritual over the physical, placing emphasis on inner world man, Christianity has done a lot to shape the deep spirituality of man and his moral elevation.

Main moral values Christianity are faith, hope and love. They are closely related to each other and transform into one another. However, the main one among them is Love, which means, first of all, a spiritual connection and love for God and which is opposed to physical and carnal love, which is declared sinful and base. At the same time, Christian love extends to all “neighbors,” including those who not only do not reciprocate, but also show hatred and hostility. Christ urges: “Love your enemies, bless those who curse you and persecute you.”

Love for God makes faith in Him natural, easy and simple, not requiring any effort. Faith means a special state of mind that does not require any evidence, arguments or facts. Such faith, in turn, easily and naturally turns into love for God. Hope in Christianity means the idea of ​​salvation, which is central to many religions.

In Christianity, this idea has several meanings: salvation from evil in earthly life in this world, deliverance from the fate of going to hell in the future Last Judgment, stay in paradise in the other world as a fair reward for faith and love. Not everyone will be worthy of salvation, but only the righteous. who strictly follows the commandments of Christ. Among commandments - suppression of pride and greed, which are the main sources of evil, repentance for sins, humility, patience, non-resistance to evil by violence, demands not to kill, not to take someone else’s, not to commit adultery, to honor parents and many other moral norms and laws, the observance of which gives hope for salvation from the torment of hell.

The dominance of religion did not make the culture completely homogeneous. On the contrary, one of the important features of medieval culture is precisely the emergence in it of very specific subcultures, caused by the strict division of society into three classes: the clergy, the feudal aristocracy and the third estate.

Clergy was considered the highest class, it was divided into white - the priesthood - and black - monasticism. He was in charge of “heavenly matters”, caring for faith and spiritual life. It was precisely this, especially monasticism, that most fully embodied Christian ideals and values. However, it was also far from unity, as evidenced by the differences in the understanding of Christianity between the orders that existed in monasticism.

Benedict of Nursia, the founder of the Benedictine Order, opposed the extremes of hermitage, abstinence and asceticism, was quite tolerant of property and wealth, highly valued physical wealth, especially agriculture and gardening, believing that the monastic community should not only fully provide itself with everything necessary, but also help in this entire district, showing an example of active Christian charity. Some communities of this order highly valued education and encouraged not only physical, but also mental work, in particular the development of agronomic and medical knowledge.

On the contrary, Francis of Assisi - the founder of the Franciscan Order, the order of mendicant monks - called for extreme asceticism, preached complete, holy poverty, because the ownership of any property requires its protection, i.e. the use of force, and this contradicts the moral principles of Christianity. He saw the ideal of complete poverty and carelessness in the life of birds.

The second most important layer was aristocracy, which acted mainly in the form of chivalry. The aristocracy was in charge of “earthly matters,” and, above all, state tasks to preserve and strengthen peace, protect the people from oppression, maintain the faith and the Church, etc. Although the culture of this layer is closely related to Christianity, it differs significantly from the culture of the clergy.

Like monastics, in the Middle Ages there were knightly orders. One of the main tasks facing them was the struggle for faith, which more than once took the form of crusades. Knights also carried out other duties, to one degree or another related to faith.

However, a significant part of knightly ideals, norms and values ​​were secular in nature. For a knight, such virtues as strength, courage, generosity and nobility were considered mandatory. He had to strive for glory by performing feats of arms or achieving success in knightly tournaments. He was also required to have external physical beauty, which was at odds with the Christian disdain for the body. The main knightly virtues were honor, fidelity to duty and noble love for To the beautiful lady. Love for a Lady presupposed refined aesthetic forms, but it was not at all platonic, which was also condemned by the Church and the clergy.

The lowest stratum of medieval society was third estate, which included peasants, artisans, and the trading and usurious bourgeoisie. The culture of this class also had a unique originality that sharply distinguished it from the culture of the upper classes. It was in it that the elements of barbaric paganism and idolatry were preserved for the longest time.

