Perestroika economic and political reforms briefly. Economic and political reforms of the period of “perestroika”

Economic and political reforms of the perestroika period

Lesson #51. The collapse of socialism in Eastern Europe.

During the lesson:

analyze the prerequisites for the process of collapse of the socialist system in countries of Eastern Europe;

reveal the influence of events in the USSR during the period of “perestroika” on revolutionary events in Eastern European countries;

characterize the process of revolutionary events in Eastern European countries in the late 80s, which resulted in the collapse of communism;

note the features of the forms of struggle against communist regimes during the Eastern European revolutions;

identify the problems that Eastern European states had to face after the collapse of communism;

draw conclusions about modern development Eastern European countries.

Basic concepts:“velvet” revolutions, privatization, price liberalization, integration.

Main dates: 1989-1990 – revolutions in Eastern European countries, collapse

communist regimes.

1992 - the beginning of armed ethnic and religious

conflict in the Balkans.

Personalities: V. Havel, L. Walesa, N. Ceausescu, S. Milosevic.

Describe the main directions of economic transformations in the USSR during the period of “perestroika”. Why did the reforms not lead to an improvement in the economic situation in the country? What consequences did these reforms have?

Prove that at the end of the 80s the process of weakening the power of the CPSU and the collapse of the USSR became irreversible.

Reveal the contradictions in views between M.S. Gorbachev and B.N. Yeltsin on the goals and path of transformation in the country and society.

Why did national problems worsen during the period of “perestroika”?

The events of August 19-21 were subsequently often called a “putsch” - a coup d’etat by the State Emergency Committee. Do you agree with this definition of the nature of these events? Explain your point of view.

How do you assess the collapse of the USSR? What facts indicate the natural outcome of the existence of the USSR?

Lesson #52. Becoming new Russia.

During the lesson:

characterize the plans and implementation of the new Russian government’s course towards radical reform of society;

note possible criteria for assessing the results of “shock therapy” in Russia;

give comparative characteristics radical reform and evolutionary approaches to carrying out transformations in the process of formation of a new Russia;

reveal the essence of the political crisis of power in the fall of 1993, the balance of power in the confrontation between the president and the Supreme Council, the course of events and the results of the struggle for the formation of a new statehood in Russia;

consider the main features of the Russian multi-party system during the elections at the end of 1993.

Basic concepts:“shock therapy”, price liberalization (“price freedom”), voucher privatization, presidential and parliamentary republics, majoritarian election system, proportional system elections, leader-type party, electorate.

economic reforms, “shock therapy”.

October 1993 – armed clash in Moscow during

political crisis.

Personalities: G.A. Yavlinsky, E.T. Gaidar, V.S. Chernomyrdin, G.A. Zyuganov, V.V. Zhirinovsky.

Questions for review conversation:

Describe the reasons for the collapse of communist regimes in Eastern European countries.

What role did “perestroika” in the USSR play in the revolutionary events of Eastern European countries?

In what order did the revolutions take place in Eastern Europe? Why are they called “velvet” revolutions? In which countries and why did the collapse of socialism take on a far from “velvet” character?

Summarize the results and results of the revolutionary process in Eastern European countries.

Lessons No. 53-54. Russian Federation: new frontiers in politics and

economy.

During the lessons:

consider the main provisions of the 1993 Constitution on state structure and the exercise of state power in the Russian Federation;

characterize economic problems in Russia in the second half of the 90s;

analyze changes in social structure Russian society, which occurred as a result of economic and political transformations of the last decade of the 20th century in the country;

analyze, based on comparison, the results of the parliamentary elections of 1993, 1995, 1999. and presidential elections of 1996, 2000;

reveal the problems of federal relations in Russia in the context of the formation of a new statehood, which led to ethnopolitical conflicts and created a real threat to the integrity of the Russian Federation;

characterize the socio-economic and political situation in Russian society that developed at the turn of the 20th – 21st centuries;

determine the main directions of activity of the new president and government to resolve the crisis in the country, noting the first results of the president’s rule in 2000-2002.

