Sculptural creations of Scopas and Praxiteles. Late classics: works of Skopas Skopas and his sculptures

The statue was acquired by the Dresden Museum in 1902; the famous antiquarian Georg Trey recognized it as a smaller Roman copy of the famous dancing bacchante of Scopas. Skopas - master of pathos, strong passions. He presented a bacchante, a participant in orgiastic acts in honor of the god of death and rebirth Dionysus, in impetuous, violent movement. In her right hand she probably held a knife with which she had slaughtered a kid. By torturing an animal and eating its raw flesh, participants in the Dionysian mysteries became familiar with the flesh of God himself, one of whose incarnations in antiquity was a goat. One ancient epigram was dedicated to the statue:

The Parian stone is a bacchante,
But the sculptor gave the stone a soul,
And, like a drunken woman, jumping up,
She started dancing...

Maenads (ancient Greek Μαινάδες “mad”, “furious”) - in ancient Greek mythology, companions and admirers of Dionysus. By his name, the Romans called Bacchus, they were called Bacchae, also Bassarides - after one of the epithets of Dionysus - “Bassarae” (see also Bassara), fiads, mimallons (see below).

The maenads tore the legendary Orpheus to pieces.

The word maenad is mentioned in Homer's Iliad (XXII 460) as a simile to describe the behavior of Andromache. Aeschylus calls Io “Maenad of Hera.”

They numbered about three hundred. According to the interpretation, the bacchantes in the army of Dionysus have spears disguised as thyrsi.

Skopas can rightfully be called one of the greatest sculptors Ancient Greece. The direction he created in ancient plastic arts outlived the artist for a long time and had a huge influence not only on his contemporaries, but also on the masters of subsequent generations.

It is known that Skopas was from the island of Paros in the Aegean Sea, an island famous for its remarkable marble, and worked between 370-330 BC. His father, Aristandros, was a sculptor, in whose workshop, apparently, Skopas’ talent was formed.

The artist fulfilled orders from different cities. There were two works by Skopas in Attica. One, depicting the avenging goddesses Erinyes, was in Athens, the other, Apollo-Phoebus, in the city of Ramnunt. Two works by Skopas decorated the city of Thebes in Boeotia.

One of the most emotionally intense works of Skopas is a group of three figures depicting Eros, Pothos and Himeros, that is, love, passion and desire. The group was in the temple of the goddess of love Aphrodite in Megaris, a state lying south of Boeotia. The images of Eros, Himeros and Pothos, according to Pausanias, are as different from one another as the feelings they personify actually differ. “The compositional construction of the statue of Pothos is much more complex than in Skopas’s earlier works,” writes A. G. Chubova. “The rhythm of smooth soft movement passes through arms outstretched to one side, a raised head, and a strongly inclined body. Skopas does not resort to conveying the emotion of passion here to strong facial expressions. The face of Pothos is thoughtful and concentrated, the melancholy languid gaze is directed upward. Everything around him seems to not exist for the young man. Like all Greek sculpture, the statue of Pothos was painted, and color played an important role in the overall artistic design. from the young man's left hand, was bright blue

or red, which well emphasized the whiteness of the naked body, left in the color of marble. A white bird with lightly tinted wings stood out clearly against the background of the cloak. gray. Pothos's hair, eyebrows, eyes, cheeks and lips were also painted. Probably the statue of Pothos, like the statue of Himeros, stood on a low pedestal, and the statue of Eros on a higher one. This explains the rotation of Pothos's figure and the direction of his gaze. The task posed by Skopas in this work was new and original for the plastic arts of that time. Having embodied the nuances of great human feelings in the statues of Eros, Pothos and Himeros, he revealed to plastic art the possibilities of conveying other diverse emotions."

Working in the temple of the Peloponnesian city of Tegea, Skopas became famous not only as a sculptor, but also as an architect. Ancient temple in Tegea burned down in 395 BC. Pausanias says that “the current temple in its majesty and beauty surpasses all the temples there are in the Peloponnese... Its architect was the Parian Scopas, the same one who built many statues in ancient Hellas, Ionia and Caria.” On the eastern pediment of the temple of Athena Aleia in Tegea, the master presented the hunt for the Calydonian boar. “On the western pediment a scene from a myth was shown,” writes G.I. Sokolov, “also far from the participation of the supreme Olympic deities popular in the 5th century, but with a complex collision and dramatic outcome. The son of Hercules Telephus, who went to war with Troy, the Greeks they did not recognize, and the battle began, which ended in the death of many of its participants. Not only the subjects chosen for these pediments are tragic, but also the images themselves. The master shows the head of one of the wounded slightly thrown back, as if in excruciating pain. the nose conveys excitement and colossal tension of feelings. The inner corners of the eye sockets, deeply cut into the thickness of the marble, enhance the contrasts of light and shade and create powerful dramatic effects. The relief of the face with swollen muscles of the brow arches, swollen corners of the mouth, uneven, lumpy, distorted by hidden suffering." The most significant of Skopas’s creations in round plastic can be considered the statue of a Bacchae (Maenad) with a kid.

