Dependence of Rus' on the Golden Horde. Dependence of Rus' on the Golden Horde of the 13th – 15th centuries

Types of dependence of Rus' on the Golden Horde

1. Economic:

Annual payment of tribute - “Horde exit”

Other duties (for example, the need to serve in the army, participate in the military campaigns of the khan)

2. Political:

Reign by label

Control over the activities of princes

Interference with management

Cruel reprisal against the disobedient.

The princes reacted differently to the yoke:

1. Daniil Galitsky - was for cooperation with the West in the fight against the Golden Horde.
2. Alexander Nevsky - for cooperating with the Horde to prevent raids
3. Andrei Yaroslavovich and others - systematic resistance, continuous small uprisings, but after the Nevryuev army, which Andrei fought, he fled first to Novgorod, then to Sweden, open resistance to the Horde ceased.

Periods of Rus''s dependence on the Golden Horde

1. The beginning of the yoke is the most difficult period in the history of Rus'.

2.Since 1263 Alexander Nevsky achieved the right to personally carry tribute to Ostia, preventing raids by the Baskaks.

3. 14th century - dependence weakens after victories in Donskoy in the Battle of Kulikovo.

4. 15th century - gradual liberation from the yoke.

Reasons for the victories of the Golden Horde

• The strictest discipline in the army
• Flexible tactics, presence of intelligence
• Well-trained soldiers, modern weapons for those times.
• Organization of troops according to the decimal system. In dozens they are relatives.
• Skillful leaders

Consequences of the yoke:

Pointsview on the consequences of the yoke of the Golden Horde

• N.M. Karamzin, V.O. Klyuchevsky was celebrated positive influence, cooperation between Rus' and the Horde, thanks to which fragmentation ended faster and a monarchy was established.
• N.I. Kostomarov saw the positive only in the fact that law and “unique power” were being formed.
• Overall rating modern historians(V.O. Klyuchevsky, S.M. Solovyov) - negative. The yoke brought enormous destruction and loss of life.
• L.N. Gumilyov generally rejected the existence of the yoke and considered it a myth.

Some terms.

Yoke is a system of political and economic domination of the khans Z.O. over Russia.

The Horde - among the Turkic and Mongolian peoples - is a military-administrative organization.

Kurultai - national assembly, council of elders.

"Yasa" is a code of laws of Genghis Khan.

Ulus - possession. Rus' was the Khan's ulus, and the Russian princes were his vassals.

Yarlyk is a khan's charter, which gave the Russian princes the right to reign in their lands. The most attractive was the reign of Vladimir, because Prince of Vladimir had the right to seniority.

“Horde exit” - payment of tribute.

Bessermen - commanders of the Horde army

Baskaki - representatives of the khan in Rus' during the collection of tribute

Periods of rule of Russians and princes and Golden Horde khans

In the 13th century. The peoples of Rus' had to endure a difficult struggle with foreign invaders. Hordes of Tatar-Mongol conquerors fell on Rus' from the east. From the west, Russian lands were subjected to aggression by German, Swedish and Danish knights - crusaders. The outcome of the heroic struggle against the invaders for a long time determined the historical destinies of the peoples of our country, had a huge impact on their further economic and state-political development, led to significant changes in ethnic and political map Eastern Europe and Central Asia. The most destructive for Rus' was the invasion of the Tatar-Mongol conquerors. The Horde yoke slowed down the economic development of Rus' for a long time, destroyed its agriculture, and undermined Russian culture. The Tatar-Mongol invasion led to a decline in the role of cities in the political and economic life of Rus'. Due to the destruction of cities, their death in fires and the capture of skilled artisans, they disappeared for a long time complex species crafts, urban construction stopped, fine and applied arts fell into decline. A serious consequence of the yoke was the deepening disunity of Rus' and the isolation of its individual parts. The weakened country was unable to defend a number of western and southern regions, which were later captured by Lithuanian and Polish feudal lords. A blow was dealt to Rus''s trade relations with the West: trade relations with foreign countries preserved only in Novgorod, Pskov, Polotsk, Vitebsk and Smolensk.

The Tatar-Mongol invasion led to a sharp decline in the country's population, especially urban population. Many people were killed, and no less were taken into slavery. In some destroyed cities and villages, life has never been restored. The death of many princes and warriors, professional warriors and feudal lords stopped the development of feudal agriculture.

