British literature. Foreign literature. XIX century. Manual edited by I.L. Lapina Literature of England. Famous English writers

The conqueror of the Danes, who devastated Britain for almost two centuries. Alfred did a lot to restore the destroyed culture, to raise education; he himself was a writer and translator (he translated, among other things, Bede’s “Ecclesiastical History”, written in Latin, into Anglo-Saxon).

Anglo-Norman literature

In the second half of the 11th century, England was subjected to a new invasion by the Normans. It falls under the rule of the Normans, who for several centuries established the dominance of the Norman dialect of the French language and French literature in England. A long period begins, known in history as the period of Anglo-Norman literature.

During the first century after the Norman invasion, literature in the Anglo-Saxon language almost disappeared. And only a century later they appear in this language again literary monuments church content and later secular ones, which were translations of French works. Thanks to this mixture of languages, the Latin language again acquires great importance among educated society.

The period of French domination left an important mark on subsequent history. English literature, which, according to some researchers, is more closely related to the artistic techniques and style of French literature of the Norman period than to the ancient Anglo-Saxon literature from which it was artificially divorced.

Literature of social protest

But he was not the only founder of the new English language. Chaucer did a common cause with his famous contemporary John Wycliffe (-). Wycliffe adheres to the accusatory literature directed against the clergy, but he, the forerunner of the Reformation, goes further, translates the Bible into English, and addresses the people in his fight against the papacy. Wyclif and Chaucer literary activity arouse interest in the earthly nature of man, in personality.

The next century saw great interest in living folk poetry, which already existed in the 13th and 14th centuries. But in the 15th century this poetry showed a particularly active life, and the most ancient examples of it, surviving to our time, belong to this century. Ballads about Robin Hood were very popular.

Renaissance

Renaissance Ideals in Literature

Thomas More is a typical representative of English humanism. His “Utopia” is a public organization built in the spirit of humanist ideals. Its goal is the happiness of a person, the well-being of the entire community. Medieval spiritualism, those consolations that the Catholic Church offered beyond the grave in exchange for earthly suffering, are alien to him. He desires joy here on earth. Therefore, in his community there is no property, compulsory labor prevails for all its members, work alternates in the city and in the countryside, complete religious tolerance is established, thanks to the ideal organization of society there are no crimes, etc.

Bacon's work is a book from which one can develop positive thought. The author proceeds from observation and experience as sources of knowledge of the truth; he believes that he does not know what lies beyond them.

The 16th century was the heyday of English humanism, which arose here later than in Italy and met with the Reformation. Classical literature and Italian poetry have a great influence on English literature.

Elizabethan era

Locke denied innate ideas and declared the impressions that our senses receive from external objects to be the only source of all knowledge. Following Milton, Locke anticipated Rousseau's theory of the social contract and the right of the people to refuse obedience to authority if it violates the law. During Cromwell's era the theater fell silent, classical traditions were maintained only among persecuted supporters royal house. After the Restoration, the theater opened again, funny comedies of manners with not always decent content appeared (Wycherley, Congreve and others), gallant literature was revived, and, finally, classicism of the French type arose. Its representative was John Dryden (1631-1700) - a typical unprincipled poet of the dissolved court society of the restoration, an unsuccessful imitator of Corneille and Racine, who strictly defended the three unities and, in general, all classical rules.

Augustinian era

After 1688, with the establishment of the Constitution, the tone of literature was set by the bourgeoisie, whose influence was clearly felt both in novels and on the stage. The new consumer demands his own literature, images of family virtues, honest merchants, sensitivity, nature, etc. He is not touched by tales about classical heroes, about the exploits of the aristocratic ancestors of court society. He needs a satire on loose secular mores. Moral and satirical magazines appeared - “Chatterbox”, “Spectator”, “Guardian” - Stil and Addison, with talented everyday essays exposing luxury, emptiness, vanity, ignorance and other vices of the society of that time. The exemplary classical poetry of Pope, the author of the Essay on Man, is didactic, satirical and moral in nature. England gave impetus not only to the liberation ideas of the French encyclopedists, but also laid the foundation for moralizing sentimental literature, that novel of morals that spread throughout Europe. Samuel Richardson, author of Pamela, Clarissa and Grandisson, brings out virtuous bourgeois girls and contrasts them with dissolute aristocrats, idealizes bourgeois virtues and forces the corrupted representatives of the chewing golden youth to reform.

Godwin, in his novel “The Adventures of Caleb Williams” and other works, defends the most revolutionary ideas of his time, not only in the field of politics, but also in the field of education and marriage, and goes ahead of the then English revolutionary thought. The so-called “Lake school” (from the place of residence around the lakes) includes a number of poets. Of these, Wordsworth was the head of the school. A dreamy poet in love with nature of small phenomena, which he knew how to make sublime and touching, he, together with his friend Coleridge, was a representative of that movement in romanticism, which, along with love for nature, introduced simple, unartificial language, images of patriarchal antiquity, contemplation and dreaminess. The third poet of the lake school, Southey, wrote in the spirit of his friends, adding fantastic pictures of the exotic countries of Mexico, India, and Arabia to the idyllic images of lake poetry. And the poets of the lake school were interested in the revolution, but not for long. Wordsworth and Coleridge traveled to Germany, where they were influenced by German romantic idealism and ended their journey in pure contemplation.