Only an excellent copy of the statue has survived, kept in the Dresden Museum. But the 4th century writer Callistratus left detailed description statues: " Scopas created a statue of the Bacchae from Parian marble, she could seem alive... You could see how this stone, hard by nature, imitating feminine tenderness, itself became as if light and conveys to us female image...Deprived by nature of the ability to move, he learned under the artist’s hands what it means to rush around in a Bacchic dance... The insane ecstasy was so clearly expressed on the Bacchante’s face, although the manifestation of ecstasy is not characteristic of stone; and everything that engulfs a soul wounded by the sting of madness, all these signs of severe mental suffering were clearly presented here by the creative gift of the artist in a mysterious combination. The hair seemed to be given over to the will of Zephyr, so that he could play with it, and the stone itself seemed to turn into the smallest strands of lush hair... The same material served the artist to depict life and death; He presented the Bacchante to us alive when she strives for Kiferon, and this goat is already dead... Thus, Skopas, creating images of even these creatures devoid of life, was an artist full of truthfulness; in bodies he was able to express a miracle emotional feelings..."

Famous creations Scopas was also located in Asia Minor, where he worked in the fifties of the 4th century BC, in particular, he decorated the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus.

And most importantly, together with other sculptors, Skopas participated in the design of the Halicarnassus Mausoleum, completed in 352 and decorated with truly oriental splendor. There were statues of gods, Mausolus, his wife, ancestors, statues of horsemen, lions and three relief friezes. One of the friezes depicted a chariot race, another depicted a fight between the Greeks and centaurs (fantastic half-humans, half-horses), and the third depicted an Amazonomachy, that is, a battle between the Greeks and the Amazons. From the first two reliefs only small fragments have survived, from the third - seventeen slabs. It is believed that Skopas was the author of the Amazonomachy. Indeed, only a brilliant sculptor could create such an emotionally rich, dynamic multi-figure composition. The frieze with Amazonomachy, having a total height of 0.9 meters, with figures equal to about a third of human height, surrounded the entire structure, and if we cannot say with accuracy in which part it was placed, then it is still possible to determine its length, approximately equal to 150-160 meters. It probably contained more than 400 figures.

is in full swing, and it is difficult to say who will be the winner. The action unfolds at a rapid pace. The Amazons and Greeks on foot and on horseback attack fiercely and defend themselves bravely. The faces of the combatants are captured by the pathos of battle. A feature of the compositional structure of the frieze was the free placement of figures on a background that was once painted bright blue.

Comparison of surviving slabs shows the general artistic design, general compositional structure frieze. It is very possible that the composition belongs to one artist, but it is unlikely that the author himself composed all the individual figures and groups. He could outline the general arrangement of the figures, give their dimensions, conceive the general nature of the action and leave it to other masters to finish the relief in detail. On the slabs of this best-preserved frieze, the “handwriting” of the four masters can be clearly distinguished. Outstanding artistic merit three slabs with ten figures of Greeks and Amazons, found on the eastern side of the ruins, are distinguished; they are attributed to Skopas.

On the slabs, considered the work of Leochares and Timofey, the swiftness of movement is emphasized not only by the poses of the fighters, but also enhanced by the flowing cloaks and chitons. Skopas, on the contrary, depicts the Amazons only in short, close-fitting clothes, and the Greeks completely naked, and achieves an expression of strength and speed of movement mainly through bold and complex turns of figures and expression of gestures. One of Skopas’ favorite compositional techniques was the technique of collision of oppositely directed movements. Thus, a young warrior, having fallen to his knee, maintains his balance by touching the ground with his right hand and dodging the Amazon’s blow, defends himself by stretching forward left hand with a shield. The Amazon lunged away from the warrior and at the same time swung her ax at him. The Amazon chiton fits tightly to the body, outlining the shape well; fold lines emphasize the movement of the figure. The location of the Amazon figure on the next slab is even more complicated. The young warrior, retreating from the rapidly attacking bearded Greek, still manages to strike him with an energetic blow. The sculptor was well able to convey the dexterous movements of the Amazon, quickly dodging an attack and immediately going on the attack. The pose and proportions of the figure, the clothing, which opened so that half of the Amazon's body was exposed - everything closely resembles the famous statue of the Bacchae.

Skopas especially boldly used the technique of contrasting movements in the figure of the equestrian Amazon. A skilled horsewoman let her well-trained horse gallop, turned her back to his head and fired at her enemies with a bow. Her short chiton fell open, revealing strong muscles. In Skopas's compositions, the impression of the tension of the struggle, the fast pace of the battle, the lightning speed of blows and attacks is achieved not only by the different rhythm of movement, the free placement of figures on the plane, but also by plastic modeling and masterful execution of clothing. Each figure in Skopas's composition is clearly “readable”. Despite the low relief, the depth of space is felt everywhere. Skopas probably also worked on the chariot race scene. A fragment of a frieze with the figure of a charioteer has survived. Expressive face, smooth body curve, close to the back and hips

long clothes - everything is reminiscent of Skopasovsky Amazons. The interpretation of eyes and lips is close to Tegeis heads.

The bright personality of Skopas, his innovative techniques in revealing inner world man, in conveying strong dramatic experiences could not but influence everyone who worked next to him.

