Mongol conquests of Rus'. Tatar-Mongol yoke. Tatar-Mongol invasion of Rus'
To the question Where and when did the first clash of Russian troops with the Tatar-Mongols take place? How did this battle end? given by the author Benefit the best answer is Battle of Kalka. Genghis Khan sent two of his tumens (a detachment of 10 thousand horsemen) to search for the then head of the son of Khorezm Shah Zhdelal-ed-Din. They were led by Subudai (the future teacher of Genghis’s grandson, Batu Khan, or Batu) and Jebe. They discovered that the Khorezm Shah Muhammad himself had perished in the Caspian Sea area, but the order ordered them to go “to the last sea” - so they went.
The Russians accepted the battle, but underestimated the strength of the two tumens, and stretched their forces, after which they found themselves trapped. The Tatars executed the princes without shedding blood (considered a great sin) - they laid logs on the bound princes and sat down to feast on them in honor of the victory.
After this, the Tumen returned back, having completed the “reconnaissance in force” mission. It was only later that the Khan himself came to Rus' personally and with an army. Only not Genghis Khan, but his grandson Batu (his father was secretly executed on the orders of Genghis Khan, since, in his opinion, he was a threat to his power). But that is another story.
Answer from Judex[guru]
The first clash between Rus' and the Tatar-Mongols took place on May 31, 1223 on the Kalka River. But it was an accident, a reconnaissance campaign of the Mongol-Tatars. A thirty thousand Mongol army led by commanders Jebe and Subede was moving from Transcaucasia. They defeated the Alans and Polovtsians and then the Polovtsians turned to Rus' for help. A congress of princes is meeting in Kyiv. Who agree to take part in the campaign against the Tatar-Mongols. They agreed to take part in the hike Kyiv prince Mstislav Romanovich, Chernigov, Galitsky. The Tatar-Mongols sent envoys to Rus', but the Russian princes refused to negotiate with them, killing them all. Russian army having united with the Polovtsians, he met with the Tatar-Mongols on the Kalka River. The Tatar-Mongols won. The main reasons for the defeat were the lack of coordination between the actions of the Russian princes, but of course one cannot deny the strength and power of the Tatar-Mongol army. As a result, 6 Russian princes died. 3 were captured and brutally killed; only every tenth of the soldiers returned home.
Answer from Katya Kotova[newbie]
on the Kalka River
Answer from Albatross[expert]
The Tatar cavalry rushed past so quickly that no one had time to notice it. Just a column of dust. But, of course, except for historians. They noticed it, justified it, and wrote it in the textbook. The first meeting of Rus' with the Mongol-Tatars took place, precisely, on paper, with the help of historians.
But seriously, there was the Slavic-Aryan empire of Great Tartaria. And there were its inhabitants - Tartarians. Male Tartarians served in the cavalry horde. Geographically, a horde is a camp site for a mounted army-horde. In the old days, a horde army was also an emergency impact force and border guards. During the time of Prince Alexander Nevsky, there was precisely the Tartarian cavalry. And Prince Alexander helped the provinces of Great Tartaria. There were no Mongols or Tatars then. They also fought within the Slavic-Aryan empire of Great Tartaria from opposite sides, which led to its collapse. By the way, the Polovtsians are straw-haired Slavs. From the Slavic word chaff - chopped straw.
Conquest of Russian lands by the Mongol-Tatars
State of the Mongol-Tatars.
The Mongol-Tatar state was formed in 1206 and was initially located in the territory from Lake Baikal and the upper reaches of the Yenisei and Irtysh in the north to the southern regions of the Gobi and Great Deserts. Chinese wall. At the congress of the Mongolian nobility, Temujin (Genghis Khan, 1206-1227) was elected the first leader of the Mongolian state. The Mongol-Tatars, like other peoples who were going through the stage of state formation, were distinguished by their strength and solidity.