Next to the populist romanticism of the lake school, the greatest poet of the era, Byron, was a representative of revolutionary aristocratic romance. Despising the high society society with which he was connected by his origin, having cut himself off from his class, not seeing anything attractive in the representatives of capital, greedy and corrupt traders, Byron in his youth burst out with a fiery speech in defense of the workers, but later did not return to this issue, until all his life he remained a declassed aristocrat, a rebellious individualist revolutionary, a singer of dissatisfied, disappointed natures, starting with the mysterious demonic wanderers and robbers (“Giaur”, “Lara”, etc.). The same image is deepened in “Childe Harold,” which became the subject of widespread imitation in European poetry. Byron ended with a protest against the universe and world order in his godless tragedies (“Manfred” and “Cain”). Towards the end of his life, Byron came close to political and social satire (“Don Juan”, “ Bronze Age"). Extreme individualism, a sense of dissatisfaction, an attraction to the East and exotic countries, a love of nature and solitude, dreams of the past near ruins and monuments - all this makes Byron a poet of English romanticism, and his angry, accusatory protests against all forms of violence and exploitation, his connections with the Italian Carbonari and the struggle for the liberation of Greece made him a singer of freedom in the eyes of the European intelligentsia. His friend Percy Bysshe Shelley, a brilliant lyric poet, also an aristocrat, like Byron, combines in his poetry the world of fantastic romance with a revolutionary protest against the emerging bourgeois-capitalist society. In his poem “Queen Mab” he depicts this society where everything is “sold on the public market”, where, with the help of severe hunger, the owner drives his slaves under the yoke of wage labor. Shelley appears as a similar revolutionary-romantic in his other poems (“Laon and Cytne”, “Prometheus Unchained”, etc.). His wife Mary Shelley, author of Frankenstein, pioneered the question of the scientist's responsibility. Walter Scott shows, like two great poets, a tendency towards antiquity. He was the creator of the historical novel (“Ivanhoe”, “Rob Roy”, “Quentin Durward”, “The Templars”, etc.), in which he knew how to combine verisimilitude and realism with rich romantic fiction and depict the most dramatic moments of the national history of Scotland and England.

In the first third of the 19th century. The first stage of the struggle between the nobility and the industrial bourgeoisie, which is increasingly becoming master of the situation, ends. The struggle against the Corn Laws, Chartism and the performances of the working class, powerfully declaring their demands, push feudal romance and patriarchal-dreamy poetry into the background. The city with its practical interests, the growing bourgeoisie, the beginning social struggle between it and the working class become the main content of English literature, and realism - its predominant form. Instead of a medieval castle - a factory town, instead of distant antiquity - vibrant modern industrial life, instead fantastic images inventive imagination - an accurate, almost photographic, image of reality. Bulwer-Lytton, still continuing the traditions of romanticism, an aristocrat by birth, filling his novels with transformations, miracles and criminality, leaves us, however, a number of literary documents that have social significance, depicts the process of impoverishment and decay of the nobility (novels - “Pelgam”, “Night and Morning”, etc.).

Realism and the turn of the century

Dickens, the most celebrated writer of this era, deploys big picture life of bourgeois-capitalist society in its famous novels: “Hard Times”, “David Copperfield”, “Dombey and Son”, “The Pickwick Club”, “Nicholas Nickleby”, etc., creates a gallery of capitalist types. Dickens's petty-bourgeois, humane, intellectual point of view prevents him from taking the side of the revolutionary part of the working class. He gives stunning pictures of the dryness, greed, cruelty, ignorance and selfishness of capitalists, but he writes for the instruction of the exploiters and does not think about organizing the forces of the exploited. Its purpose is to touch human hearts a spectacle of suffering, and not to awaken hatred and call for rebellion. Thackeray, the author of the novels Vanity Fair and Pendennis, is more embittered, more sarcastic and cruel in his criticism of the noble-bourgeois society. The author sees no way out. He is filled with pessimism and irritation. He, like Dickens, is unable to understand the liberating role of the emerging revolutionary labor movement. Oscillating as always between big capital and the labor movement, petty-bourgeois thought sought conciliatory paths. Kingsley in his novels “Yeast” and “Alton Locke” he depicts the horrors of exploitation and need, but sees salvation in Christian socialism, in the “Spirit of God”, in the repentant rich people who turned to charitable causes. Disraeli, later a famous lord Beaconsfield, the leader of the Tories (the novels “Sibilla”, etc.), depicting in bright colors the vices of bourgeois-aristocratic society and the misfortunes of peasants and workers, speaks out negatively against the revolution and sees saviors in the person of energetic and active aristocrats who take upon themselves the work of building the people’s well-being. Not only the novel, but also lyric poetry is inspired by social themes, and the main question raised by the era - the question of the exploitation of the working class by capital - is resolved in a spirit of vague humanity and moral improvement. Poets like Thomas Hood or Ebenezer Elliot (cm.), in their poems they depict individual moments of the difficult existence of workers and urban poverty, create songs against the Corn Laws, and give images of working women driven by poverty to prostitution and suicide. But also them positive ideals come down to charity: to some lady who realized her duty thanks to an edifying dream and devoted her life to alleviating the lot of the poor.

As we approach the end of the 19th century. in European, in particular in English literature, the realistic and social trends begin to give way to the reviving ideas of individualism and aestheticism. Instead of militant capitalists, paving the way for themselves with struggle and energy, creating enterprises, instead of Dombey and Gradgrinds, the tone for literature is beginning to be set by those representatives of the bourgeoisie who received their capital by inheritance, who did not go through the harsh school of life, who can enjoy the heritage of their fathers, who have become lovers and connoisseurs arts, buyers of expensive paintings and elegant volumes of poetry. A literature of refined experiences and fleeting impressions is flourishing. Individualism, pure art, eroticism, cult of moods - distinctive features literature of the end of the century. True, the main theme of the era - the organization of society, the abolition of exploitation, the position of the working class - occupies great place in literature, but also the socialism of the end of the century is aesthetic socialism. John Ruskin proceeds from the ideal of a beautiful life, calls society back to the old patriarchal craft forms of production and rebels against industrialism and capitalism. He inspires the school of artists known as the Pre-Raphaelites, among whom we see Rossetti and William Morris, the author of the novels “The Dream of John Bol” and “News from Nowhere”, a defender of socialism and at the same time a passionate esthete, who, together with Rossetti, sought the ideals of beauty in past centuries, dreaming of causing social revolution through the aesthetic education of workers. Next to the Pre-Raphaelites - Tennyson, a poet of pure art, free from the motives of social struggle, Robert Browning and his wife Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Swinburne, in whose poetry the ideals of eternal beauty and the protection of the exploited are vaguely intertwined. The most popular of the poets of this movement was Oscar Wilde, “the king of aesthetes”, in his “Planes” and in the novel “The Picture of Dorian Gray”, who created the “religion of beauty” and the cult of liberating fiction, proclaiming the only reality of the creation of art, asserting that art creates life, and not vice versa.