The restoration of destroyed cities and villages was largely hampered by two long-standing factors. Firstly, a significant part of the country's national income went to the Horde in the form of tribute. Secondly, according to the testimony of a major historian-researcher, specialist in the history of the Golden Horde V.L. Egorova, until the middle of the 14th century. more than 20 military attacks by Golden Horde detachments of various sizes were carried out on the lands of northeastern and southwestern Rus', and Rus' was extremely weakened after the defeat long time in fact, she single-handedly held back the constant onslaught of the Mongols and even significantly constrained their further expansion, while suffering considerable losses (Egorov V.L. Golden Horde: Myths and reality. M., 1990).

However, with all the dire consequences for Rus', the Golden Horde invasion in Rus' also had some features that contributed to the fact that the Russian people, under conditions of yoke, not only preserved their national independence, but also found the strength to forever expel the conquerors from their native places.

Unlike the countries of Central Asia, the Caspian region and the Northern Black Sea region, the Tatar-Mongols refused to directly include Russian lands in the Golden Horde and create their own permanent administration on them. Rus''s dependence on the Tatar-Mongol khans was expressed mainly in heavy tribute. At the end of the 13th century. under the pressure of popular anti-Horde protests, the Horde were forced to transfer the collection of tribute to the Russian princes. Then the Baskaks (tribute collectors) were recalled from Russian cities, which further reduced the Horde’s ability to directly interfere in the internal political life of Rus'. This feature of the Horde yoke was explained not so much by the lack of favorable natural conditions in Rus' for extensive nomadic cattle breeding of the Tatar-Mongols, but by the heroic struggle of the Russian people against foreign invaders both during Batu’s invasion and throughout the entire period of the Horde yoke.

In addition, the Tatar-Mongols tried not to openly encroach on spiritual image the lives of Russian people, and above all on the Orthodox faith, although churches were destroyed. To some extent, they were tolerant of any religion, outwardly and in their own Golden Horde they did not interfere with the performance of any religious rites. Not without reason, the Horde often considered the Russian clergy their allies. Firstly, the Russian Church fought against the influence of Catholicism, and the Pope was an enemy of the Golden Horde. Secondly, the church in Rus' in the initial period of the yoke supported the princes who advocated coexistence with the Horde. In turn, the Horde freed the Russian clergy from tribute and provided church servants with letters of safe conduct for church property. Later, the church played a significant role in uniting the entire Russian people to fight for independence.

For a more specific idea of ​​the nature and scale Tatar-Mongol invasion We should at least briefly dwell on the historical moments associated with them.

At the beginning of the 13th century, having conquered part of Siberia, the Tatar-Mongols began to conquer China in 1215. They managed to capture its entire northern part. From China they brought the latest for that time military equipment and specialists. In addition, from among the Chinese, the Tatar-Mongols received a cadre of competent and experienced officials. In 1219, Genghis Khan's troops invaded Central Asia. The consequences of the Tatar-Mongol conquest of Central Asia were extremely severe; most of the agricultural oases perished; they were populated by nomads, who essentially destroyed the traditional forms of farming in these places.

Following Central Asia, Northern Iran was captured, after which Genghis Khan’s troops carried out a predatory campaign in Transcaucasia. From the south they came to the Polovtsian steppes and defeated the Polovtsians.

Relations between Russia and the Polovtsians during this period were very peculiar. Along with the Polovtsian raids on Rus' and the campaigns of the Russian princes against the Polovtsians, lively economic, political, and cultural relations existed between the two peoples. Some of the Polovtsian khans converted to Christianity, some of the Russian princes married the daughters of Polovtsian khans, even the wife of Yuri Dolgorukov was a Polovtsian.

The request of the Polovtsians to help them in the fight against a dangerous enemy was accepted by the Russian princes. The battle between the Russian-Polovtsian and Tatar-Mongol troops took place on May 31, 1223 on the Kalka River in the Azov region. Not all Russian princes who promised to participate in the battle sent their troops. The battle ended in the defeat of the Russian-Polovtsian troops, many princes and warriors died. As a result of this battle, the Polovtsian state was destroyed, and the Polovtsians themselves became part of the state created by the Tatar-Mongols.

In 1231, the Tatar-Mongols invaded Transcaucasia. By 1243, Transcaucasia was completely in the hands of invaders. The consequences of this invasion for Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan were as severe as for Central Asia.