Basic concepts and names:“galloping” inflation, Federal Assembly, ethnopolitical conflict, “ethnic war”, marginal groups, “vertical” of power, deficit-free budget, default, veto power, hyperinflation, criminalization of industry and trade, ethnocratic tendencies.

Main dates: 1992 – signing by the republics of the Russian Federation

Federal Treaty.

Federation.

1994 – operation to establish “constitutional

order" by Russian troops in Chechnya.

August 1998 – financial crisis in Russia.

1999 – anti-terrorist operation of Russian troops in

Personalities: A.I. Lebed, S.V. Kirienko, E.M. Primakov, V.V. Putin, M.M. Kasyanov, Yu.M. Luzhkov, B.E. Nemtsov, D. Dudayev, A. Maskhadov.

Questions for review conversation:

Describe the views of radical reform and evolutionary approaches to the formation of a new Russia. Which approach and why was implemented in the early 90s?

What economic reforms were carried out in Russia in 1992? How do you assess the first results of the 1992 reforms? What are the social and economic achievements and costs of the economic course proposed by the reformers in 1992?

Reveal the essence of the political crisis in the fall of 1993, the alignment of opposing forces, the course of events and results.

Describe the Russian multi-party system of the first half of the 1990s. What results of the elections to the State Duma at the end of 1993 do you consider the most important?

3.1. Acceleration strategy and methods for its implementation . The key concept in Gorbachev's reform strategy was acceleration production of means of production, social sphere, scientific and technological progress. The priority task of economic reforms was recognized as the accelerated development of mechanical engineering as the basis for the re-equipment of the national economy. At the same time, the emphasis was on strengthening production and performance discipline (measures to combat drunkenness and alcoholism); control over product quality (Law on State Acceptance).

b) gradual revival of the private sector of the economy (initially through the development of the cooperative movement);

V) abandonment of the foreign trade monopoly;

G) deep integration into the global market;

d) reduction in the number of line ministries and departments between which partnerships were supposed to be established;

e) recognition of equality in rural areas of the five main forms of management (collective farms, state farms, agricultural complexes, rental cooperatives, farms.

Results:

A). The implementation of the reform was characterized by inconsistency and half-heartedness. During the transformation, there was no reform of the credit, pricing policy, centralized system supplies. However, despite this, the reform contributed to the formation of the private sector in the economy. In 1988, the Law on Cooperation and the Law on Individual Labor Activity (ILA) were adopted. The new laws opened up the possibility for private activity in more than 30 types of production of goods and services. By the spring of 1991, more than 7 million people were employed in the cooperative sector and another 1 million in the individual sector labor activity. Downside This process was the legalization of the "shadow economy". Since 1990, a general decline in industrial production began.

B). Reforming agriculture . It was also not possible to achieve serious changes in agricultural policy. No law was adopted on the transfer of land to private ownership and the increase in household plots. In May 1988, only the advisability of switching to a leasehold contract in rural areas was announced (under a land lease agreement for 50 years with the right to dispose of the resulting products). By the summer of 1991, only 2% of the land was cultivated under lease conditions and 3% of the livestock was kept. Since 1988, there has been a general decline in production in agriculture. As a result, the population faced a shortage of food products (standardized distribution was introduced in Moscow).

IN). Program "500 days" . In the summer of 1990 (in the resolution of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR "On the concept of the transition to a regulated economy in the USSR"), instead of acceleration, a course towards a transition to market economy, scheduled for 1991, at the end of the 12th Five-Year Plan (1985-1990). However, in contrast to Gorbachev’s plans for a gradual (over several years) introduction of the market, a plan was developed known as the “500 days” program, aimed at a rapid breakthrough in market relations (supported by the Chairman of the Supreme Council of the RSFSR B.N. Yeltsin). The authors of the next project were economists G. Yavlinsky, academician S. Shatalin and others. During the first half of the term, the following were planned: the transfer of enterprises to forced rent, large-scale privatization and decentralization of the economy, the introduction of anti-monopoly legislation. During the second half, it was assumed that government price controls would be removed, allowing for a decline in basic sectors of the economy, regulated unemployment and inflation in order to sharply restructure the economy. This project was created real basis for an economic union of republics. Under pressure from conservatives M.S. Gorbachev refused to support this program.