The continuing growth of the industry introduces new topics into literature - urbanism, machinism. Literature becomes dynamic, satire against the capitalist way of life develops. Bernard Shaw is the most brilliant and paradoxical of satirical writers, a virtuoso of sophistry, a witty author of hoaxes, a moderate socialist, who, however, intends to improve the situation of the workers with the help of the bourgeoisie. H.G. Wells - author fantasy novels, imbued with the pathos of technology, depicting the wonders of industry, magically transforming life, connecting planets, allowing a person to move into both the past and the future. This process of simultaneous growth of socialist tendencies and conservative-individualistic and aesthetic aspirations is accompanied by a number of diverse literary phenomena. Imperialism and chauvinism, which has its representative in the person of Chamberlain, the Boer War, the cult of Kitchener - all this finds its literary reflection in the works of Rudyard Kipling, the most talented of nationalist writers, the author of colonial stories and poems, where the colonial policy of England is exalted, where oppression backward peoples is glorified as the implementation of a great civilizing mission.

Another phenomenon is the reaction against machinism, causing a revival in literature of religious movements, impulses into the other world, theosophy, spiritualism, occultism, etc. Already Samuel Butler and George Meredith, so dissimilar to each other in other respects, are however doing a common cause, pioneering path towards spiritualism, they are trying to build a new religion on the foundations of modernity, using experience and research for this. We find features of romantic symbolism in the works of Yeats, a representative of the so-called. “Celtic revival”, and another of its representatives, also an Irishman, more prone to realism and naturalism, Synge. Another form of protest against machinism was Nietzscheanism, the cult of force and hypertrophied aestheticism, all those modernist ideas, the influence of which is easy to discern not only in Oscar Wilde, but also in the work of Stevenson, a sophisticated author of exemplary adventure novels, as well as George Moore, who spoke almost the language of Zarathustra (in "Confession" young man") about his contempt for compassion and Christian morality, about the beauty of cruelty, the power and beauty of crime.

This same hostility to the industrial age gave rise to a current of pessimism in English literature among those writers who could not reconcile machinism with peace of mind. James Thomson is one of the wonderful poets, through all of whose poetry the main theme runs as a leitmotif - the torment of life, the gloomy grandeur of despair. The most popular and, perhaps, the deepest of the pessimists is Thomas Hardy, the creator of the grandiose dramatic epic “The Dynasts” and a number of novels, mainly from the life of the village and province. Over the fate of man, according to his teaching, the dark and evil rock, an incomprehensible accident, a cruel inevitability. The enemy of prejudice and modern marriage, which places a burden on women, the enemy of civilization in the spirit of Rousseau or Tolstoy Hardy finds no way out of the thoughts tormenting him. The same pessimism permeates George Robert Gissing, a writer of everyday life of the London lower classes and the starving literary bohemia, a student of Dickens, but deprived of his humor and his philanthropic faith, who expected nothing equally “neither from the philanthropy of the rich, nor from the rebellion of the poor.” The basic tone of Joseph Conrad's work is also pessimistic. Conrad is one of the most powerful and complex writers of our time, striking in the richness and diversity of his language. He strives to penetrate into the depths of human nature and use all means to convey the impression of the real to our consciousness: “the colorfulness of painting, the plasticity of sculpture and the magical effect of music.” He depicts all types of human suffering, he does not idealize man, because he is convinced that ineradicable egoism makes a person a wolf to another person. There is more everyday life and healthy realism in Arnold Bennett, a portrayer of the morals of the lower strata of the provincial bourgeoisie, and more true social instinct in Galsworthy, which sees the source social conflicts in the existence of private property. Chesterton- an enemy of flabbiness, a preacher of activism, but the activism of medieval corporations, a zealous Catholic, convinced that the development of industry is the source of social slavery. James Barry- writer of everyday life of Scottish peasants, Conan Doyle - famous author of historical and police novels, Robert Hichens- satirist and romantic, Israel Zangwill- the author of “Children of the Ghetto”, a writer of everyday life of the Jewish poor, and a number of other, less significant ones, complete the literary activity of the older group of modern writers. Clarence Rook- author of works about the life of the London poor, working class.

The paths of the new generation have not yet been clearly outlined. In most cases, these are realists, who, however, are not averse to touching on the occult powers of the soul. Following the striving for clarity, which had its origins in French traditions, English literature experienced a period of strong Russian influence, chap. arr. Dostoevsky. This influence corresponds to amorphism in literature, a reaction against French plasticity. Hugh Walpole, one of the most fashionable novelists, himself easily follows fashion; Oliver Onions gained fame with a trilogy in which he describes bohemia, models, typists, poor artists, etc.; Gilbert Cannan , Compton Mackenzie , Lawrence and a number of other young writers who are currently attracting the attention of the English reader touch on a wide variety of topics, depict various classes of society, criticize social values, but their own worldview most often comes down to vague humanitarianism. They are stronger in criticism than in their positive ideas, and none of them has yet succeeded in surpassing the great "old men" like Shaw, Wells or Hardy.

World War II period and later

• "Angry Young Men" Angry young men)

Dystopia:

Detective:

Science fiction:

It remains one of the most important sources of the ancient history of England up to 731. Bede carefully and critically selected the sources for his story.

For chronology, Bede’s work “De sex aetatibus mundi” is important, in which he first introduced the chronology of Dionysius the Less before and after the birth of Christ, which was later adopted in most medieval chronicles.

Christian writers have left a large number of works in which biblical and legendary subjects are processed; the writings of Caedmon differ between them, as well as those attributed to Cynewulf. We must also mention the translations of psalms, hymns, adaptation in verse of the works of Boethius, etc.