In those same years, another significant part of the Tatar-Mongol troops began to conquer Rus'. In 1236, Batu's troops began a campaign against the Russian lands. Having defeated Volga Bulgaria, they set out to conquer the Ryazan principality. The Ryazan princes, their squads and townspeople had to fight the invaders alone. The city was burned and plundered. After the capture of Ryazan, the Tatar-Mongol troops moved to Kolomna. In the battle near Kolomna, many Russian soldiers died, and the battle itself ended in defeat for them. On February 3, 1238, the conquerors approached Vladimir. Having besieged the city, they sent a detachment to Suzdal, which took this city and burned it. Then, on February 7, Vladimir was taken. During the assault, the city was set on fire, many people died from fire and suffocation, including the bishop and princess. The survivors were taken into slavery. As a result, the entire Vladimir-Suzdal land from Rostov to Tver was devastated. On March 4, 1238, the battle took place on the City River, which ended in the defeat of the Russian squad. The fate of the Vladimir-Suzdal land was decided. Meanwhile, another detachment of Tatar-Mongols besieged Torzhok, and on March 5 the city was taken. From here the invaders moved north to Novgorod. However, before reaching a hundred miles, the Tatar-Mongol troops were forced to turn back. The reasons for the retreat of the enemy troops and the salvation of Novgorod from the pogrom were not only the mud, but also the bleeding of the enemy troops in previous battles. However, already at next year(1239), the Tatar-Mongols began new trip to Russian land. Murom, Gorokhovets, and then Batu's troops moved south. In December 1240 Kyiv was taken. From here the Tatar-Mongol troops moved to Galician-Volyn Rus. Having captured Vladimir-Volynsky, Galich, in 1241 Batu invaded Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Moravia, and in 1242 he reached Croatia and Dalmatia. However, the conquerors entered Western Europe significantly weakened as a result of the powerful resistance they encountered in Rus'. This largely explains the fact that if the Tatar-Mongols managed to establish their yoke in Rus', then Western Europe experienced only an invasion and then on a smaller scale. In that historical role heroic resistance of the Russian people to the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols.

One of the main reasons for the defeat of Rus' was the then existing feudal fragmentation. The Russian principalities were defeated one by one by the enemy. An important circumstance was that the invaders, who had previously conquered Northern China and Central Asia, used destructive military equipment in the fight against Russia, including battering machines that pierced the walls of Russian fortresses, as well as stone throwers, gunpowder and vessels with hot liquids.

The consequences of this invasion for Rus' were extremely difficult. First of all, the population of the country sharply decreased, many people were killed and taken into slavery. Many cities were destroyed, Kyiv was deserted, with no more than 200 houses left. Of 74 cities in Rus' in the XII-XIII centuries. about 50 were devastated by the invaders, in 14 of them life did not subsequently resume, and 15 turned into small villages.

After the Tatar-Mongol invasion, Rus' became a country dependent on the Golden Horde. A system developed in which the Grand Duke had to receive approval from the Horde, a “label” for the great reign.

The resistance of the masses to the Horde policy of oppression intensified; strong unrest, for example, occurred in the Novgorod land. In 1257, the Novgorodians refused to pay tribute. However, Alexander Nevsky, who considered it impossible in those conditions to openly clash with the Horde, restrained the uprising of the masses. In 1262 in all major cities of the Russian land (in Rostov, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, Ustyug Veliky, in Vladimir) popular uprisings, many tribute collectors were killed. Frightened by the popular movement, the Horde hurried to transfer a significant part of the tribute collection to the appanage Russian princes. Thus, the popular movement forced the Horde to agree, if not to completely abolish farm labor, then to significantly limit it.