The Mongol-Tatars, who were engaged in nomadic cattle breeding, were especially interested in expanding pastures and organizing predatory campaigns. They began by conquering the lands of their neighbors - the Buryats, Evenks, Yakuts, Uighurs, and Yenisei Kyrgyz. Then they invaded China and Korea. In 1219 The Mongol army conquered Central Asia (Khorezm, Merv, Bukhara, Urgench), then invaded Iran and Transcaucasia and west coast The Caspian Sea enters the steppes of the North Caucasus, where it defeats the Alans and Polovtsians. The Polovtsians turned to the Russian princes for help. The united army of the Polovtsians and Russians in 1223. entered into battle with the Mongol-Tatars on the Kalka River. This was the first clash between the Russians and the Mongol-Tatar army. The Mongols won.
Conquest of Russian lands by the Mongol-Tatars
The Mongol-Tatars made two campaigns, as a result of which they managed to conquer Russian lands. The first campaign took place in 1237-1238, during which the eastern and northeastern lands of Rus' were attacked. In 1237 Ryazan was the first of the Russian lands to take the blow of the invaders. The princes of neighboring principalities did not help her. The people of Ryazan bravely defended their city for five days, and only on the sixth day of the siege the city was taken and the surviving residents were killed. In January 1238, the Mongols moved along the Oka River to the Vladimir-Suzdal land. The battle with the army of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality took place near the city of Kolomna, on the border with Ryazan land. In this battle, the Vladimir army died, which actually predetermined the fate of the North-Eastern land. After a five-day siege, Moscow was taken; on the fourth day of the siege of Vladimir, the invaders broke into the city through gaps in the fortress wall and captured it. Then the Mongol-Tatars moved to the north-west of Rus', but, not reaching 100 kilometers from Novgorod, they turned south, to the steppes, to restore losses and give rest to tired troops.
The second campaign of the Mongol-Tatars took place in 1239-1241, during which the southern and southwestern lands of Rus' were attacked. In 1239, Batu captured the Pereyaslavl and then the Chernigov principalities. In 1240, Mongol troops besieged Kiev and, after a long siege, captured it. In 1241, the Galicia-Volyn principality was attacked.
Reasons for the defeat of Russian lands:
1. feudal fragmentation Rus'; princely feuds prevented us from uniting forces to fight back strong enemy, each principality defended itself from the Mongol-Tatars;
2. the superiority of the Mongol army in numbers, weapons, organization, and military art; The princely cavalry squads were not inferior to the Mongolian nukers in terms of armament and fighting qualities, but they were small in number; the bulk of the Russian army was made up of militia - urban and rural warriors, inferior to the Mongols in weapons and combat skills.
After the defeat of Rus', the Mongol hordes moved to Europe, but in 1242 they suffered a series of setbacks in the Czech Republic and Hungary, and they decided to return back to the east. But the Mongol-Tatars did not remain on Russian lands either, since they were not suitable for nomadic cattle breeding. Batu leads his hordes to the Volga steppes and creates the state of the Golden Horde. The Golden Horde covered a vast territory from the Danube to the Irtysh. The capital of the Golden Horde was the city of Saray, located in the lower reaches of the Volga. The Golden Horde was one of the largest states of its time. IN early XIV century, she could field an army of 300,000. The heyday of the Golden Horde occurred during the reign of Khan Uzbek (1312-1342). During this era, Islam became the state religion of the Golden Horde. Then just like the others medieval states The Horde was going through a period of fragmentation. Already in the 14th century, the Central Asian possessions of the Horde separated, in 1438 the Kazan Khanate emerged, in 1443 - the Crimean Khanate, in 1459 - the Astrakhan Khanate at the end of the 15th century. - Siberian Khanate. The collapse of the Golden Horde facilitated the struggle of the Russian lands against the Golden Horde yoke. In 1502, the Crimean Khanate dealt a crushing blow to the Golden Horde, after which it ceased to exist.