Among the prose works, the oldest are collections of laws that date back to the 7th century. (Cf. Schmid, “Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen. In der Ursprache mit Uebersetzungen u. s. w.” (Leipz., 1832; 2nd ed. 1858). From historical works we know a free translation of Orosius and church history Bede, made by Alfred, as well as an Anglo-Saxon chronicle covering the time up to 1164 and preserved in numerous copies.

The field of theology includes: Alfred's translation of the work "Cura pastoralis", written by Gregory; Werfert's reworking of Gregory's Dialogue, then the rich collection of sermons of Ælfric, the Abbot of Ensham, who lived at the end of the 10th and 11th centuries; Further here belong translations of the Holy Scriptures in West Saxon and North Umbrian dialects.

From the ancient collections of proverbs and sayings, once very popular among the Anglo-Saxons, some have also reached us.

Stories and novels have been preserved in the form of the narrative of Apollonius of Tire, letters of Alexander the Great to Aristotle, etc.

The greatest English writer of the 14th century was Geoffrey Chaucer (-), author of the famous Canterbury Tales. Chaucer simultaneously ends the Anglo-Norman era and opens the history of new English literature.

He gave expression to all the richness and diversity of thoughts and feelings, the subtlety and complexity of mental experiences that characterized the previous era. English language, completing the experience of the past and grasping the aspirations of the future. Among the English dialects, he established the dominance of the London dialect, the language spoken in this large commercial center, where the residence of the king and both universities were located.

But he was not the only founder of the new English language. Chaucer did a common cause with his famous contemporary John Wycliffe (-). Wycliffe adheres to the accusatory literature directed against the clergy, but he, the forerunner of the Reformation, goes further, translates the Bible into English, and addresses the people in his fight against the papacy. Wycliffe and Chaucer, with their literary activities, arouse interest in the earthly nature of man, in personality.

The next century saw great interest in living folk poetry, which already existed in the 13th and 14th centuries. But in the 15th century this poetry showed a particularly active life, and the most ancient examples of it, surviving to our time, belong to this century. Ballads about Robin Hood were very popular.

The language of Shakespeare's first plays is the language common to plays of this period. This stylized language does not always allow the playwright to reveal his characters. Poetry is often laden with complex metaphors and sentences, and the language is more conducive to recitation than to live acting. For example, ceremonial speeches "Titus Andronicus", according to some critics, often slow down the action; character language "Two Gentlemen of Verona" seems unnatural.

Soon, however, Shakespeare begins to adapt the traditional style to his own purposes. Initial soliloquy from "Richard III" goes back to the self-talk of Vice, a traditional character in medieval drama. At the same time, Richard's vivid monologues would later develop into the monologues of Shakespeare's later plays. All plays mark the transition from a traditional style to a new one. Throughout the rest of his career, Shakespeare combines them, and one of the most successful examples of mixing styles is "Romeo and Juliet ". By the mid-1590s, the time of creation "Romeo and Juliet", "Richard II" And "A Midsummer Night's Dream", Shakespeare's style becomes more natural. Metaphors and figurative expressions are increasingly consistent with the needs of drama.

The standard poetic form used by Shakespeare is blank verse, written in iambic pentameter.

The second half of the 16th century was the era of the Renaissance of all types of arts and sciences in England, including poetry, which still largely followed Italian models. Philip Sidney began to reform English versification back in the 1570-1580s, with his work giving rise to a whole galaxy of wonderful poets who received the name “Elizabethan poets” in literary criticism: Edward de Vere, Fulk Greville, Michael Drayton, Samuel Daniel, John Davis - It’s impossible to list them all. But English poetry received its true development in the work of Edmund Spenser, who by his birth was destined to reflect in his brilliant creations the nature of this growth of the nation’s self-awareness and its religious conflict in the era of Queen Elizabeth I. The extraordinary learning of the poet, his remarkable imagination and the most elegant ear allowed Spenser’s genius respond with your creativity to all these spiritual requests English people on the path of development and prosperity. Spenser can be considered the founder of modern English poetry. In his works, English verse received a musicality that it had previously been deprived of. Spenser's lines amaze with their metrical diversity, maintaining sonority, flexibility and plasticity in all works. Spenser's poetry is not only figurative and sublime, it is, above all, musical. Spencer's verse flows like a mountain stream, ringing with rhymes flowing into each other, striking with its alliteration, combinations of words and repetitions. Spenser's style and versification correspond to the ideal course of his thought. The poet was not trying to improve the English language, but old English words, combined with modern syntax and enclosed in meters inspired by Chaucerian rhythm, “produce a surprisingly beautiful impression.”

Edition of "The Tragic History of the Life and Death of Doctor Faustus" by Christopher Marlowe

Marlowe brought great changes to English drama. Before him, bloody events and vulgar buffoonish episodes were chaotically piled up here. He was the first to make an attempt to give the drama internal harmony and psychological unity. Marlowe transformed the poetic fabric of the drama by introducing blank verse, which existed before him only in its infancy. He began to use stressed syllables more freely than his predecessors: trocheus, dactyl, tribrachium and spondee replace the iambic, which was dominant among his predecessors. In this way he brought the tragedy closer to the classical drama of the Seneca type, then popular in English universities. Contemporaries were amazed by Marlowe's powerful verse, full of alliterative repetitions, which sounded fresh and unusual for the Elizabethan era. called his inspiration " beautiful madness, which rightfully should take possession of the poet"so that he could reach such heights.

The main characters of Marlowe's works are fighters with enormous ambition and tremendous vital energy. They pour out their souls in long monologues full of pathos, which Marlowe introduced into the arsenal of techniques of Elizabethan drama. The poet saw the true origins of the tragic not in the external circumstances that determine the fate of the characters, but in the internal spiritual contradictions that tear apart a gigantic personality that has risen above everyday life and conventional norms:

Marlowe's heroes are ambiguous; they evoked both horror and admiration in the audience. He rebels against the medieval humility of man before the forces of nature, against the humble acceptance of life's circumstances. Marlowe's plays were designed to amaze contemporaries with unexpected theatrical effects. For example, in the finale of The Jew of Malta, a giant cauldron appears on stage, where main character turns out to be boiled alive. "Edward II" - the tragedy of a homosexual in a heterosexual society with numerous ambiguous passages in the spirit of Ovid - ends with the king dying from a red-hot poker stuck in the anus.