Speaking about the Mongol-Tatar invasion, about the aggressive successes of the Golden Horde in that period of history, one should at least briefly characterize the Golden Horde itself, its formation, government structure, the main stages of its political history and aggressive campaigns. These points are important for a correct understanding of the nature of the Tatar-Mongol invasion of Rus' and its consequences. The Golden Horde was one of the ancient states of the Middle Ages, whose vast possessions were located in both Europe and Asia. Its military power and aggressive foreign policy constantly kept not only its near but also distant neighbors in suspense. The monarchs of many countries sought to establish friendly relations with her and maintain them as long as possible. In the extensive literature published in different countries, there are not only true, but also fictional stories about the huge state of nomads. These stories, which continued to exist after his disappearance, have survived to this day. Thirty years before the appearance of nomadic hordes under the walls of Russian cities, in 1206 a kurultai (congress) of the steppe aristocracy gathered on the banks of the Central Asian Onon River. At the congress the issue of electing the supreme ruler was decided. He elected Temutjin, who went down in history as Genghis Khan, the first ruler of a united Mongolia. Before his death, in 1227, Genghis Khan managed to lay the territorial foundation of a huge new empire, which was made up not only of the peoples living in the immediate vicinity of Mongolia, but also China and middle Asia, and the steppes west of the Irtysh. In the second half of the 13th century. Vast areas from the Pacific coast to the Danube came under the rule of the Mongols. The capital of Mongolia, founded by Genghis Khan, was Karakorum. But already in the 60s. XIII century the empire broke up into separate parts (uluses). Its capital was moved from Karakorum to Khanbanlyk (present-day Beijing), and ruling dynasty on Chinese style became known as Yuan.

In the steppes north of Lake Balkhash and the Aral Sea, from the Irtysh to the Yaik (Ural) lies the ulus of Genghis Khan’s eldest son, Jochi. His heirs constantly made attempts to expand their father's possessions. In 1235, at the kurultai, it was decided to provide powerful support to the sons of Jochi - Orda-Ichen and Batu in the conquest of Eastern Europe. Their troops were reinforced by detachments of several more Mongol princes and the best commander of Genghis Khan, Subedey, who defeated the Russian-Polovtsian forces on the Kalka River in 1223. The entire campaign was led by Jochi’s second son Batu, who was called Batu in Russian chronicles.

From the autumn of 1236 until the spring of 1242, this huge army reached the Adriatic coast, which caused panic at the courts of the Pope and even the French king. However, here the conquerors unexpectedly stopped and began to slowly retreat to the east. By the end of 1242, all their troops settled down for the winter in the Black Sea and Caspian steppes. It was this territory that became the core of the future state, known to us as the Golden Horde. Its political history begins in 1243. Then Grand Duke Yaroslav was the first of the Russian rulers to arrive at the headquarters of the Mongol Khan for a label to reign.

To have an idea of ​​the power and strength of this state, it is enough to imagine its territory at that time. The total territory of the Golden Horde in the 13th century. outlined by the following boundary lines. The eastern borders of the Golden Horde included Siberia with the border rivers Irtysh and Chulyman, which separated the possessions of the Jochids from the metropolis. The outskirts here were the Barabinsky and Kuludinsky steppes. The northern border in the vastness of Siberia was in the middle reaches of the Ob River. Southern border state began in the foothills of Altai and passed north of Lake Balkhash, then stretched to the west through the middle reaches of the Syr Darya, south of the Aral Sea, to the Khorezm ulus. This region of ancient agriculture constituted the southern ulus of the Golden Horde with its center in the city of Urgench. On the western shore of the Caspian Sea, the border city belonging to the Jochids was Derbent, which is referred to in eastern chronicles as the “Iron Gate”. From here the border stretched along the northern foothills of the Caucasus Range to Taman Peninsula, which was completely part of the Golden Horde. Throughout the XIII century. the Caucasian border was one of the most turbulent, as local peoples They were not yet completely subjugated to the Golden Horde and offered stubborn resistance to the conquerors.

The Tauride Peninsula also formed part of the Golden Horde from the beginning of its existence. It was after inclusion in the territory of this state that it received a new name - Crimea, after the name of the main city of this ulus. However, the conquerors themselves occupied in the XIII-XIV centuries. only the northern, steppe part of the peninsula. Its coast and mountainous regions at that time represented a number of small feudal estates, semi-dependent on the conquerors. The most important and famous among them were the Italian city-colonies of Kafa (Feodosia), Soldaya (Sudak), Chembalo (Balaclava).