Reform of the political system in the USSR during the period of "perestroika" (1985-1990)

"Perestroika" M.S. Gorbachev: plans and results (mid-80s - early 90s of the XX century)

The beginning of perestroika is directly associated with the arrival to the post of General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee M.S. Gorbachev in 1985. By 1985, the baggage of the reformers was little updated in comparison with the ideas of Yu.V. Andropova. The same idea of ​​establishing order and discipline in production prevailed, as a result of which the accumulated shortcomings would be corrected and socialism would be able to begin rapid and progressive movement forward. This movement began to be increasingly called “acceleration,” which was supposed to lead to the main goal of the entire “perestroika” - the renewal of socialism, giving it greater dynamism and the ability to withstand competition with Western countries.

The direction in which economic transformations were moving also turned out to be traditional - it developed in line with the experience of the reform of 1965 - an attempt was made to increase the independence of economic units. Moving from one “cost accounting model” to another, the highest achievement of this line was the lease of a state enterprise by its collective. The experience of implementing the NEP was not forgotten: a means of compensating for low efficiency by poorly stimulating the employee state forms production, cooperation was put forward, relatively safe from an ideological point of view as a social form of production activity, and, at the same time, based on personal material interest. Without producing any significant economic effect, economic reforms still played a very significant role - they contributed to the emergence and development of the idea of ​​​​the possibility of using market methods in the Soviet economic system. In general, carried out in 1985-1991. economic policy demonstrated a clear inability of the political leadership to go beyond traditional ideas and an unwillingness to take consistent and decisive steps. Democratization of Soviet society: Origins. Problems. Solutions. P.85.

But the point is not only, and not even so much, in the abilities of the top leaders of the USSR. In fact, it would be more correct to say that the implementation of economic reforms encountered stiff resistance from the entire political system. By 1987-1988 this became so obvious that the Soviet leadership was forced to announce the beginning of partial changes in this area. However, naturally, this meant a weakening of the position of the state apparatus, the entire layer of the Soviet nomenklatura, which did not want to part with its privileges. Therefore, carrying out reforms required breaking its hidden but stubborn opposition. In an effort to find support, the reformist wing of the leadership decided to rely on the masses. It is these goals that explain the famous policy of “glasnost”, at first very limited, permitted, but then increasingly bold and out of ideological control, which became the basis of actual “freedom of speech” in the country. Perestroika through the eyes of Russians: 20 years later. P.24.

Active support from the masses truly allowed the process of democratization of the political system to begin. The main direction here was to increase the role of the Soviets, which meant the establishment of a clear division of functions between Soviet and party bodies, expressed, first of all, in the refusal of party bodies to perform economic functions. Supreme body Soviet power- The Supreme Council - was supplemented by the Congress of People's Deputies and turned into a permanent body. It was these measures that marked the beginning of the collapse of the political system of the USSR, since it was the party vertical that ensured the real functioning of the political system; Soviet bodies were a purely nominal power, and therefore were not ready to fulfill the powers entrusted to them. Political Science in Questions and Answers / Ed. prof. Yu.G.Volkova. - M.: Vozrozhdenie, 2001, P.145.

Along with the collapse of the old model of power, the country is beginning to gradually form the first elements of a new political system based on a multi-party system. The first socio-political movements developed within the party itself, where both individual oppositionists (like B.N. Yeltsin) and entire groups (say, the “democratic platform”) began to appear. The first political non-party groups began to appear - liberal democratic, social democratic parties, the Interregional Deputy Group at the Congress of People's Deputies. The development of glasnost in the direction of increasing criticism of both specific authorities and the system as a whole caused a noticeable politicization of society and an increase in the popularity of radical movements. On the contrary, the decline in the authority of the CPSU and the increase in anti-communist sentiment in the country are becoming increasingly clear. The polarization of political forces reached its highest development in 1990-1991, when the opposition managed to achieve the abolition of Article 6 of the USSR Constitution, which enshrines special role CPSU in state system USSR, and impressive representation in a number of republican legislative bodies. In turn, the inconsistency and willingness to make concessions to M.S. Gorbachev caused dissatisfaction with him in the communist movement itself, in which the conservative direction was gaining more and more strength. The political demarcation left less and less opportunity for the leadership to pursue a balanced policy; it was necessary to constantly maneuver between the right and the left, ultimately satisfying neither one nor the other. Sogrin V.V. 1985-1995: realities and utopias of the new Russia. pp. 4-5.