Along with men, women took an active part in the literary life of Victorian England.

After Dickens's death in 1870, the masters came to the fore social novel with a positivist bent led by George Eliot. Extreme pessimism permeates the cycle of novels by Thomas Hardy about the passions raging in the souls of the inhabitants of semi-patriarchal Wessex. George Meredith is a master of subtly psychological prose comedy. Even more sophisticated psychologism distinguishes the writings of Henry James, who moved to England from overseas.

The earliest surviving Scottish play written before the Reformation dates from 1500 and is called Plow Play; it symbolically describes the death and replacement of the old ox. This and similar plays were performed on the first Sunday after Epiphany, when they celebrated the beginning of the resumption of agricultural work. Under the influence of the Church, the content of such plays gradually began to be brought under a Christian basis, and later a complete ban was issued on the celebration of the May Day, Yule and other holidays of pagan origin, and along with them the plays performed on them were also banned.

Plays on biblical themes, however, were often performed without this prohibition. The earliest mention of such a play (its performance was timed to coincide with the Feast of the Body and Blood of Christ) dates back to 1440. But also dramaturgy biblical stories, which flourished in the Late Middle Ages, disappeared during the 16th century as a result of the Reformation.

Plays of other genres - allegories or adaptations of ancient works - were very popular among the people and at court; Even monarchs played them. For example, at the wedding of Mary Stuart in 1558 in Edinburgh, the play (which has not survived to this day) “Triumph and Play” was performed.

After James VI became king of England and left Scotland in 1603, drama went into decline. Between 1603 and 1700, only three plays are known to have been written in the country, of which two were performed.

Robert Burns (1759-1796; popularly known as the Bard, the Bard of Ayrshire and Scotland's Favorite Son) is considered the "national bard" of Scotland and one of the most significant figures of British proto-Romanticism. In his lyrics he used elements of ancient, biblical and English literary genres, and also continued the traditions of Scottish makars. He is mainly known as a poet who wrote in Scots (the founder of modern literary Scots), but he also knew English (mostly Scottish dialects of English): some of his works, for example Love and Liberty, were written in both languages.

In addition to his own poetry, he is famous for his variations of Scottish folk songs. His poem and song “Auld Lang Syne” (Rus. Good old days) is sung when celebrating Hogmanay (traditional Scottish New Year's holiday); and “Scots Wha Hae” (Russian) The Scots who committed... listen)) has long been considered the unofficial anthem of Scotland.

Before the development of European Romanticism, Burns was little known outside Scotland: only three of his works had been translated into European languages ​​before 1800.

Walter Scott (1771-1832) was born in Edinburgh, but as a child spent a lot of time on a farm near the ruins later immortalized by him in the ballad “The Eve of St John” (eng. The Eve of St John, 1808), in Roxbergshire, in areas where According to legend, Thomas Learmonth lived.

Scott began as a poet and translator of German. His first major work was the play The House of Aspen, proposed for production in 1800; After several rehearsals, work on the play was interrupted. So for a long time Scott published only lyrics, mainly transcriptions of German ballads (for example, “Lord of Fire”, English The Fire King,).

Like Burns, Scott was interested in the history of Scottish culture, collected folk ballads, in particular, he published a collection of Minstrel Songs from the Scottish Border. The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border, 1802) in three volumes. His first prose work, Waverley, or Sixty Years Ago (1814), is considered the first Scottish historical novel. After writing this novel, Scott almost completely switched his work from poetry to prose.

Scott's works, like Burns's poems, became symbols of Scottish culture and contributed to its fame. Scott became the first English-speaking writer to achieve worldwide fame during his lifetime.

Robert Louis Stevenson (1850-1894) was famous during his lifetime, but throughout the 20th century was largely considered an author of second-rate works (children's literature and horror literature). At the end of the 20th century, critics and readers regained interest in his books.

Besides the actual fiction, Stevenson studied literary theory, literary and social criticism; he was a convinced humanist. He studied the history and culture of the Pacific Islands.

Although he is best known as a prose writer, his lyrics are also known to readers around the world; his poem "The Requiem", which also became his funeral inscription, was translated into Samoan and became a pathetic song, still popular in Samoa.

Literature in Welsh began quite early (probably around V-VI century), and not only in Wales, but also in the south of Scotland, then inhabited by the Britons. Earliest monuments: poetry of Aneirin, Taliesin, Llyvarch the Old (Welsh: Cynfeirdd "first poets"), preserved in Middle Welsh recording. In addition, the existence of poetry in Wales is evidenced by a short poem “to the staff of St. Padarna", dating directly to the Old Welsh period. Among the monuments in Latin, one can note “On the Destruction of Britain” by Gilda the Wise, as well as numerous lives.

Welsh literature flourished in the 12th century: it was then that the stories of the Mabinogion cycle and the authentic poems of Aneirin and Taliesin were probably written down, the Arthurian cycle was born (partly under the influence of the Geoffrey tradition), and later traditions associated with the names of ancient bards appeared ( the same Aneirin and Taliesin). Probably a mythological epic and tales of national heroes, such as Cadwaladr, Arthur, Tristan, etc., existed before and were common in Britain. Probably through

English literature inextricably linked in the minds of many of us with such names as William Shakespeare, Charles Dickens, Arthur Conan Doyle and Agatha Christie. However, I would like to introduce the reader to other less famous, but no less talented English writers, and also say a few words about the era in which they lived and worked.

This article provides detailed periodization of English literature from the Middle Ages to the present day and indicates the most famous works of English writers, as well as lesser-known works, but which are nevertheless worth reading.