As a result of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, Rus' did not lose its statehood; it retained its own administration and church organization, but fell into vassalage from the Golden Horde. The yoke of the Golden Horde was expressed in economic and political terms.
Economically:
1. annual payment of tribute (“exit”) to the Golden Horde;
3. fulfillment of duties by the Russian population (carriage, construction in favor of the conquerors);
4. creation of favorable conditions for Horde merchants.
Politically:
1. Russian princes, before ascending the throne, had to receive a “label” from the Golden Horde - permission to reign;
2. the institution of Baskaks was created - leaders of military detachments of the Mongol-Tatars, who monitored the activities of the Russian princes;
3. constant punitive raids of Mongol troops on Russian lands;
4. terror against Russian princes.
The Mongol conquest and the Golden Horde yoke had enormous consequences for Russia:
The devastation of Russian lands and cities led to a delay in economic, cultural and political development Rus'. Russian lands are beginning to lag behind European states in their development;
Reinforced the feudal fragmentation of lands;
Severed ties between northeastern and southwestern Russia;
Rus' falls out of the number European countries and switches to the eastern (Asian) path of development.
Page 1
In 1207, Genghis Khan transferred to his eldest son Jochi as an ulus of land in the Irtysh basin and further to the west, “wherever the foot of a Mongol horse sets foot,” thus outlining a plan for conquest campaigns towards Europe. Until the early 30s of the 13th century; Mongol-Tatars, busy with wars in China and Central Asia, conducted active strategic reconnaissance of the future theater of military operations, collected information about the political situation, economic and military potential of European countries.
In 1219, the Mongol army attacked Central Asia, which was under the rule of the ruler of Khorezm (the country at the mouth of the Amu Darya) Muhammad. The overwhelming majority of the population hated the power of the Khorezmians. The nobility, merchants and Muslim clergy were opposed to Muhammad. Under these conditions, Genghis Khan's troops successfully conquered Central Asia. Bukhara and Samarkand were captured. Khorezm was devastated, its ruler fled from the Mongols to Iran, where he soon died. One of the corps of the Mongol army, led by military leaders Sudubei and Jebe, continued the campaign and went on further reconnaissance to the west. Having rounded the Caspian Sea from the south, the Mongol troops invaded Georgia and Azerbaijan, and then broke through to North Caucasus, where the Polovtsians were defeated. The Polovtsian khans turned to the Russian princes for help. In 1233, when Mstislav Udaloy was in Galich, the main Polovtsian khan Kotyan unexpectedly appeared to him, with whom there were several other khans, his assistants. They came to ask for help. At the princely congress in Kyiv, the Kiev, Galician, Chernigov and Volyn princes decided to come to the aid of the Polovtsians, who were being pressed by the Mongol reconnaissance detachment of Sudubei and Jebe. This was the last military enterprise on the eve of Batu’s invasion, in which most of the Russian princes took part. But due to feudal strife, the then strongest prince in Rus', Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich Vladimirsky, did not participate in the campaign.
On May 31, 1223, not far from the Kalka River, the united Russian-Polovtsian army met with the main forces of the Mongol-Tatars. The lack of a unified command, inconsistency of actions and strife between the princes even during the battle predetermined the tragic outcome of the battle for the Russian regiments and Polovtsians. The success of the Galician-Volyn squads of Mstislav the Udal and young Daniil Romanovich Volynsky, who pushed back the fighting ranks of the Mongol-Tatars at the beginning of the battle, was not supported by other princes. Unable to withstand the blow of the Mongol cavalry, the Polovtsians fled in panic from the battlefield, disrupting the ranks of the fighting Russian soldiers. The Kiev prince Mstislav Romanovich, who was at enmity with Mstislav the Udal, fortified himself with his numerous regiment on the side of the battle on a hill and until the end of the battle remained an outside observer of the defeat of the Russian regiments. On the third day of the siege of the camp by the Mongols, the Kiev prince laid down his arms, believing Subedei’s promise to release him unhindered to Rus', but was brutally killed along with other princes and warriors. A tenth of the Russian army returned from the banks of Kalka to Rus'. Rus' has never known such a heavy defeat. The people preserved the memory of this bloody battle in the epic about the death of the Russian heroes who had previously guarded and defended Rus' from the steppe nomads.