Scopas had a particularly strong influence on the young masters Leochares and Briaxis. According to Pliny, it was the sculptors Scopas, Timothy, Briaxis and Leochares who made this structure so remarkable with their works that it was included in the Seven Wonders of the World. “Fluent in various sculpture techniques, Skopas worked in both marble and bronze,” writes A.G. Chubova. “His knowledge plastic anatomy it was perfect. Image of the most complex provisions the human figure presented no difficulty to him. Skopas' imagination was extremely rich; he created a whole gallery

vividly characterized images. His realistic works imbued with high humanism. Capturing various aspects of deep experiences, depicting sadness, suffering, passion, bacchanalian ecstasy, warlike ardor, Skopas never interpreted these feelings naturalistically. He poeticized them, making the viewer admire spiritual beauty and the strength of its heroes."

(c. 395 BC - 350 BC)

Skopas can rightfully be called one of the greatest sculptors of Ancient Greece. The direction he created in ancient plastic arts outlived the artist for a long time and had a huge influence not only on his contemporaries, but also on the masters of subsequent generations.

It is known that Skopas was from the island of Paros in the Aegean Sea, an island famous for its remarkable marble, and was active between 370–330 BC. His father, Aristandros, was a sculptor, in whose workshop, apparently, Skopas’ talent was formed.

One of the most emotionally intense works of Skopas is a group of three figures depicting Eros, Potos and Himeros, that is, love, passion and desire. The group was in the temple of the goddess of love Aphrodite in Megaris, a state lying south of Boeotia.

The images of Eros, Himeros and Pothos, according to Pausanias, are as different from one another as the feelings they personify actually differ.

“The compositional construction of the statue of Pothos is much more complex than in earlier works by Skopas,” writes A. G. Chubova. - The rhythm of smooth, soft movement passes through arms extended to one side, a raised head, and a strongly tilted body. To convey the emotion of passion, Skopas does not resort to strong facial expressions here. Pothos's face is thoughtful and concentrated, his melancholic, languid gaze is directed upward. Everything around him seems to not exist for the young man. Like all Greek sculpture, the statue of Pothos was painted, and color played an important role in the overall artistic design. The cloak hanging from the young man's left arm was bright blue or red, which well emphasized the whiteness of the naked body, left in the color of marble. A white bird with wings lightly tinted gray stood out clearly against the background of the cloak. Pothos's hair, eyebrows, eyes, cheeks and lips were also painted.

Probably the statue of Pothos, like the statue of Himeros, stood on a low pedestal, and the statue of Eros on a higher one. This explains the rotation of Pothos's figure and the direction of his gaze. The task posed by Skopas in this work was new and original for the plastic arts of that time. Having embodied the nuances of great human feelings in the statues of Eros, Pothos and Himeros, he revealed to plastic art the possibilities of conveying other diverse emotions.”

Working in the temple of the Peloponnesian city of Tegea, Skopas became famous not only as a sculptor, but also as an architect and builder.

The ancient temple at Tegea burned down in 395 BC. Pausanias says that “the current temple in its majesty and beauty surpasses all the temples there are in the Peloponnese... Its architect was the Parian Scopas, the same one who built many statues in ancient Hellas, Ionia and Caria.”

On the eastern pediment of the Temple of Athena Alea in Tegea, the master presented the hunt for the Calydonian boar.

“On the western pediment a scene from a myth was shown,” writes G.I. Sokolov, “also far from the participation of the supreme Olympic deities popular in the 5th century, but with a complex collision and dramatic outcome. The Greeks did not recognize the son of Hercules Telephus, who went to war with Troy, and a battle began that ended in the death of many of its participants. Not only the subjects chosen for these pediments are tragic, but also the images themselves.

The master shows the head of one of the wounded slightly thrown back, as if in excruciating pain. The sharply curved lines of the eyebrows, mouth, and nose convey excitement and colossal tension of feelings. The inner corners of the eye sockets, deeply cut into the thickness of the marble, enhance the contrasts of light and shade and create powerful dramatic effects. The relief of the face with swollen muscles of the brow ridges, swollen corners of the mouth, uneven, bumpy, distorted by hidden suffering.”

The most significant of Skopas’s creations in round plastic can be considered the statue of a Bacchante (Maenad) with a kid.

Only an excellent copy of the statue has survived, kept in the Dresden Museum. But the 4th century writer Callistratus left a detailed description of the statue:

“Scopas created a statue of the Bacchae from Parian marble, it could seem alive... You could see how this stone, hard by nature, imitating feminine tenderness, itself became as if light and conveys to us a female image... Deprived by nature of the ability to move, it under the artist’s hands I learned what it means to rush around in a Bacchic dance... The mad ecstasy was so clearly expressed on the Bacchante’s face, although the manifestation of ecstasy is not characteristic of stone; and everything that covers the soul, stung by the sting of madness, all these signs of severe mental suffering were clearly presented here by the creative gift of the artist in a mysterious combination. The hair seemed to be given over to the will of Zephyr, so that he could play with it, and the stone seemed to itself turn into the smallest strands of lush hair...

The same material served the artist to depict life and death; He presented the Bacchante alive before us, when she strives for Kiferon, and this goat is already dead...

Thus, Skopas, creating images of even these lifeless creatures, was an artist full of truthfulness; in bodies he was able to express the miracle of spiritual feelings..."

Many poets wrote poems about this work. Here is one of them:

Parian bacchanal stone,

But the sculptor gave the stone a soul.

And, drunk as she was, she jumped up and started dancing.