Growing political instability had a very negative impact on the socio-economic situation in the country. The actual cessation of economic reforms sharply aggravated the situation in national economy, which was less and less able to satisfy the daily needs of the population. All this intensified the crisis of confidence in the authorities. Strikes became a frequent form of manifestation of discontent, during which not only economic but also political demands were put forward. Mining groups showed particular activity in this regard. By the end of 1990, the political crisis, merging with the socio-economic and ideological, put on the agenda the question of choosing a future path.

This was facilitated by the weakening positions Soviet Union in the foreign policy arena. First of all, the crisis in the USSR led to the departure of the “socialist countries” of Eastern Europe from it. The abandonment of the “doctrine of limited sovereignty” reduced the possibility of control over them, which led to the defeat of those forces that advocated maintaining ties with the USSR. In turn, the collapse of the “eastern bloc” sharply increased the orientation of the states that left it towards Western countries, even to the point of striving to join NATO. On the other hand, the line of gradual demilitarization pursued in the country, although it improved the image of the USSR (and especially its leader) in the eyes of the Western public, also had the consequence that, having weakened fears about the “military threat” from the Soviet Union, it weakened opportunities to influence the international situation in the world. In addition, the desire to improve the internal economic situation in the country by obtaining loans from the West led to the need to make serious, sometimes unjustified, concessions in foreign policy, which also undermined the prestige of management in the eyes of the public. History of Russia in modern times. 1945-1999. P.375.

Thus, by the beginning of the 90s. It became obvious that it was impossible to reform the USSR within the framework of the planned moderate variant of transformation. The leadership, having initiated the changes, soon turned out to be unable to cope with the forces that they had awakened; they showed a clear inability to respond to public demands in a timely manner, were late with the overdue transformations, remaining in the circle of ideas that did not in any way correspond to widespread social expectations.

Changes in the field of economic life, the need for reform, together with the worsening situation of the people, gave rise to a wave of criticism. Over-centralized social political structure ideas of democratization were opposed. Democratization affected ideology, culture and politics. The search for alternative solutions in the development process led to criticism of the existing party-state foundations and past history. The atmosphere of openness made it possible to learn about tragic pages past, about corruption and bribery in the upper echelons of power. For the first time, the public learned that 2,080 thousand crimes were committed in 1985, and 2,787 thousand in 1990, while 1,269 thousand were convicted in 1985, and 820 thousand in 1990. The number of convicts turned out to be comparable to the period of the 30s, that is, the years of political repression.

By 1988, the aggravation of internal ideological struggle. The press put forward irreconcilable political positions from official conservative to anti-Sovietism and nationalism. Anti-communism became widespread. Ideological vacillations also gripped the political leadership. People's attitudes towards religion and Western spiritual values ​​changed.

In the face of sharp criticism of the deformations of socialism, a split occurs in the political leadership. M.S. Gorbachev, A.N. Yakovlev and some others came to the conclusion that it was necessary to abandon the leading role of the Communist Party and to abolish the constitutional guarantees of this role. In June 1988, this provision was made in the report of M.S. Gorbachev at the 19th Party Conference. For the first time in the history of the party, a report was made without preliminary discussion in the Central Committee, but the conference approved the provisions of the report. This event became a milestone. The ruling party's refusal to lead, retaining only its ideological and educational function, meant a transition to a radical change in the political system.

The conference proclaimed the task of building a legal democratic state. The main directions of political reform were identified:

• - abandonment of the party monopoly and transition to a multi-party system;
• - formation of Soviets on an alternative democratic basis and assertion of their sovereignty;
• - democratization of government bodies;
• - expansion of publicity and pluralism in the ideological sphere;
• - restructuring of national relations on a democratic basis.