The Mongols pursued the remnants of the Russian squads to the Dnieper, but did not dare to invade Rus', since their ranks were greatly thinned in the Battle of Kalka. Retreating to the east, to join the main forces of Genghis Khan, Subedey tried to penetrate the borders of Volga Bulgaria, but failed. However, the main task assigned to his squad is to produce military intelligence forces of the Polovtsians and Rus' - was fulfilled.
In the late 20s - early 30s, the Mongols undertook unsuccessful attempt to take possession of the lands of the Polovtsians, Alans, Bashkirs and Volga Bulgarians with the forces of one ulus of Jochi. Then in 1235, at the kurultai in Karakorum, a decision was made on an all-Mongol campaign to the west to conquer the countries of Europe. Jochi's son Batu Khan was placed at the head of the campaign, and Subedey became his advisor.
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Rus' and the Horde. Formation of the Mongol-Tatar state
Numerous tribes lived on the vast expanses of the Asian steppes. They had not yet emerged from the state of primitiveness; they were engaged in nomadic cattle breeding. The most powerful of these tribes were the Mongols and Tatars. But these Asian tribes were already forming new relationships, the process of state formation was underway and the most stubborn struggle for leadership was between the Mongols and Tatars. The Mongols won and the new state began to be called by the name of these tribes (Mongol-Tatar). And in 1206, at a congress of the Mongol nobility, the ruler Genghis Khan was elected. The new government was paramilitary in nature - why?
The first conquests of the Mongol-Tatars.
First, the Mongol-Tatars captured their closest neighbors; these were the small peoples of Siberia (Baikal region: Buryats, Tuvinians, Tuvats). After that they attack China in 1211. After defeating him, they borrowed his achievements, especially in the military field. After that, they capture Central Asian and Indian cities. But the main forces of the army returned home with booty. A reconnaissance detachment of 30 thousand people went further. They pass through Iran and Transcaucasia, where the Alans (modern Ossetians) showed stubborn resistance to them.
After conquering the Caucasus, the Mongol-Tatars entered the steppes where the Polovtsians lived. They had long been in a special relationship with the Russian princes because... alliances were often concluded with them to fight in civil strife (for the Kiev throne). The Polovtsian khans, frightened by enemies who came from nowhere, turn to the Russian princes for help “today they will take our lands, and tomorrow they will take yours.” But the Russian princes did not see the danger in this, and only six Russian princes agreed to lead their squads to the Polovtsian steppes. The decisive battle took place on the Kalka River in 1223. The Russian-Polovtsian forces suffered a shameful defeat, 0.9 Russian forces and all six Russian princes were killed.
Batya's invasion.
After the battle on the Kalka River, to the surprise of everyone, the Mongol-Tatars did not go deep into the Russian lands, but returned back. And in Rus' they discussed for a long time what kind of people they were and where they came from. Genghis Khan divided all the conquered lands among his sons, and the westernmost of them went to his grandson Batu. He continued his conquests in 1236. He continued his conquests in 1236. He attacks Volga-Bulgaria (modern Chuvashia). He devastates cities and villages, destroys the population, the survivors are captured and a small part hides in the forests. 1237 - Russian lands suffer this fate. The lands of the Ryazan principality were the first to be attacked. Not a single Russian city surrendered without a fight, everyone stubbornly resisted, but every man for himself. Of all the Russian cities, Veliky Novgorod remained unravaged; the Mongol-Tatars turned back before reaching it 100 km. In 1240, Kyiv and its surroundings were ravaged.
What are the reasons for the defeat of Russian lands?