Having created this fiad in a frenzy with a killed goat

With an idolizing chisel, you performed a miracle, Skopas.

The famous creations of Skopas were also located in Asia Minor, where he worked in the fifties of the 4th century BC, in particular, he decorated the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus.

The frieze with Amazonomachy, having a total height of 0.9 meters, with figures equal to about a third of human height, surrounded the entire structure, and if we cannot say with accuracy in which part it was placed, then it is still possible to determine its length, approximately equal to 150–160 meters. It probably contained more than 400 figures.

The legend of the Amazons - a mythical tribe of female warriors - was one of the favorite themes of Greek art. According to legend, they lived in Asia Minor on the Thermodon River and, undertaking long military campaigns, even reached Athens. They entered into battles with many Greek heroes and were distinguished by their courage and dexterity. One of these battles is depicted on the Halicarnassian frieze. The battle is in full swing and it is difficult to say who will be the winner. The action unfolds at a rapid pace. The Amazons and Greeks on foot and on horseback attack fiercely and defend themselves bravely. The faces of the combatants are captured by the pathos of battle.

A feature of the compositional structure of the frieze was the free placement of figures on a background that was once painted bright blue. A comparison of the surviving slabs shows the general artistic design and the general compositional structure of the frieze. It is very possible that the composition belongs to one artist, but it is unlikely that the author himself composed all the individual figures and groups. He could outline the general arrangement of the figures, give their dimensions, conceive the general nature of the action and leave it to other masters to finish the relief in detail.

On the slabs of this best-preserved frieze, the “handwriting” of the four masters can be clearly distinguished. Three slabs with ten figures of Greeks and Amazons, found on the eastern side of the ruins, are distinguished by their outstanding artistic merit; they are attributed to Skopas. On the slabs, considered the work of Leochares and Timofey, the swiftness of movement is emphasized not only by the poses of the combatants, but also enhanced by the flowing cloaks and chitons. Skopas, on the contrary, depicts the Amazons only in short, close-fitting clothes, and the Greeks completely naked, and achieves an expression of strength and speed of movement mainly through bold and complex turns of figures and expression of gestures.

One of my favorites compositional techniques Skopas was a technique of collision of oppositely directed movements. So, a young warrior, having fallen to his knee, maintains his balance, touching the ground with his right hand and dodging the Amazon’s blow, defends himself by extending his left hand forward with a shield. The Amazon lunged away from the warrior and at the same time swung her ax at him. The Amazon chiton fits tightly to the body, outlining the shape well; fold lines emphasize the movement of the figure.

The location of the Amazon figure on the next slab is even more complicated. The young warrior, retreating from the rapidly attacking bearded Greek, still manages to strike him with an energetic blow. The sculptor was well able to convey the dexterous movements of the Amazon, quickly dodging an attack and immediately going on the attack. The pose and proportions of the figure, the clothes that opened so that half of the Amazon’s body was exposed - everything closely resembles the famous statue of the Bacchae. Skopas especially boldly used the technique of contrasting movements in the figure of the equestrian Amazon. A skilled horsewoman let her well-trained horse gallop, turned her back to his head and fired at her enemies with a bow. Her short chiton fell open, revealing strong muscles.

In Skopas’s compositions, the impression of the intensity of the struggle, the fast pace of the battle, the lightning speed of blows and attacks is achieved not only by the different rhythm of movement, the free placement of figures on the plane, but also by plastic modeling and masterful execution of clothing. Each figure in Skopas’ composition is clearly “readable”. Despite the low relief, the depth of space is felt everywhere. Skopas probably also worked on the chariot race scene. A fragment of a frieze with the figure of a charioteer has survived. An expressive face, a smooth curve of the body, long clothes that fit tightly to the back and hips - everything is reminiscent of the Skopasov Amazons. The interpretation of the eyes and lips is close to the Tegean heads.

Skopas’s bright personality, his innovative techniques in revealing a person’s inner world, in conveying strong dramatic experiences could not but influence everyone who worked next to him. Scopas had a particularly strong influence on the young masters Leochares and Briaxis. According to Pliny, it was the sculptors Scopas, Timothy, Briaxis and Leochares who made this structure so remarkable with their works that it was included in the Seven Wonders of the World.

“Fluent in various sculpture techniques, Skopas worked in both marble and bronze,” writes A. G. Chubova. - His knowledge of plastic anatomy was perfect. Depicting the most complex positions of the human figure did not present any difficulties for him. Skopas's imagination was extremely rich; he created a whole gallery of vividly characterized images.

His realistic works are imbued with high humanism. Capturing various aspects of deep experiences, depicting sadness, suffering, passion, bacchanalian ecstasy, warlike ardor, Skopas never interpreted these feelings naturalistically. He poeticized them, forcing the viewer to admire the spiritual beauty and strength of his heroes.”