The provisions of the conference were not unanimously accepted within the party itself. In January 1989, at the Plenum of the Central Committee, the third part of the Central Committee was dismissed, not agreeing with the decisions of the conference. Leaving the party ranks has increased significantly. If in 1989 140 thousand people left the ranks of the CPSU, then in 1990 - 2.7 million people. Left the CPSU most of composition of the Communist Parties of Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia, organizing independent parties of social democratic orientation. The Communist Parties of Georgia, Armenia, and Moldova virtually ceased to exist. Last XXVIII The CPSU Congress (1990) showed the inability of the party to have a decisive influence on the life of the country.

After the 19th Party Conference, laws were adopted that played a decisive role in reforming the political system. These include the law “On Amendments and Additions to the Constitution of the USSR,” which eliminated Article 6 on the leading role of the CPSU, as well as the law “On the Election of People’s Deputies,” which approved the election of Soviet deputies on an alternative basis. The highest bodies of state power were subject to change. The supreme representative body of power became the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR, which elected the bicameral Supreme Council, which operates permanently. The post of Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR was introduced. A Constitutional Oversight Committee was created.

In March 1989, the first alternative elections in the history of Soviet power took place. At the First and Second Congresses of People's Deputies, deputy factions were formed. The III Congress (March 1990) for the first time in the history of the country introduced the post of President of the USSR as the head of the executive branch, and M.S. Gorbachev was elected. The introduction of presidential rule was a measure to strengthen the weakening political system.

The repeal of Article 6 of the USSR Constitution contributed to the intensification of the activities of new political parties. The Democratic Union declared itself the first opposition party to the CPSU in May 1988. Since April 1988, Popular Fronts have emerged, the first national organizations of a mass nature: “Popular Front of Estonia”, “Popular Front of Latvia”, “Sąjūdis” (Latvia). Later, similar organizations arose in all union and autonomous republics. 1989 was the year of the emergence of many parties. The newly formed parties reflected all the leading trends political life. The ultra-liberal direction was represented by the "Democratic Union", advocating a change in the model social development. This wing also includes: “Russian Christian Democratic Movement”, “Christian Democratic Union of Russia”, “Christian Democratic Party of Russia”, etc. The first representatives of the liberal trend were “ Democratic Party Soviet Union", "Democratic Party", "Liberal Democratic Party" and three constitutional democratic parties. In May 1990, the largest party of the liberal camp, the "Democratic Party of Russia", took shape, and in November - the "Republican Party of the Russian Federation". In October 1990, on the basis of the “Democratic Russia” voter movement (created during the elections of people's deputies of the USSR in the spring of 1989), a mass socio-political organization of the same name took shape, uniting parties, public organizations and movements of a liberal orientation.

The social democratic direction was represented by two main organizations: the Social Democratic Association and the Social Democratic Party of Russia. In June 1990, the Socialist Party was founded. The anarchist trend was reflected in the activities of the Conference of Anarcho-Syndicalists and the Anarcho-Communist Revolutionary Union.

Many of these parties were small in number and did not have a strong organizational structure and social base and subsequently disbanded.

Political pluralism also affected the largest political force, the CPSU. In 1990 - early In 1991, five directions were identified in it: social democratic, “Democratic movement of communists”, centrist, “Marxist platform in the CPSU”, traditionalist. Each of them proposed its own version of reforms. On the basis of the CPSU, parties of a socialist orientation (People's Party of Free Russia, Socialist Party of Workers), and pro-communist orientation (All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, Russian Communist Workers' Party) were created.

In the fall of 1991, religious and political organizations emerged: the Russian Christian Democratic Movement, the Islamic Revival. With all the diversity of parties and movements, two directions, communist and liberal, turned out to be at the center of the political struggle. Liberals (democrats) advocated radical reforms, and communists advocated the preservation of the old system.