1. The balance of power was not equal
2. Russian cities did not have a perfect defense system
3. Russian cities were forced to conduct defensive tactics
4. Among the Russian princes, only the squad was mounted, and the rest of the army was on foot, while the Mongol-Tatars had the entire army on horseback
5. Fragmentation of Russian lands
Formation of the Mongol-Tatar state of the Golden Horde.
After the conquest of Russian lands, Batu heads to Europe. They devastated Poland, Hungary, and the Czech Republic. But they did not move forward. They return to the Volga and in its lower reaches the capital of the state created by Batu is created - Sarai-Batu. And the state itself began to be called the Golden Horde. Analyze Pushkin’s expression: “Tormented, bleeding Rus' has become a shield for Western Europe.”Horde yoke.
As a result of Batu's conquests, a new state of the Golden Horde was formed, and Russian lands became part of this state, even those cities that the Mongol-Tatars did not capture. The Khan did not appoint his governors to rule the Russian lands, but retained the power of the Russian princes, but appointed them to rule not according to the Russian tradition of seniority, but at his own discretion. And in this appointment he was guided by the desire to create a conflict situation between the Russian princes. Thus, he specifically made such an appointment so that they would constantly be at odds. The khan confirmed his choice by issuing a label - this is a khan's letter. He specifically made such an appointment so that the Russian princes would be in a quarrel all the time.
Characteristics of the Golden Horde system.
Khan creates special system control over the actions of Russian princes, as well as control over the collection of tribute and the fulfillment of duties. The main weapon of this system were punitive detachments. Any violation was followed by cruel punishment, in most cases it was physical violence and death. The Russian people rebelled against these detachments more than once, but each time they ended tragically.
Duties of Russian people during the yoke.
Russian people had to pay taxes and perform duties in favor of the horde. There were approximately 14 of the most famous - they were reduced to providing for the Mongol-Tatars good roads, bridges, hay, grain, etc., for example: feed - provision of hay. Only the Russian Church was exempt from all obligations. At first, the Mongol-Tatars were engaged in collecting these taxes, but after the uprisings of the Russian people, the khan transferred this right to the Russian princes. To better collect taxes and fulfill all duties, the Mongol-Tatars conducted a census of the population of all of Rus' - this was the first census in our history (this census was accompanied by popular uprisings).
The influence of the Mongol-Tatar yoke on the development of Rus'.
1. The Russian lands suffered colossal damage. The damage was so significant that a number of cities were not restored, stone construction stopped, some crafts disappeared, and were lost forever priceless works culture.
2. The pace of development of the Russian lands slowed down and a lag behind Europe emerged, and it was so significant that it was never possible to overcome it. The Russians borrowed traditions, clothing styles, words from the Mongol-Tatars, for example: physical torture, became the norm among Russian rulers, but this was not the case before; Tatar clothes.
3. Russian people were forced for a long time to be dependent on the Mongol-Tatars and to be afraid of their cruel punishments, and in connection with this, unattractive traits were formed in the character of people: once again “bowing”, flattery, lies, etc.
4. The position of women in society has changed dramatically: if before the yoke she was an active life position, then now this activity has come to naught, because their activities were now limited to household chores, they even tried to let them out into the street less.
The struggle of Russian lands and principalities with the crusaders
At the beginning of the 13th century. Russian lands faced another disaster - the aggressive claims of the German and Swedish invaders. Their attacks on Russian lands were part of the predatory doctrine of the German knights “Drang nach Osten”, i.e. “Onslaught on the East”. These plans were supported by the Pope. To carry out conquests in the East, detachments of crusaders were used - members of knightly Orders, the most significant of them being the Teutonic Order and the Livonian Order.