Ordinary people were not too scrupulous in observing strict Christian frameworks; quite often they mixed the “divine” with the “human.” They knew how to sincerely and carefreely rejoice and have fun, giving themselves to this with all their soul and body. The common people created a special laughter culture, the originality of which was especially clearly manifested during folk holidays and carnivals, when the seething streams of general fun, jokes and games, bursts of laughter leave no room for anything official, serious and lofty.

Along with religion, other areas of spiritual culture existed and developed in the Middle Ages, including philosophy and science. The highest medieval science was theology, or theology. It was theology that possessed the truth, which rested on Divine Revelation.

Philosophy was declared the handmaiden of theology. But even under these conditions, philosophical thought moved forward. Two trends can be distinguished in its development.

The first sought to bring together as much as possible and even dissolve philosophy in theology. This philosophy is called scholastics, since its main task was not the search and increment of new knowledge, but the “school” development of what had already been accumulated. However, this approach also brought tangible benefits; thanks to it, the heritage of ancient thinkers was preserved, it contributed to the improvement and deepening of logical thinking. At the same time, theology itself became more and more rational: it was not content with simple faith in the dogmas of religion, but sought to logically substantiate and prove them. One of the main representatives of this trend was the Dominican Thomas Aquinas (13th century). who developed the Christian concept of Aristotle's philosophy, formulated five proofs of the existence of God.

The second tendency, on the contrary, sought to take philosophy beyond the scope of theology, to assert the independence and intrinsic value of science in general and natural science in particular. A bright representative This trend was the Franciscan Roger Bacon (XIII century). who made significant contributions to the development of philosophy, mathematics and natural science. We can say that he did the same thing three centuries earlier than his more famous namesake Francis Bacon, who became the founder modern science and philosophy.

Fine artistic culture achieved greater success in the Middle Ages, where architecture was the leading and synthesizing art.

The evolution of medieval art marked by profound changes. IN early Middle Ages The leading position is occupied by the art of the Franks, since the Frankish state occupied almost the entire territory of Europe during this period. Art of the V-VIII centuries. often called Merovingian art, since the Merovingian dynasty was in power at that time.

By its nature, this art was still barbaric, pre-Christian, for elements of paganism and idolatry clearly predominated in it. The greatest development during this period was naturalart, associated with the manufacture of clothing, weapons, horse harness and other products decorated with buckles, pendants, patterns and ornaments. The style of such jewelry is called animalistic, since its peculiarity is that images of strange animals are woven into intricate patterns.

Also becoming widespread miniature - book illustrations. The monasteries had special workshops - “scriptoria”, where books - liturgical books and Gospels - were written and decorated. Books of secular content were rare. The miniatures were primarily ornamental rather than pictorial in nature.

As for architecture, little has survived from the Frankish architects of this time: several small churches on the territory of modern France. In general, among the earliest surviving monuments of barbarian architecture, the tomb of the Ostrogothic king Theodoric (520-530), built in Ravenna, stands out. It is a small two-story round building in which laconicism and simplicity of appearance are combined with severity and majesty.

The art of the early Middle Ages reached its greatest flowering under the Carolingians (8th-9th centuries), who replaced the Merovingian dynasty, and especially under Charlemagne, the legendary hero of the epic poem “The Song of Roland.”

During this period, medieval art actively turned to the ancient heritage, consistently overcoming the barbaric character. That's why this time is sometimes called "Carolingian Revival". Charlemagne played a special role in this process. He created a real cultural and educational center at his court, calling it Academy, surrounded himself with outstanding scientists, philosophers, poets and artists, with whom he mastered and developed science and art. Karl contributed in every possible way to the restoration of strong ties with ancient culture.

A significant number of architectural monuments have been preserved from the Carolingian era. One of them is the wonderful Charlemagne Cathedral in Aachen (800), which is an octagonal structure covered with an octagonal dome.