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Skopas

(Skupas), ancient Greek sculptor and architect of the 4th century. BC e. Representative of the late classics. Born on the island of Paros, he worked in Tegea (now Piali, Greece), Halicarnassus (now Bodrum, Turkey) and other cities in Greece and Asia Minor. He took part in the construction of the temple of Athena Aley in Tegea (350-340 BC) and the mausoleum in Halicarnassus (mid-4th century BC). Among the authentic ones that have come down to us sculptural works The most important of Scopas is the frieze of the mausoleum in Halicarnassus depicting the Amazonomachy, that is, the battle of the Amazons (mid-4th century BC; together with Briaxis, Leochares and Timothy; fragments are in the British Museum). Numerous works by Scopas are known from Roman copies - the statues "Pothos" (Usrfitsi), "Young Hercules" (previously in the Lansdowne collection, London), "Meleager" (Vatican Museums; Villa Medici, Rome), "Maenad" (Sculpture collection, Dresden ). Having abandoned the characteristic of ancient Greek art of the 5th century. BC e. harmonious tranquility of images, Skopas turned to the transmission of strong emotional experiences, a dramatic struggle of passions. To implement them, Skopas used the dynamism of the composition and new techniques for interpreting details: deep-set eyes, folds on the forehead, an open mouth, as well as the tense rhythm of the folds of clothes. The work of Skopas, saturated with tragic pathos, had a great influence on the sculptors of the Hellenistic era ( cm. Hellenistic art), in particular on the masters who worked in the 3rd-2nd centuries. BC e. in the city of Pergamon.

"Amazonomachy". Fragment of the frieze of the Halicarnassus Mausoleum. Marble. Around 350 BC British museum. London.
Literature: A. P. Chubova, Skopas, L.-M., 1959; Arias P. E., Skopas, Roma, 1952.

(Source: “Popular art encyclopedia.” Edited by V.M. Polevoy; M.: Publishing house " Soviet encyclopedia", 1986.)

Skopas

(Skópas), Greek sculptor and architect of the 4th century. BC e. Possibly the son and student of Aristander. He worked in Tegea (now Piali), Halicarnassus (now Bodrum) and other cities of Greece and Asia Minor. He supervised the construction of the temple of Athena in Tegea (Peloponnese), which survived only in ruins. On the east pediment The temple depicted the mythical hunt for the Calydonian boar, and the western one depicted the duel between the hero Telephus and Achilles. The head of Hercules, warriors, hunters and a boar, as well as fragments, have been preserved male statues and a female torso, probably a participant in Atalanta's hunt. In one of the fragments - the head of a wounded warrior - for the first time in Greek sculpture, pain and suffering, confusion of feelings were embodied.

Skopas together with others. outstanding sculptors of his time (Leochares, Briaxis, Timothy) worked on the decoration of the famous Halicarnassus Mausoleum (completed c. 351 BC), considered one of seven wonders of the world. Plates with reliefs surrounded the building with a continuous ribbon frieze. Scopas may have been the author of the best surviving fragments depicting the battle between the Greeks and the Amazons. The battle scenes are permeated with the fury of combat and violent movement; in them one can hear the ringing of swords, the whistling of arrows, and warlike cries. Dr. the works of Scopas are known only from Roman copies (“Young Hercules”, “Meleager”). The most famous among the unsurvived sculptures of Skopas was “Maenad” - a figurine of a girl, a companion of the god Dionysus, rushing in a frantic dance. The dancer’s body seems to be twisted into a spiral, her head is thrown back, her clothes flutter, revealing beautiful body. In the art of Skopas, for the first time, the excitement of feelings, dramatic pathos, violent movement found expression - everything that Greek sculpture had never known before. Skopas' works had a significant impact on the sculptors of the era Hellenism.

(Source: “Art. Modern illustrated encyclopedia.” Edited by Prof. Gorkin A.P.; M.: Rosman; 2007.)

- Scopas, Σκόπας, from Paros, a famous sculptor and architect, was engaged in the construction of the temple of Athena Alea in Tegea, and more recently later years during the construction of the mausoleum, it means that he lived approx. 380 BC. To his most famous...
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- Greek sculptor and architect of the 4th century. BC. from the island of Paros, modern. Praxiteles. Managed the construction. Temple of Athena in Tegea, and in the middle. centuries worked on the frieze of the mausoleum in Halicarnassus...
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"Skopas" in books

Scopas (c. 395 BC - 350 BC)

From the book 100 great sculptors author Mussky Sergey Anatolievich

Skopas (c. 395 BC - 350 BC) Skopas can rightfully be called one of the greatest sculptors of Ancient Greece. The direction he created in ancient plastic arts outlived the artist for a long time and had a huge influence not only on his contemporaries, but also on the masters

Skopas

From the book of Aphorisms author Ermishin Oleg

Skopas the Thessalian Skopas, when they asked him for some unnecessary and useless thing from his home furnishings, replied: “But it is this superfluity that makes us happy, and not what everyone

Skopas

From the book Encyclopedic Dictionary (C) author Brockhaus F.A.