New political parties and movements that emerged in the country were a reaction to the deepening economic crisis and the search for a way out of the current situation. Their emergence showed that the previous one-party political system had collapsed, the levers of power that had been established for decades ceased to function, and society entered into a deep political crisis. Three trends in socio-political development have clearly emerged:

• · reformist-democratic. Represented by democratic parties, this trend reflected the desire for a Western European-style society with its democratic institutions and freedoms and a market-capitalist economy.
• · national-patriotic. This tendency manifested itself in a multinational country and was expressed in the formation of nationalist parties and movements, including Russian ones. This was facilitated by religious, regional and cultural-national differences between the peoples of the USSR, which became contradictions in the conditions of the economic and political crisis.
• · traditional-communist. The socialist way of life formed over decades with many elements of communist distribution, the preservation of the remnants of the almost 20 million Communist Party and the 1.5 million party apparatus contributed to the manifestation of this trend.

Thus, the five-year plan of “perestroika” led to profound changes in the political superstructure on the basis of a multi-party system, pluralism and inevitably caused a sharp political struggle.

Anti-alcohol reform

The initial stage of the activity of the new leadership of the country, headed by M. S. Gorbachev, is characterized by an attempt to modernize socialism, to abandon not the system, but its most absurd and cruel aspects. The talk was about accelerating the country's socio-economic development. At this time, the concept of restructuring the economic mechanism was put forward, which was to expand the rights of enterprises, their independence, introduce cost accounting, and increase the interest of labor collectives in the final result of their work. In order to improve the quality of products, state acceptance was introduced. Elections of enterprise leaders began to be held.

The initial idea of ​​the reform was very positive - to reduce the amount of alcohol consumed per capita in the country, to begin the fight against drunkenness. But as a result of too radical actions anti-alcohol campaign Gorbachev and the subsequent abandonment of the state monopoly led to the fact that most of the income went into the shadow sector.

In the 90s, a lot of start-up capital was amassed by private owners using “drunk” money. The treasury was rapidly emptying. The most valuable vineyards were cut down, resulting in the disappearance of entire sectors of industry in some republics of the USSR, for example in Georgia. The growth of drug addiction, substance abuse and moonshine, as well as multi-billion dollar budget losses.

Personnel reforms in the government

In October 1985, N.I. Ryzhkov was appointed Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR. In December 1985, B. N. Yeltsin became secretary of the Moscow city party committee. E. A. Shevardnadze became Minister of Foreign Affairs instead of Gromyko. A. N. Yakovlev and A. I. Lukyanov were promoted to the highest party hierarchy. In fact, 90% of the old Brezhnev apparatus was replaced by new personnel. Almost the entire composition of the Presidium of the Council of Ministers of the USSR was replaced.

Public and social reforms

At this time, the general democratization of life in the country began. Political persecution stopped. The pressure of censorship has weakened. Such prominent people as Sakharov, Marchenko, etc. returned from prisons and exile. The policy of glasnost, launched by the new Soviet leadership, dramatically changed the spiritual life of people. Interest in print media, radio, and television has increased. In 1986 alone, newspapers and magazines acquired more than 14 million new readers. The policy of glasnost paved the way for genuine freedom of speech, press, and thought, which became possible only after the collapse of the communist regime.

Soviet society was swept by the process of democratization. In the ideological sphere, Gorbachev put forward the slogan of glasnost. This meant that no events of the past or present should be hidden from the people. Glasnost is the key word of perestroika; it allowed the dumb masses to say whatever they wanted, to criticize anyone, including and especially Gorbachev himself - the man who gave them freedom.

Reforms in foreign policy

During a meeting between M. S. Gorbachev and US President Ronald Reagan in November 1985, the parties recognized the need to improve Soviet-American relations and improve the international situation as a whole. START 1 and 2 treaties were concluded. With a statement of January 15, 1986, M. S. Gorbachev put forward a number of major foreign policy initiatives:

Complete elimination of nuclear and chemical weapons by 2000.

Strict storage controls nuclear weapons and its destruction at the liquidation sites.