In this era, book miniatures continue to develop successfully. which is distinguished by decorative pomp and bright colors, generous use of gold and purple. The content of the miniatures remains mainly religious, although at the end of the early Middle Ages narrative subjects are increasingly encountered: hunting, plowing, etc. After the collapse of the Carolingian Empire and the formation of England and France. In Germany and Italy, as independent states, medieval art entered a new era.

Start mature period of the Middle Ages- The 10th century turned out to be extremely difficult and difficult, which was caused by the invasions of the Hungarians, Saracens and especially the Normans. Therefore, the emerging new states experienced a deep crisis and decline. Art was in the same situation. However, by the end of the 10th century. the situation is gradually normalizing, feudal relations are finally winning, and revival and growth are observed in all spheres of life, including art.

In the XI-XII centuries. The role of monasteries, which become the main centers of culture, increases significantly. It is under them that schools, libraries and book workshops are created. Monasteries are the main customers of works of art. Therefore, all the culture and art of these centuries is sometimes called monastic.

In general, the stage of the new rise of art received the conventional name "Romanesque period". It occurs in the 11th-12th centuries, although in Italy and Germany it also extends to the 13th century, and in France in the second half of the 12th century. Gothic already reigns supreme. In this period architecture finally becoming the leading form of art - with a clear predominance of religious, church and temple buildings. It develops on the basis of the achievements of the Carolingians, being influenced by ancient and Byzantine architecture. The main type of building is the increasingly complex basilica.

The essence of the Romanesque style is geometricism, the dominance of vertical and horizontal lines, the simplest figures of geometry in the presence of large planes. Arches are widely used in buildings, and windows and doors are made narrow. The appearance of the building is distinguished by clarity and simplicity, majesty and severity, which are complemented by severity and sometimes gloom. Columns without stable orders are often used, which also perform a decorative rather than constructive function.

The Romanesque style was most widespread in France. Here, the most outstanding monuments of Romanesque architecture include the Church of Cluny (11th century), as well as the Church of Notre-Dame du Port in Clermont-Ferrand (12th century). Both buildings successfully combine simplicity and grace, severity and splendor.

Secular architecture of the Romanesque style is clearly inferior to church architecture. She has too simple shapes, almost no decorative decorations. Here the main type of building is a castle-fortress, which serves both as a home and a defensive shelter for the feudal knight. Most often this is a courtyard with a tower in the center. The appearance of such a structure looks warlike and wary, gloomy and threatening. An example of such a building is the castle of Chateau Gaillard on the Seine (XII century), which has reached us in ruins.

In Italy, a wonderful monument of Romanesque architecture is the cathedral ensemble in Pisa (XII-XIV centuries). It includes a grandiose five-nave basilica with a flat roof, the famous "Falling tower", as well as a baptistery intended for baptisms. All buildings of the ensemble are distinguished by their severity and harmony of forms. Another magnificent monument is the Church of Sant'Ambrogio in Milan, which has a simple yet impressive façade.

IN Germany Romanesque architecture develops under the influence of French and Italian. Its peak flourished in the 12th century. The most remarkable cathedrals were concentrated in the cities of the Middle Rhine: Worms. Mainz and Speyer. Despite all the differences, their appearance has many common features, and above all, the upward direction created by the high towers located on the western and eastern sides. The cathedral in Worms stands out in particular; it looks like a ship: in the center there is the largest tower, in the east it has a protruding semicircle of the apse, and in the western and eastern parts there are four more high towers.

By the beginning of the 13th century. the Romanesque period of medieval culture ends and gives way Gothic period. The term “Gothic” is also conventional. It arose during the Renaissance and expressed a rather contemptuous attitude towards Gothic as the culture and art of the Goths, i.e. barbarians.