The offensive of the knights especially intensified due to the weakening of Rus', which was bleeding in the fight against the Mongol conquerors. The Swedes are the first to begin their attack. In July 1240, the Swedish fleet entered the mouth of the river. The Neva were the lands of the Novgorod principality. Prince Alexander of Novgorod acted so quickly and skillfully, and decisively, that the Swedes were surrounded and defeated without having time to take major actions. Prince Alexander for the victory on the river. People began to call Neva Alexander Nevsky - he was only 20 years old at that time. The meaning of this victory is The Swedes abandoned their aggressive policy against Russian lands for a long time.
In the summer of 1240, the Livonian Order, as well as the Danish knights, captured part of the Russian lands, including the city of Pskov and approached Novgorod. Alexander Nevsky was again entrusted with organizing resistance to the invaders. He proved himself to be an outstanding commander. First he liberated Pskov. Then he positioned his squads in such a way that he deprived the enemy of the opportunity to make maneuvers and reconnaissance. The German knights had no choice, and they were forced to go to battle on the ice Lake Peipsi – April 5, 1242- this battle is called Battle on the Ice . The German knights lost and fled in panic. They were driven across the ice, which was already weak and was falling under the heavily armed German knights.
Meaning This victory is that the military power of the Livonian Order was weakened. However, relying on the help of the Roman Catholic Church, the German knights at the end of the 13th century. captured a significant part of the Baltic lands, as a result of which Russia lost access to the Baltic Sea.
Formation Russian state.
The unification of Russian lands around Moscow.
After Batu's pogrom, which contemporaries compared to a universal catastrophe, Rus' begins to restore its strength. This process took place most intensively in the northeast former Rus'- in the lands of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality. In the area between the Oka and Volga rivers, population growth was observed; the population flow came from the south and north-west. The restoration of the country's economy and its further development created the prerequisites for the unification of Russian lands. The question was being resolved around which center the Russian lands would unite. Of all the Russian cities, Moscow and Tver laid claim to leadership. In the 2nd half of the 13th century, the Tver principality was the strongest in Rus'. But at the beginning of the 14th century Moscow rapidly rose. Before the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars, it was a small border point of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, but is gradually turning into an important political center that time.
What are the reasons for the rise of Moscow?
1. Geographically advantageous position - it was in the center of Russian lands.
2. Closed by forests and other lands from the mt - influx of population.
3. It turned out to be an important junction of land and water trade routes.
4. The flexible policy of the Moscow princes, who managed to attract other principalities and the church to their side.
The founder of the dynasty of Moscow princes was younger son A. Nevsky - Daniil. He significantly expanded the territory of the Moscow Principality. And his son Yuri begins an open struggle with the Tver prince for the khan's label to the grand-ducal throne. This was the struggle cruel character: attack, murders, denunciations to the khan. In 1327 in Tver popular uprising against the Tatars. The Moscow prince Ivan Danilovich, with the help of the Tatars, suppressed this uprising - received a label and became the Grand Duke. His nickname was Ivan Kalita. He pursued a flattering policy towards the Horde (gifts, suppressed uprisings, diligently collected tribute). His reign was called “great silence”, because. Horde troops did not attack. Under him, the Moscow principality became the richest. The head of the Russian church moved to Moscow - the metropolitan, i.e. it became not only a political, but also a religious center.
Is Ivan Kalita's policy clear? Who is right in the rivalry between two principalities?
1325 - 1340 Tver - open struggle, Moscow flattering policy to gather strength.
Under the sons of Ivan Kalita - Simeon the Proud (1340-1353) and Ivan the Red (1353-1359) the lands of the Moscow principality expanded even more and often even without military action. This policy was continued by other Moscow princes. Special role Dmitry Donskoy, Battle of Kulikovo 1380 (internecine strife in the Horde). But this is not yet a complete victory, even Tokhtamysh in 1382. But in the first half of the 15th century, under the heirs of Dmitry Donskoy, a real feudal war, it is understood as a struggle between supporters and opponents of centralization of power. At the end of the 14th century, the Moscow principality increased 30 times.