First, let's figure out what belongs to English literature. English literature is the literature not only of writers from England, but also from all parts of Great Britain, including: Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. It is known that the English language has more words than any other language in the world. As a result, there are many words with subtle differences in meaning. English writers masterfully used this variety of words, and some of them even took responsibility for creating new words, one of such writers was the brilliant W. Shakespeare.

English literature– this is a centuries-old history, brilliant authors, unforgettable works that reflect the peculiarities of the national character. We grow up with the books of these great writers, learn and develop with their help. It is impossible to convey the importance of English writers and the contribution they made to world literature. It is difficult to imagine a world without the works of Shakespeare, Dickens, Wilde and many others. English literature is divided into periods, each of which had its own writers and poets, whose works reflected certain events and facts from the history of the country.

It is customary to distinguish the following periods in English literature:

1st period: early Middle Ages or Anglo-Saxon period 450-1066

Historical fact: in 1066 England was conquered by the Normans led by William the Conqueror. This conquest ends this period.

Predominant genre: poem.

The most famous works: Beowulf

Works from this period are passed on by word of mouth. They are characterized by the following features: fatality, comparison of the church and paganism, praise of heroes and successful battles.

The most important work of this period is considered the poem Beowulf, which has a national epic status in England. Beowulf is the longest epic poem written in Old English. The poem contains more than 3000 lines and is divided into 3 parts. Beowulf is a classic tale of the triumph of good over evil. It describes the exploits of a hero named Beowulf, his battles with a monster, the mother of this monster and a dragon.

2nd period: Middle Ages: 1066 - 1500

Predominant genre: folk tales, chivalric romance, ballad

In the 11th-12th centuries, church-didactic works predominated in literature (“Ormulum”, “Ode to Morality”), starting from the middle of the 13th century, there was a transition to more everyday genres(folk "Cuckoo Song", "Bev of Amton", "Horn" and "Havelock").

In the XIII-XIV centuries - the creation of chivalric novels about King Arthur and his knights. In 1469, Thomas Malory collected a whole set of novels about the exploits of knights, and his work “Le Morte d’Arthur” became a monument of English literature of the late Middle Ages.

The beginning of the development of the genre of folk poetry - ballads. Ballads about the brave robber Robin Hood are very popular.

And finally, the second half of this period is considered a new page in the history of English literature and is associated with the name of Geoffrey Chaucer. If previously it was customary to write works in Latin, then Chaucer became the first to write in English. His most famous work was “”.

3rd period: Renaissance or Renaissance: 1550 – 1660

Predominant genre: sonnets, lyric works, plays for the theater

• 1500-1558 — literature under the Tudors

The Renaissance begins with the development of the lyric genre, the leading role was assigned to poetry. Poets Philip Sidney and Edmund Spenser. One of the most notable writers during the reign of Henry VIII was great writer and the humanist Thomas More, who became famous for his book “Utopia” published in 1516.

• 1558-1603 — literature under Elizabeth

This period is associated with the reign of Elizabeth I; medieval traditions and Renaissance optimism were mixed here. Poetry, prose and drama were the main styles that flourished during this period. However, the drama had a special flourishing. Famous writers of this period were Thomas Kyd, Robert Greene, Christopher Marlowe and a little later the greatest playwright William Shakespeare.

• 1603-1625 — literature under James I

A difficult and dark period associated with the reign of James I. During this period, works of prose and also drama were actively published. The period was also marked by the translation of the Bible, carried out on behalf of the king. At this time, Shakespeare and Johnson lived and worked, as well as John Donne, Francis Bacon, and Thomas Middleton.

• 1625-1649 — literature under Charles I

The works of writers of this period were distinguished by sophistication and elegance. During this period, a circle of so-called “Cavalier poets” arose, among whom were Ben Jonson, Robert Herrick, Thomas Carew and others. Their poetry described the life of the upper class, and the main themes were: beauty, love, fidelity. They were distinguished by their wit and directness.

• 1649-1660 — protectorate period(or Puritan interregnum)

The period is associated with the name of Oliver Cromwell. The political writings of Milton, Thomas Hobbs, and the writings of Andrew Marvel predominated during this time. In September 1642 the Puritans closed theaters out of moral and religious convictions. Over the next 18 years, theaters remained closed due to the lack of dramatic works written during this time.

4th period: neoclassicism: 1660 - 1785

Predominant genre: prose, poetry, novel

John Milton " Lost heaven"(Paradise Lost), Jonathan Swift "Gulliver's Travels", Daniel Defoe "The Adventures of Robinson Crusoe", Henry Fielding "Tom Jones" (The History of Tom Jones, a foundling" (1749))

The literature of the neoclassical period was greatly influenced by French literature. The literature of this time was philosophical in nature and also possessed features of skepticism, wit, sophistication and criticism. Divided into several periods:

• 1660-1700 – period of restoration

This was the time of the restoration of the monarchy, the time of the triumph of reason and tolerance over religion and political passions. All this was marked by an abundance of prose and poetry and the emergence of a special comedy of manners known as the “Restoration Comedies.” It was during this period that John Milton wrote Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained. Other writers of this time were John Locke, John Dryden and John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester.

• 1700-1745 – Augustinian period

The predominant characteristics of the literature of the time were sophistication, clarity and elegance. Famous writers: Jonathan Swift, Alexander Pope, and Daniel Defoe. A significant contribution of this period was the publication of Defoe's first English novels, and the "novel of character" Pamela, written by Samuel Richardson in 1740.

• 1745-1785 – sentimentalism

Literature reflected the Enlightenment worldview, and writers began to emphasize instincts and feelings rather than reason and restraint. Interest in medieval ballads and folk literature aroused increasing sympathy at this time. The dominant authors of this period were Samuel Johnson, Edward Young, James Thomson, Thomas Gray, during the period of sentimentalism, the emergence of late Sentimentalism the most talented singer people of Robert Burns.