The USSR abandoned the confrontation with the West and proposed ending “ cold war" In 1990, Gorbachev received the Nobel Peace Prize for his contribution to easing international tension. During his visit to India, the Delhi Declaration on Principles of a Nuclear-Free and Non-Violent World was signed.

Reforms of the political system of the USSR

The struggle for political reform and methods for its implementation unfolded at the 19th All-Union Party Conference in the summer of 1988. By this time, opponents of perestroika had become more active. Back in March 1988, in the newspaper of the CPSU Central Committee “ Soviet Russia» article by Nina Andreeva, a teacher at one of the Leningrad universities, “I Can’t Give Up Principles,” directed against democratic reforms, calling back to

Lenin and Stalin. At the congress there were also attempts by conservatives to change the opinion of the majority of delegates in their favor, but they came to nothing. December 1 The Supreme Council The USSR adopted 2 laws “On Amendments and Additions to the Constitution of the USSR” and “On the Election of People’s Deputies of the USSR”. According to the first of them supreme body power becomes

Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR, consisting of 2,250 deputies. The meeting was to be held once a year. It elected the Supreme Council of the USSR. The second law determined the procedure for electing people's deputies of the USSR. The new laws had many shortcomings, but were a significant step forward towards liberation from totalitarianism and the one-party system. On March 26, 1989, elections of people's deputies of the USSR were held. In May - June 1989, the 1st Congress of People's Deputies began its work. It included the Interregional Deputy Group (Sakharov, Sobchak, Afanasyev, Popov, Starovoitova), the “Union” Deputy Group (Blokhin, Kogan, Petrushenko, Alksnis), the “Life” Deputy Group and others.

The final stage in the sphere of reforms of the political system can be called the Third Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR, at which Gorbachev was elected President of the USSR, and some amendments were made to the Constitution.

Economic reform

By mid-1990 The Soviet leadership decided to introduce private ownership of the means of production. The dismantling of the foundations of socialism began. The President was proposed several economic programs for the transition to a market economy. The most famous of them was the program called “500 days”, created under the leadership of the young scientist G. Yavlinsky. The USSR government also proposed its own program. The programs differed mainly in their degree of radicalization and determination. 500 days were aimed at a quick and decisive transition to the market, the bold introduction of various forms of ownership. The government program, without denying the need for a transition to market relations, sought to extend this process for for a long time, leave a significant public sector in the economy, pervasive control over it by central bureaucratic bodies.

The President gave preference to the government program. Its implementation began in January 1991 with the exchange of 50 and 100 ruble bills in order to withdraw money acquired illegally from the point of view of the authorities, as well as to reduce the pressure of the money supply on the consumer market. The exchange took place in a short time. There were huge, hours-long queues at the savings banks. People had to prove the legitimacy of their savings. Instead of the planned 20 billion rubles, the government received only 10 billion rubles from this operation. On April 2, 1991, prices for food products, transport, public utilities. There was a decline in the living standards of the population. According to the UN, by mid-1991 the USSR ranked 82nd in the world in this indicator. The official decision of the Soviet leadership to transition to a market economy allowed the most enterprising and energetic people to create the country's first legal private enterprises, trade and commodity exchanges.

A layer of entrepreneurs appeared in the country and began to realize their potential, although existing laws did not allow them to expand their activities in the production of goods. The bulk of private capital found its application in the sphere of trade and money circulation. The process of privatization of enterprises was extremely slow. On top of everything, there was the emergence of unemployment, crime, and racketeering. By the end of 1991, the USSR economy found itself in a catastrophic situation. The decline in production accelerated. National income decreased by 20% compared to 1990. The state budget deficit, i.e. the excess of government expenditures over revenues, was, according to different estimates, from 20% to 30% of gross domestic product (GDP). The increase in the money supply in the country threatened the loss of state control over financial system and hyperinflation, that is, inflation of over 50% per month, which could paralyze the entire economy. Economic failures increasingly undermined the position of communist reformers led by Gorbachev.

We can conclude that as a result of his reforms, the world has changed dramatically and will never be the same again. It is impossible to do this without courage and political will. Mikhail Gorbachev can be viewed in different ways, but there is no doubt that he is one of the largest figures in history.