But Ivan III did especially a lot to expand Moscow in 1462-1505: he managed to complete the unification of northeastern Rus' almost bloodlessly. He was the first to accept the title “Sovereign of All Rus'”, the coat of arms is a double-headed eagle, he erected the red brick Moscow Kremlin, under him the Horde yoke was overthrown, the first Code of Law was drawn up, and under him the term “Russia” began to be used.
1. In 1223 and in 1237 - 1240. Russian principalities were attacked by the Mongol-Tatars. The result of this invasion was the loss of independence by most of the Russian principalities and the Mongol-Tatar yoke that lasted for about 240 years - the political, economic and, in part, cultural dependence of the Russian lands on the Mongol-Tatar conquerors. Mongol-Tatars - an alliance of numerous nomadic tribes of the Eastern and Central Asia. This union of tribes received its name from the name of the dominant tribe of the Mongols, and the most warlike and cruel tribe Tatars
Tatars of the 13th century should not be confused with modern Tatars - descendants of the Volga Bulgars, who in the 13th century. Along with the Russians, they were subjected to the Mongol-Tatar invasion, but subsequently inherited the name.
At the beginning of the 13th century. under the rule of the Mongols, neighboring tribes were united, which formed the basis of the Mongol-Tatars:
- Chinese;
- Manchus;
- Uyghurs;
- Buryats;
- Transbaikal Tatars;
— other small nationalities of Eastern Siberia;
- subsequently - the peoples of Central Asia, the Caucasus and the Middle East.
The consolidation of the Mongol-Tatar tribes began at the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th centuries. The significant strengthening of these tribes is associated with the activities of Genghis Khan (Temujin), who lived in 1152/1162 - 1227.
In 1206, at the kurultai (congress of the Mongolian nobility and military leaders), Genghis Khan was elected all-Mongolian kagan (“khan of khans”). With the election of Genghis Khan as kagan, the following significant changes occurred in the life of the Mongol tribe:
— strengthening the influence of the military elite;
- overcoming internal disagreements within the Mongolian nobility and its consolidation around military leaders and Genghis Khan;
- strict centralization and organization of Mongolian society (population census, unification of the mass of scattered nomads into paramilitary units - tens, hundreds, thousands, with a clear system of command and subordination);
- the introduction of strict discipline and collective responsibility (for disobedience to the commander - the death penalty; for the offenses of an individual soldier, the entire ten were punished);
- the use of scientific and technical achievements that were advanced for that time (Mongolian specialists studied methods of storming cities in China, and battering guns were also borrowed from China);
- a radical change in the ideology of Mongolian society, the subordination of the entire Mongolian people to a single goal - the unification of neighboring Asian tribes under the rule of the Mongols, and aggressive campaigns against other countries in order to enrich and expand the habitat.
Under Genghis Khan, a unified and binding written legislation was introduced for all - Yasa, violation of which was punishable by painful types of death penalty.
2. From 1211 and in the next 60 years, the Mongol-Tatar campaigns of conquest were carried out. Conquests were carried out in four main directions:
- conquest of the Northern and Central China in 1211 - 1215;
- conquest of the states of Central Asia (Khiva, Bukhara, Khorezm) in 1219 - 1221;
- Batu’s campaign against the Volga region, Rus' and the Balkans in 1236 - 1242, the conquest of the Volga region and Russian lands;
- Kulagu Khan’s campaign in the Near and Middle East, the capture of Baghdad in 1258.
The empire of Genghis Khan and his descendants, stretching from China to the Balkans and from Siberia to Indian Ocean and which included Russian lands, existed for about 250 years and fell under the blows of other conquerors - Tamerlane (Timur), the Turks, as well as the liberation struggle of the conquered peoples.
3. The first armed clash between the Russian squad and the Mongol-Tatar army occurred 14 years before Batu’s invasion. In 1223, the Mongol-Tatar army under the command of Subudai-Baghatur went on a campaign against the Polovtsians in close proximity to Russian lands. At the request of the Polovtsians, some Russian princes provided military assistance to the Polovtsians.