Skopas Skopas is an ancient Greek sculptor of the so-called Noo-Attic school, originally from Paros, who worked in the first half of the 4th century. BC One of his first works was the restoration of the Tegean temple of Athena Alea, destroyed in 395 by fire, for which Skopas Shalom Leibovich was born. I was born in July 1925 in the city of Panevezys in Lithuania. There were four brothers in our family. My father went to America to work in 1928 and did not return to Lithuania. Our family rented a room and a half; throughout my childhood we were poor and terribly hungry. Just four

Skopas Shalom Leibovich

From the book Frontline Scouts [“I went behind the front line”] author Drabkin Artem Vladimirovich

Skopas Shalom Leibovich Interview - Grigory Koifman I was born in July 1925 in the city of Panevezys in Lithuania. There were four brothers in our family. My father went to America to work in 1928 and did not return to Lithuania. Our family rented a room and a half; throughout my childhood we were poor and

Skopas Shalom Leibovich (Interview with G. Koifman)

From the author's book

Skopas Shalom Leibovich (Interview with G. Koyfman) assistant platoon commander of the 18th separate reconnaissance company of the 16th Lithuanian Rifle Division On January 12, 1945, a few days before the division was transferred from Courland to Klaipeda, I received an order to immediately take a fresh

Skopas is a famous ancient Greek sculptor of the late classical period.
Born on the island of Paros and created his works in different areas Greece: Boeotia, Attica, Asia Minor, Arcadia between 370 and 330.
His monuments are characterized by pathos and emotional emotion.
Ancient authors mention more than twenty works of Skopas, although much fewer have survived to our time.
Skopas, among other masters, decorated the relief friezes of the Halicarnassus mausoleum. The change of feelings expressed in the Maenad by the plasticity of the round sculpture, felt when walking around the sculpture, here unfolds on the flat ribbon of the frieze.
The variety of angles in the reliefs is complemented by a masterful juxtaposition of light girls’ bodies and heavy men’s bodies, which are depicted in a merciless and brutal struggle.
Skopas plays combinations of two or three pieces, showing them with different sides and at different moments of movement. The power of emotional intensity is present here to a disproportionately greater extent than in the works of the fifth century BC.
The beauty of the new world, shown by Skopas in art, lies in the development of drama, in the outbursts of human passions, in the interweaving complex feelings. And at the same time, the loss of the monumental clarity of high classics is noticeable. After all, it was in the works of this period that the human mind triumphed, as the highest principle, in a collision with the rampant elements.
In the reliefs of the late classical period, it is not the harmonious integrity that dominates, as in the zophora of the Parthenon, but an excited and acute perception of the world, because they were created during the period of destruction of ideas familiar to the time of classicism. According to these ideas, man is called upon to intelligently dominate the world around him. So, even from the example of one monument, we can see the weakness and strength of the possibilities inherent in late classical art.
This art discovered a lot of new things in the nature of human feelings and emotions, but this achievement was achieved at the expense of the loss of peace and harmony of high classics.
Praxiteles is a famous ancient Greek sculptor, a younger contemporary of Scopas. Born around 390 BC. He expressed completely different sentiments in his works than Skopas.
Praxiteles came from a family of sculptors. His grandfather, Praxiteles the Elder, was a sculptor. The father, Kephisodotus the Elder, was a famous master in Greece, the author of the statue of Eirene with Plutos.

Ticket 19.

1. Byzantine art of the 6th century (era of Justinian)

The deeply unique culture of Byzantium began its journey as if immediately from the culmination point: its first flowering occurred in the 6th century, the “era of Justinian” (527–565). At this time, the Byzantine Empire reached its utmost power, comparable to the greatness of imperial Rome. It occupied a vast territory and had enormous international prestige. Foreigners were amazed by the impressive appearance of the Byzantine capital, Constantinople, the splendor and luxury of the imperial court, and the solemnity of church services.

The main forces on which Emperor Justinian relied were the army and the church, which found a zealous patron in him. Under Justinian, a union of spiritual and temporal power, specific to Byzantium, was formed, based on the primacy of the basileus - emperors,

During the era of Justinian, Byzantine architecture reached its highest development. Numerous fortifications are being erected on the country's borders, temples and palaces are being built in cities, marked by the grandeur of their scale and imperial splendor. At this time, the two main shrines of Constantinople were founded - the Patriarchal Cathedral of St. Sophia and the Church of St. Apostles.

Hagia Sophia was the highest achievement of Byzantine architecture: over all subsequent centuries of Byzantine history, no temple equal to this was created. The gigantic structure, the creation of the Asia Minor architects Anthimius of Thrall and Isidore of Miletus, became the embodiment of the strength of the Byzantine state and the triumph of the Christian religion.

According to its plan, the church of St. Sophia is a three-nave basilica, that is, a rectangular building, but the rectangular space here is crowned by a huge round dome (the so-called domed basilica). On both sides this dome is supported by two lower semi-domes, each of which, in turn, is adjacent to three smaller semi-domes. Thus, the entire elongated space of the central nave forms a system of semi-domes growing upward, towards the center.

Four massive support pillars supporting the main dome are masked from the viewer, and forty windows surrounding its base in an almost continuous luminous wreath create a stunning effect. It seems that the huge bowl of the dome is floating in the air, like a luminous crown. It is not surprising that to contemporaries the Church of St. Sophia seemed created “not by human power, but by God’s will.”

Exterior view of the Church of St. Sofia, with its smooth walls, is characterized by austere simplicity. But inside the room the impression changes dramatically. Justinian planned to build not only the largest building, but also the richest in interior decoration. The church is decorated with more than a hundred malachite and porphyry columns, specially brought from various ancient temples, slabs of multi-colored marble of the most valuable types, wonderful mosaics with their glitter of golden background and splendor of colors, thousands of candelabra made of solid silver. Above the pulpit - the raised platform on which the sermon is delivered - there was a canopy made of precious metals, crowned with a golden cross. Bowls, vessels, and bindings of sacred books were made of gold. The unprecedented luxury of this cathedral so amazed the ambassadors of the Kiev prince Vladimir, who in the 10th century visited Constantinople (as they called main city Byzantium in Rus'), that they, as the chronicle tells, could not understand whether they were on earth or in heaven.