To the west of the Black Sea, the border of the state stretched along the Danube to the Hungarian fortress of Turnu-Severnaya, which blocked the exit from the Lower Danube Lowland. The northern borders of the state in this area were limited by the spurs of the Carpathians and included the steppe spaces of the Prut-Dniester interfluve. It was here that the border of the Golden Horde with the Russian principalities began. It passed approximately along the border between steppe and forest-steppe. The border between the Dniester and Dnieper stretched in the area of ​​modern Vinnitsa and Cherkasy regions. In the Dnieper basin, the possessions of the Russian princes ended between Kiev and Kanev. From here the border line went to the area of ​​modern Kharkov, Kursk and then went to the Ryazan borders along the left bank of the Don. To the east of the Ryazan principality, from the Moksha River to the Volga, there was a forest area inhabited by Mordovian tribes. The vast region of modern Chuvashia in the 13th century. was completely under the rule of the Golden Horde. On the left bank of the Volga, the Golden Horde borderland stretched north of the Kama. Here were the former possessions of Volga Bulgaria, which turned into component Golden Horde. The Bashkirs who lived in the Middle and Southern Urals also formed part of the Mongol state. They owned all the lands in this area south of the Belaya River.

Extensive borders indicate that the Golden Horde was one of the largest states of the Middle Ages. From an ethnic point of view, it was a very motley mixture of very different peoples, among them representatives of the Volga Bulgarians, Russians, Burtases, Bashkirs, Mordovians, Yasses, and Circassians enslaved by the conquerors. There were also Persians, Armenians, Greeks, Georgians, and Azerbaijanis here. But the bulk of the population of the Golden Horde were the Kipchaks who lived in the steppes before the arrival of the conquerors, or, as the Russians called them, the Polovtsians.

In literature for a long time There was a dispute about the concepts of “Mongol” and “Tatar”, their relationship, and identity. In this regard, we note that the names “Mongols” and “Tatars” are widely used even now, when they characterize the population of the Golden Horde as “Mongol-Tatars.”

The ethnonym "Mongols" was widely known in ancient times Central Asia. It was used as the self-name of several tribes united by Genghis Khan into a single state. However, historically, wherever the Mongol troops of Genghis Khan and his heirs appeared, they were called Tatars. This is due exclusively to the Chinese chronicle tradition, from the 12th century. persistently called all the Mongols, including Genghis Khan himself and his immediate circle, “black Tatars.” However, neither the Genghisids themselves nor the Mongol armies that appeared in Europe under the leadership of Batu had anything to do with the Tatars. They called themselves exclusively Mongols, and their state - Mongolian. As for the Tatars themselves, they were in the XII - early XIII centuries. lived along the northern border of China, guarding the approaches to the Great Chinese wall from raids by nomads, including the Mongols. For this service, the Chinese emperors gave the Tatar leaders an annual allowance in silver and various goods. The name "Tatars" in medieval Chinese historiography corresponded to the European concept of "barbarians". That is why the Chinese extended the ethnonym “Tatars” to other tribes that lived to the north of the Tatars themselves. However, they called the latter “white Tatars”, i.e. more cultured, involved in the fruits and achievements of Chinese civilization, and the Mongols living in the northern steppes, forests and mountains were called “Black Tatars,” which had a derogatory connotation, emphasizing their savagery.

According to the scientific version of Professor V.L. Egorov, the Tatars were never allies of the Mongols and never participated in their campaigns of conquest, but, on the contrary, were constantly at enmity with them (Egorov V.L. The Golden Horde: myths and reality. M., 1990). Russian and Western European chronicles usually used the ethnonym “Tatars” in relation to the population of the Golden Horde, although a number of scientists and travelers who visited in the mid-13th century. The Golden Horde noted that the founders of the Jochi dynasty called themselves Mongols. In the works of major Russian historians pre-October period V.N. Tatishchev and N.M. Karamzin, the name “Mongols” is considered to belong to two individual peoples. In their opinion, a significant part Mongol troops consisted of Tatars, so the very name “Tatars” was used in relation to the conquerors. This point of view was established in science in the 19th century. In the 20s This century the phrase "Tatar-Mongols" was introduced. Other sources indicate that there were practically no Tatars in the troops of Genghis Khan, and especially Batu. Be that as it may, however, the phrase “Mongol-Tatars” or “Tatar-Mongols” remains in literature to this day, although modern Tatars have nothing to do with the people who lived in the middle of the century on the border with China (Egorov V.L. Decree op. 15).