5th period: romanticism: 1785 - 1830

Predominant genre: poetry, secular romance, the birth of the Gothic novel

The most famous authors and works: Jane Austen “Pride and Prejudice”, “Sense and Sensibility”, Lord Byron “The Travels of Charles Harold”, poets of the “Lake School” (Coleridge), John Keats, Robert Burns, Walter Scott “Ivanhoe”, Mary Shelley "Frankenstein"

The works are written with feeling, using a large number of symbols. Writers believed that literature should be rich poetic images, it should be relaxed and approachable. Famous writers of that time were Jane Austen, Lord Byron, Walter Scott, poets William Blake, Percy Bysshe Shelley, John Keats, Lake School poets Samuel Taylor Coleridge, William Wordsworth. At this time is born Gothic style. Two of the most famous Gothic novelists are Anne Radcliffe and Mary Shelley.

6th period: Victorian era: 1830 – 1901

Predominant genre: novel

The most famous authors and works:(a lot of works, “David Copperfield”, "Big hopes", William Thackeray “Vanity Fair” (Vanity Fair), “Treasure Island” (), “The Adventures of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde” (), Rudyard Kipling fairy tales “Just So Stories”, (a lot of works, “Notes on Sherlock Holmes” ), (Charlotte Brontë "Jane Eyre", Emily Brontë "Wuthering Heights", Anne Brontë "Agnes Grey", "The Picture of Dorian Grey" Thomas Hardy (stories, )

• 1830-1848 — early period

The works of the early Victorian period are emotionally expressive, mostly depicting the lives of middle-class people. Among the literary genres, the novel dominates. Long novels are divided into many episodes, which are then published in newspapers, which made it possible to reduce their cost and thus make them accessible to the lower class. Charles Dickens, William Thackeray and Elizabeth Gaskell also resorted to this method of attracting readers. famous writers this time Robert Stevenson, Arthur Conan Doyle, the Bronte sisters.

• 1848-1870 — interim period

In 1848, a group of English artists, among whom was Dante Gabriel Rossetti, organized the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. Their main goal was to return to the paintings the truthfulness, simplicity and adherence to religion that existed under Raphael. In turn, Rossetti and his literary circle transferred these ideals into their works.

• 1870-1901 — late period

For literature, this is a period of aestheticism and decadence. Oscar Wilde and other authors of this style insisted on experimentation and believed that art was categorically against “natural” moral norms.

7th period: modernism: 1901 – 1960

Predominant genre: novel

• 1901 – 1914 — literature under Edward VII

The period is named after King Edward VII and covers the time from the death of Queen Victoria (1901) to the outbreak of the First World War (1914). At that time British Empire was at its height, and the rich were drowning in luxury. However, four-fifths of the English population lived in poverty. And the works of this period reflect these social conditions. Among the writers denouncing class injustice and selfishness of the upper class were writers such as George Bernard Shaw and H.G. Wells. Other writers of the time: Joseph Conrad, Rudyard Kipling, Henry James, E. M. Forster.

• 1910 – 1936 — literature under George V

Many Edwardian writers continue to write during this period. In addition to them, the so-called Georgians write, including such poets as Rupert Brooke and David Herbert Lawrence. They describe beauty in their poems rural landscapes, peace and tranquility of nature. Writers of this period experimented with themes, forms and styles. Among them: James Joyce, D. Lawrence and Virginia Woolf. Playwrights: Noel Coward and Samuel Beckett.

• 1939 – 1960 - literature during the Second World War and the post-war period

Second World War had a huge influence on the work of writers of that time. And subsequent generations grew up hearing stories about this terrible war. Wartime poets Sidney Keyes and David Gascoyne also wrote about the war, Philip Larkin and Pet Barker.

8th period: postmodernism 1960 – today

Predominant genre: novel

The most famous authors and works: XX century has become very fruitful in the field of popular literature, the following names are probably well known to you:
- (1890-1976): " " and other detectives
— Ian Fleming (1908-1964): James Bond novels
— J. Tolkien (1892-1973): The Lord of the Rings
— S. Lewis (1898-1963): Chronicles of Narnia
— J.K. Rowling "Harry Potter"

Postmodernism mixes literary genres and styles in an attempt to break free from modernist forms. Unlike the modernists, who took themselves and their work very seriously, the postmodernists treated everything with irony. The concept of “black humor” appears in literature. However, postmodernism borrows some features from its predecessor and even strengthens them, this concerns pessimism and the desire for the avant-garde. The features of postmodernism are especially clearly reflected in the drama. Thus, Samuel Beckett's play "Waiting for Godot" is a striking example of the theater of the absurd and combines pessimistic philosophy and comedy.

Studying English Literature must be inextricably linked with the study of the era, historical events and the culture of his time. When starting to read a book, do not be lazy and read the biography of the writer, get acquainted with the time of creation of the work. Reading literature is not just an exciting activity, but also a great responsibility, because after reading something, we share our opinion with friends and family. Classic literature, coming from the pens of great creators of words and plot, cannot be bad. Sometimes we just don't understand it...

English literature

A recognized masterpiece of modern English prose, a book that opened the “neo-Gothic” genre to the general public and made Anglo-American critics talk about the return of the golden age of the British novel, covered with the names of Charlotte and Emily Brontë and Daphne Du Maurier. The debut novel of a modest teacher, the rights to which were bought for money unprecedented for a beginning author (a million dollars for an American edition), outsold the bestsellers of recent years, was instantly translated into several dozen languages ​​and received the honorary name from reviewers as the “new” Jane Eyre ".
██ ██ A soulful book in the style of good old England, but with a modern twist. Cozy and warm. A wonderful story from a modern English writer. An amazingly kind, touching novel that will give everyone a feeling of celebration and a real New Year's mood. Five is not too much happy people By force of circumstances, they end up in the same house in the north of Scotland. Rosamund Pilcher talks about her characters with a warm, kind smile, and the reader begins to believe that the approaching Christmas will definitely bring wonderful changes to their lives. The novel by the famous English writer is distinguished by lyricism, gentle humor and unexpected plot twists.