St. Sophia did not become a model for the subsequent development of Byzantine architecture, but it gave it a powerful impetus: for many centuries the type of domed church was established here.

In most Byzantine churches, a dome, symbolizing the vault of heaven, rises in the center of the building. Whatever the layout - round, square, multifaceted - all such buildings are called centric. Since the 7th century, the most common among them have been cross-domed churches, whose plan resembles an equal-ended (Greek) cross inscribed in a square?

The centric composition attracted Byzantine architects with its balance and sense of peace, and the layout (cross) most of all satisfied the requirements of Christian symbolism.

If the expressiveness of the ancient temple lay mainly in appearance(since all the rituals and celebrations took place outside, in the square), the main content and beauty of the Christian church is concentrated in the interior, because a Christian church is a place where believers gather to participate in the sacrament. The desire to create a special environment inside the temple, as if separated from the outside world, caused special attention to the interior decorative decoration associated with the needs of Christian worship.

The richness of the interior decoration was created, first of all, by the mosaics that decorated the vaults and the upper part of the walls. Mosaic is one of the main types monumental art, which is an image or pattern of individual multi-colored pieces of glass, colored stones, metals, enamel, etc., very tightly fitted to each other.

In Byzantium, mosaics were valued for their preciousness and for their ability to achieve unexpected optical effects. Small cubes of mosaic masonry, placed at slight angles to each other, reflect light with cross rays, which creates an iridescent magical shimmer. Larger smalt cubes, placed in even rows, on the contrary, create a “mirror” surface and the mosaic acquires the effect of a strong glow.

Unique examples of Byzantine mosaics are kept in the churches and mausoleums of Ravenna, a city in Northern Italy, near the Adriatic Sea. The earliest among them is the decor of the mausoleum of the Byzantine queen Galla Placidia (mid-5th century). Inside the mausoleum, above the entrance, there is a wonderful composition representing Christ - the good shepherd among the hilly landscape. He is young and beardless: this is how Christ was depicted in the first centuries of Christianity, when ancient ideas about eternal youth as an attribute of deity were still alive. With a solemn gesture, Jesus erects the cross, the main symbol of Christianity.

A later cycle of mosaics is found in the altar of the church of San Vitale (St. Vitali) in Ravenna (6th century). Along with biblical stories two “historical” scenes are presented here, the ceremonial exit of Emperor Justinian and his wife Empress Theodora with their retinues into the temple. They captured the wealth and luxury of the Byzantine court, the super-earthly grandeur of the monarch. The frontal frozen figures are located in a continuous row on a golden background. Strict solemnity reigns in all faces, similar friends at a friend, one can read stern detachment and fortitude.

Among the most remarkable works of Byzantine monumental painting were the now lost mosaics of the Church of the Assumption in Nicaea (7th century) depicting “angels” heavenly powers" The faces of these angels are amazing, with their distinct sensual appeal. But this sensuality is ethereal, it is associated with ecstatic inner inspiration. The desire for the transfer of enormous spiritual concentration, for extreme spiritualization artistic form remained the ideal for Byzantine art for centuries.

Special place in the ensemble Christian temple belongs to the icon. The early Christians called every image of a saint this way, contrasting it with an “idol”, a pagan image. Later, the word “icon” began to be used only for easel works, trying to distinguish them from works of monumental art (mosaics, frescoes).

Unlike an ordinary easel painting, an icon is an object of prayer. It is considered by the church as a special symbol, mysteriously connected with the “divine”, supersensible world. By contemplating an iconic image, a person can spiritually join this world.

The origin of icons is usually associated with ancient Egyptian funeral paintings, intended for a person’s “transition” to the other world. Based on the site of the first major discovery of these monuments in the Fayum oasis (1887), they were called Fayum (Fayum) portraits. The images, painted on wooden boards with wax paints while the customer was alive, served as a funeral mask after his death.

The oldest surviving icons, close to the Fayyum portraits, date back to the 6th century. They usually depict one saint, most often waist-length or chest-length, strictly in a frontal or three-quarter turn. The saint’s gaze, full of spiritual depth, is directed directly at the viewer, because some mystical connection should arise between him and the person praying.

TO outstanding monuments Byzantine icon painting of the 6th-7th centuries includes three icons from the monastery of St. Catherine on Sinai: “Christ”, “Apostle Peter” and “Our Lady between St. Feodor and St. Georgiy."

The period of brilliant prosperity (VI-VII centuries) gave way to a tragic time for Byzantine art. In the 8th – 9th centuries, an iconoclastic movement raged in the country, associated with the ban on images Christian themes. The iconoclasts, supported by the emperor and his court, the patriarch and the highest circle of clergy, rebelled against depicting God and the saints in human form, based on theological arguments about the impossibility of reproducing the divine essence of Christ in material form.

During the period of iconoclasm, icons were officially banned, and many of them were destroyed. Churches were decorated mainly with images of Christian symbols and ornamental paintings. Secular art was cultivated: picturesque landscapes, images of animals and birds, subjects ancient myths and even competitions at the hippodrome. These paintings were almost completely destroyed by supporters of icon veneration (mainly broad layers common people, the lower clergy, accustomed to worshiping icons) after it was restored.