May 31, 1223 on the Kalka River near Sea of Azov A battle took place between the Russian-Polovtsian troops and the Mongol-Tatars. As a result of this battle, the Russian-Polovtsian militia suffered a crushing defeat from the Mongol-Tatars. The Russian-Polovtsian army suffered heavy losses. Six Russian princes died, including Mstislav Udaloy, the Polovtsian Khan Kotyan and more than 10 thousand militiamen.
The main reasons for the defeat of the Russian-Polish army were:
- the reluctance of the Russian princes to act as a united front against the Mongol-Tatars (most Russian princes refused to respond to the request of their neighbors and send troops);
- underestimation of the Mongol-Tatars (the Russian militia was poorly armed and was not properly prepared for battle);
— inconsistency of actions during the battle (Russian troops were not a single army, but scattered squads of different princes acting in their own way; some squads withdrew from the battle and watched from the sidelines).
Having won a victory on Kalka, the army of Subudai-Baghatur did not build on its success and went to the steppes.
4. After 13 years, in 1236, the Mongol-Tatar army led by Khan Batu (Batu Khan), the grandson of Genghis Khan and the son of Jochi, invaded the Volga steppes and Volga Bulgaria (the territory of modern Tataria). Having won a victory over the Cumans and Volga Bulgars, the Mongol-Tatars decided to invade Rus'.
The conquest of Russian lands was carried out during two campaigns:
- the campaign of 1237 - 1238, as a result of which the Ryazan and Vladimir-Suzdal principalities - the northeast of Rus' - were conquered;
- campaign of 1239 - 1240, as a result of which Chernigov and Principality of Kiev, other principalities of southern Rus'. The Russian principalities offered heroic resistance. Among the most important battles wars with the Mongol-Tatars can be distinguished:
- defense of Ryazan (1237) - the very first large city, which was attacked by the Mongol-Tatars - almost all the inhabitants participated and died during the defense of the city;
- defense of Vladimir (1238);
- defense of Kozelsk (1238) - the Mongol-Tatars stormed Kozelsk for 7 weeks, for which they called it the “evil city”;
- Battle of the City River (1238) - the heroic resistance of the Russian militia prevented the further advance of the Mongol-Tatars to the north - to Novgorod;
- defense of Kyiv - the city fought for about a month.
December 6, 1240 Kyiv fell. This event is considered the final defeat of the Russian principalities in the fight against the Mongol-Tatars.
The main reasons for the defeat of the Russian principalities in the war against the Mongol-Tatars are considered to be:
- feudal fragmentation;
- lack of a single centralized state and a unified army;
- enmity between princes;
- the transition of individual princes to the side of the Mongols;
- the technical backwardness of the Russian squads and the military and organizational superiority of the Mongol-Tatars.
5. Having won a victory over most of the Russian principalities (except for Novgorod and Galicia-Volyn), Batu’s army invaded Europe in 1241 and marched through the Czech Republic, Hungary and Croatia.
Having reached the Adriatic Sea, in 1242 Batu stopped his campaign in Europe and returned to Mongolia. The main reasons for the end of the Mongol expansion into Europe
— fatigue of the Mongol-Tatar army from the 3-year war with the Russian principalities;
- clash with the Catholic world under the rule of the Pope, who, like the Mongols, had a strong internal organization and became a strong competitor to the Mongols for more than 200 years;
- exacerbation political situation inside the empire of Genghis Khan (in 1242, Genghis Khan’s son and successor Ogedei, who became the all-Mongol Kagan after Genghis Khan, died, and Batu was forced to return to take part in the struggle for power).
Subsequently, at the end of the 1240s, Batu prepared a second invasion of Rus' (on the Novgorod land), but Novgorod voluntarily recognized the power of the Mongol-Tatars.