██ ██ A Christmas Carol became a sensation when it was first published, influencing our Christmas traditions. This is a story-parable about the rebirth of the miser and misanthrope Scrooge, in which the writer, with the help of fantastic images of Christmas Spirits, shows his hero the only way to salvation - to do good to people. One day, the spirit of Marley's late companion appeared to Scrooge. The author skillfully describes the appearance of this spirit in such a way that the blood in the veins of not only the protagonist, but also the reader, runs cold.
██ ██ The long-awaited novel from David Mitchell, each book of which becomes an event in world literature. On the pages of this work, Mitchell created a whole world, immersed in which the reader, trusting the imagination and will of the author, will seem to walk through a labyrinth, where a lot of interesting things await him: unexpected discoveries, unpredictable plot twists, getting to know the most colorful characters, many of whom Mitchell’s fans know from previous novels. The plot of the story is an everyday situation: 1984, the main character, Holly Sykes, runs away from home after quarreling with her mother. But this is where the realistic component of the story ends. Next, events will happen to Holly that cannot happen to mere mortals.

📖 Cornwall, 1933. Alice Edevane lives on a beautiful estate with her family. The days flow by as usual, and nothing threatens the ideal world, devoid of worries. But one day the irreparable happens - Theo, Alice's younger brother, mysteriously disappears. And soon after, the lifeless body of a family friend is found. What is this - suicide or crime? And if it’s suicide, could Theo’s disappearance be the reason? In 2003, detective Sadie Sparrow finds herself in Cornwall. Walking through the forest, she accidentally discovers an abandoned house - the same one in which the tragedy occurred...

JOJO MOYES (1969)

Jojo Moyes is an English novelist and journalist. Born in London

██ ██ Lisa McCullin lives in a quiet town in Australia. However, Mike Dormer appears in it, who wants to turn it into a sparkling fashion resort. The only thing Mike couldn't foresee was that Lisa McCullin would get in his way. And of course, he could not even imagine that love would flare up in his heart...

██ ██ An old, dilapidated mansion is located on the shore of a lake in a picturesque location near London. And around this mansion that local residents called the Spanish House, passions flare up.For Isabella Delancey, a young widow with two children, this is a refuge from the storms and hardships of life that befell her after the unexpected death of her beloved husband. For Matt McCarthy, who is renovating his home while trying to keep Isabella alive by wildly inflating his prices, this is his chance to own the Spanish home. For Nicholas Trent, a developer, this is an opportunity to create a luxury village for the elite on the site of an old house. And Byron Firth is trying to at least temporarily find a roof over his head.
██ ██ Lou Clark knows how many steps it is from the bus stop to her house. She knows that she really likes her job at the cafe and that she probably doesn't love her boyfriend Patrick. But Lou does not know that she is about to lose her job and that in the near future she will need all her strength to overcome the problems that have befallen her.Will Traynor knows the motorcyclist who hit him took away his will to live. And he knows exactly what needs to be done to put an end to all this. But he doesn’t know that Lou will soon burst into his world with a riot of colors. And they both don't know that they will change each other's lives forever.A sad story about small lives and big dreams that will make you cry.
██ ██ To be honest, I didn’t want to add this book to the list of the worst, but it really is a complete disappointment.The first book is much stronger... Much. A LOT. Me Before You made Jojo Moyes a very popular author and the book a truly bestseller. Then other works came, but that first book is truly a masterpiece. I cried and couldn't stop after reading it. And now comes the continuation of this sensational story, “Me Before You.” I was completely speechless. I couldn't wait to immerse myself in the experience again. main character, I wanted to read about it again future fate heroes. Unfortunately, I was disappointed. No, you can read it, of course... But the second part will be a bestseller only because everyone who read the first book, of course, will want to know - what's next... Personally, I'm not delighted. While reading the first book I cried, while reading the sequel I didn’t feel anything. I read and waited all the time - come on, something so emotional must have already happened. No. Somehow overly sentimental and with a taste of American Happy End.Was it necessary to write this sequel at all? I think not.

██ ██ An unforgettable and touching story of women of three generations, bound by indissoluble bonds. The relationship between Joy and Kate, mother and daughter, is far from ideal, and Kate, trying to arrange her personal life, runs away from home. Vowing to herself that if she ever had a daughter, she, Kate, would become her best friend and they would never be separated. But history repeats itself. Sabina, Kate's daughter, has grown up stubborn and defiant, and she treats her mother with contempt due to Kate's string of love failures. And so circumstances develop such that Sabina comes to her grandmother Joy.

HELEN FIELDING (1958)

Helen Fielding - English writer. Born in Morley, West Yorkshire.

██ ██ Every woman is a little Bridget, even if she doesn't admit it. The continuation of the adventures of the unsinkable optimist Bridget Jones is a novel in the heroine of which many women can recognize themselves, and many men will gain invaluable information about mysterious soul, the tricks and weaknesses of the fair half of humanity.A continuation of the novel "Bridget Jones's Diary" about how jealousy and prison (wherever you end up for stupidity!) almost drove Bridget to madness. But it was when she lost hope of marriage to the irresistible bore Mark Darcy that she had a real chance to change her life.

██ ██ Helen Fielding continues the story of the touching Bridget Jones. Bridget's diary is for those unfortunate and tireless seekers of happiness like herself. In pursuit of happiness, her friends and dating sites come to her aid, but the realI love is waiting for Bridget in a completely different place. Have you ever allowed yourself to eat a third cake, drink too much, or for no reason? Have you ever forgotten to pick up your kids from school? Have you promised yourself that on Monday you will quit smoking and start doing exercises? Have you ever looked stupid and ridiculous? And didn't tweet about the date even though it wasn't over yet? No? Then this book is not for you.

ALICE PETERSON (1974)

Alice Peterson is a modern English novelist. The main theme of her novels is the life of people with disabilities in Europe. Alice now lives in west London with her inspiration dog, Darcy.