After the victory over iconoclasm, branded a heresy in 843, the most important phenomena for its further development took place in Byzantine art. They are associated with the beginning of the formation of the iconographic canon - permanent iconographic schemes, from which one was not supposed to deviate when depicting sacred subjects. The paintings of temples are brought into a coherent system, each composition finds a strictly defined place.

In the dome of the temple Christ Pantocrator (Almighty) was depicted, surrounded by angels. Between the windows in the drum - the upper part of the building, which serves as the base of the dome - prophets or apostles were placed. On the sails, at the top of the pillars supporting the dome, were the evangelists, the four “pillars” of the gospel teaching. In the apse, the altar ledge, there is an image of the Mother of God, most often in the Oranta type, that is, praying with raised hands. Archangels Michael and Gabriel hover near her. At the top of the walls of the temple are presented episodes from the life of Christ, which necessarily included images of 12 holidays (Annunciation, Christmas, Presentation, Epiphany, and so on). In the lower part of the temple there are figures of the church fathers, high priests, and holy martyrs. Once discovered, this system of painting remained unchanged in its main features for many centuries in all countries of the Orthodox world.

In the post-iconoclastic period, especially in the 11th – 12th centuries, Byzantine art finds its most perfect types and most perfect shapes both in mosaics, and in icons and in book miniatures. Deep spirituality of faces, light “floating” figures, smooth fluidity of lines, rounded contours, the shine of gold, saturating the image with unearthly light, the absence of any tension - all this creates a very special figurative world, full of sublime peace, harmony and divine inspiration.

XIII and XIV centuries - the era of late Byzantine culture. Despite the severe economic and political weakening of Byzantium, which had lost most their territories, the art of this time was marked by the highest achievements, primarily in painting. Wonderful monuments beginning of the XIV centuries, when art reached for greater expression and freedom, to convey movement, are the icon of the “12 Apostles”, the mosaics of the Kahriye Jami Church in Constantinople, representing the life of Christ and the Mother of God.

However, new artistic ideals was not destined to truly gain strength on the soil of the fading Byzantium. Apparently, it was no coincidence that the most talented Constantinople master of the second half of the 14th century, Theophanes the Greek, left the empire, preferring Russia.

In 1453, Byzantium, conquered by the Turks, ceased to exist, but its culture left a deep mark on the history of mankind. Having preserved the living ancient tradition, the Byzantines were the first to medieval world developed an artistic system that corresponded to new spiritual and social ideals, and acted in relation to other nations medieval Europe unique teachers and mentors.

Sculpture of Leohara

Leochares - ancient Greek sculptor of the mid-4th century BC. e. Representative of the academic movement in the art of late classics. Being an Athenian, he worked not only in Athens, but also in Olympia, Delphi, Halicarnassus (together with Scopas). Sculpted from gold and Ivory several portrait statues of members of the family of the Macedonian king Philip (in the technique of chrysoelephantine sculpture), was, like Lysippos, the court master of his son Alexander the Great ("Alexander on the Lion Hunt", bronze). He created images of gods ("Artemis of Versailles", Roman marble copy, Louvre) and mythological scenes.

The heyday of Leocharian art dates back to 350-320 BC. e. At this time, he cast a group that was very popular in antiquity, depicting the beautiful youth Ganymede, who is carried to Olympus by an eagle sent by Zeus, as well as a statue of Apollo, which received world fame named after "Apollo Belvedere" (the name from the Vatican Belvedere Palace, where the statue is displayed) - both works are preserved in Roman marble
copies (Pio Clementino Museum, Vatican). In the statue of Apollo Belvedere, the best work of Leochares, which has come down to us in a Roman copy, one is captivated not only by the perfection of the image, but also by the mastery of the technique of execution. Statue unveiled during the Renaissance for a long time was considered best work antiquity and sung in numerous poems and descriptions. Leohar's works were executed with extraordinary technical skill; his work was highly valued by Plato.
"Diana the Huntress" or "Diana of Versailles", a sculpture made by Leochard around 340 BC. Not preserved. Sculptures of this type are known to archaeologists from excavations in Leptis Magna and Antalya. One of the copies is in the Louvre.
Artemis is dressed in a Dorian chiton and himation. With her right hand she is preparing to draw an arrow from the quiver, her left hand rests on the head of the fawn accompanying her. The head is turned to the right, towards the likely prey.
"Apollo Belvedere", a bronze statue executed by Leochares around 330 BC. n. e. The statue has not survived, but has been preserved in Roman marble copies. One of the marble statues is located in the Belvedere, one of the buildings of the Vatican Museum. It was found in the ruins of Nero's Villa at Antia sometime in the early 16th century.
The statue depicts Apollo, ancient Greek god sun and light, in the form of a young beautiful youth shooting from a bow. Bronze statue of Leochares, executed c. ., during the Late Classic, did not survive.
Montorsoli, a student of Michelangelo, restored the hands, but did it incorrectly: Apollo should have held a laurel wreath in his right hand, and a bow in his left hand, as indicated by the quiver behind Apollo’s back. These attributes in the hands of the deity meant that Apollo punishes sinners and cleanses those who repent.