In the 13th century the city, and with it the entire culture of the urban burghers, began to play a decisive role in the life of medieval society. Scientific and creative activity is moving from monasteries to secular workshops and universities, which already exist in almost all European countries. By this time, religion begins to gradually lose its dominant position. In all areas of social life, the role of the secular, rational principle is increasing. This process did not pass by art, in which two important features emerged - the increasing role of rationalistic elements and the strengthening of realistic tendencies. These features were most clearly manifested in the architecture of the Gothic style.

Gothic architecture represents an organic unity of two components - design and decor. The essence of the Gothic design is to create a special frame, or skeleton, that ensures the strength and stability of the building. If in Romanesque architecture the stability of a building depends on the massiveness of the walls, then in Gothic architecture it depends on the correct distribution of gravity forces. The Gothic design includes three main elements: 1) a vault on ribs (arches) of a lancet shape; 2) a system of so-called flying buttresses (half-arches); 3) powerful buttresses.

The originality of the external forms of the Gothic structure lies in the use of towers with pointed spiers. As for decoration, it took a variety of forms. Since the walls in Gothic style ceased to be load-bearing, this made it possible to widely use windows and doors with stained glass windows, which allowed free access of light into the room. This circumstance was extremely important for Christianity, because it gives light a divine and mystical meaning. Colored stained glass windows evoke an exciting play of colored light in the interior of Gothic cathedrals.

Along with stained glass windows, Gothic buildings were decorated with sculptures, reliefs, abstract geometric patterns, floral ornament. To this should be added the skillful church utensils of the cathedral, beautiful items of applied art donated by wealthy townspeople. All this turned the Gothic cathedral into a place of genuine synthesis of all types and genres of art.

Became the cradle of Gothic France. Here she was born in the second half of the 12th century. and then for three centuries it developed along the path of increasing lightness and decorativeness. In the 13th century she has reached her true peak. In the XIV century. the increase in decorativeness comes mainly due to the clarity and clarity of the constructive principle, which leads to the appearance of a “radiant” Gothic style. The 15th century gives birth to “flaming” Gothic, so named because some decorative motifs resemble flames.

Notre Dame Cathedral(XII-XIII centuries) became a true masterpiece of early Gothic. It is a five-nave basilica, which is distinguished by a rare proportionality of structural forms. The cathedral has two towers in the western part, decorated with stained glass windows, sculptures on the facades, and columns in the arcades. It also has amazing acoustics. What was achieved in the Cathedral of Notre Dame is developed by the cathedrals of Amiens and Reims (XIII century), as well as the Upper Church of Sainte-Chapelle (XIII century), which served as a church for the French kings and is distinguished by rare perfection of forms.

IN Germany Gothic style became widespread under the influence of France. One of the most famous monuments here is Cathedral in Cologne(XI11-XV. XIX centuries). In general, he develops the concept of Amiens Cathedral. At the same time, thanks to the pointed towers, it most clearly and fully expresses the verticalism and skyward thrust of Gothic structures.

English Gothic also largely continues French models. The recognized masterpieces here are Westminster Abbey(XIII-XVI centuries), where the tomb of English kings and prominent people of England is located: as well as the chapel of King's College in Cambridge (XV-XVI centuries), representing late Gothic.

Late Gothic, like the entire culture of the late Middle Ages, contains an ever-increasing number of features of the next era - the Renaissance. There are disputes about the work of such artists as Jan van Eyck, K. Sluter and others: some authors attribute them to the Middle Ages, others to the Renaissance.

The culture of the Middle Ages - with all the ambiguity of its content - occupies a worthy place in the history of world culture. The Renaissance gave the Middle Ages a very critical and harsh assessment. However, subsequent eras made significant amendments to this assessment. Romanticism of the 18th-19th centuries. drew his inspiration from medieval chivalry, seeing in it truly human ideals and values. Women of all subsequent eras, including ours, experience an inescapable nostalgia for real male knights, for knightly nobility, generosity and courtesy. The modern crisis of spirituality encourages us to turn to the experience of the Middle Ages, to decide again and again eternal problem relationship between spirit and flesh.