Having completed their bloody campaigns of conquest, the Tatar-Mongol troops, burdened with huge convoys with looted goods and crowds of prisoners, settled at the end of 1242 in the vast steppes between the Danube and Ob. The new owners of the Kipchak steppes began not only to debug their own state, but also to establish relations with their surrounding neighbors. Batu Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, became the supreme partner by right of inheritance. He remained on the throne of the Golden Horde for 14 years (1242-1256). The first priority when organizing internal structure The state for Batu was the distribution of land plots (uluses) to the steppe aristocracy in accordance with military positions. At the same time, a state apparatus was being formed, aimed exclusively at collecting taxes and tribute. It was also necessary to establish a system of political dominion over peoples territorially not included in the Golden Horde. First of all, this applied to Rus'. Batu managed to accomplish all this in the shortest possible time.

However, with all the power of the army and the splendor of the khan's court, the Golden Horde was not an independent state politically, but formed part of a single empire ruled from Karakorum.

Obedience consisted of the obligatory transfer to Karakorum of a portion of all collected taxes and tribute. To accurately establish this amount, special officials, the so-called “chislenniks,” were sent to census the population. In Rus', “numerals” appeared in 1257. The Khans of the Golden Horde did not have the right to confirm Russian Grand Dukes on the Vladimir throne, but could only appoint holders of lower ranks. That is why the Russian princes Yaroslav and his son Alexander Nevsky were forced to make a long journey from Rus' to Mongolia. The capital of the Golden Horde was Sarai (near modern Astrakhan).

Real terror was used against the Russian princes, which was supposed to intimidate them and deprive them of even the thought of opposing the ruler of Sarai. Many Russian princes were killed, in particular, in 1387 Mikhail Yaroslavich Tverskoy was killed. In Rus', punitive detachments of the Golden Horde appeared every now and then. In a number of cases, the intimidated Russian princes themselves brought tribute to the khan’s headquarters.

When merciless military pressure was replaced by no less heavy, but more sophisticated - economic pressure, the Tatar-Mongol yoke in Rus' entered a new stage.

In the spring of 1361, a tense situation developed in the Golden Horde. The situation was aggravated by civil strife, the struggle for dominance between individual khans. One of central figures in the Golden Horde during this period it becomes Mamai. Pursuing an energetic policy, he was able to achieve the liquidation of all the isolated feudal lords of the territory that belonged to them. A decisive victory was needed, which would not only guarantee the unification of the state, but also give great opportunity manage vassal territories. There were not enough resources and strength for such a decisive turn. Mamai demanded both from the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich, but was refused. Rus' began to prepare for the fight against Mamai.

Despite all the terrible adversities, losses and losses, the Russian farmer with his hard work created material basis consolidation of forces for liberation from Tatar-Mongol oppression. And finally the time came when the united regiments of northeastern Rus', led by the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich, entered the Kulikovo field. They challenged the Tatar-Mongol rule and entered into open battle with the Horde.

The growing power of northeastern Rus' was demonstrated already in 1378, when on the Vozha River (a tributary of the Oka) the Grand Duke of Moscow defeated a large Mongol-Tatar detachment and captured prominent military leaders of Mamai. In the spring of 1380, having crossed the “great” Volga, Mamai and his hordes invaded the Eastern European steppes. He reached the Don and began to wander around its left tributary - the Voronezh River, intending to go to Rus' closer to autumn. His plans were of a particularly sinister nature: he wanted to carry out not just a raid for the purpose of robbery and increasing the size of tribute, but to completely capture and enslave the Russian principalities.

Having learned about the impending threat, Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich hastily took measures to strengthen Moscow, Kolomna, Serpukhov and other cities. Moscow becomes the organizing center for preparing resistance to the new invasion. Soon numerous princes and governors of the nearest principalities arrive here.

Dmitry Ivanovich energetically began to form the Russian army. An order was sent out to assemble in Kolomna on August 15.

On August 18, Dmitry Ivanovich visited the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and received the blessing of Abbot Sergius of Radonezh for the battle with the Horde. This elder, the founder of the monastery, who with his ascetic life gained enormous authority among various segments of the population, played a prominent role in the social and spiritual life of Rus'.

On August 27, the army left Moscow for Kolomna, where a combined arms review took place, at which a governor was assigned to each regiment. Grand Duke takes his first decisive step towards the enemy - he crosses the Oka - the main southern defensive line of Rus' against the nomads.

Conducting constant reconnaissance, the Russians were well aware of the location and intentions of the enemy. Mamai, believing in his complete superiority, made a serious miscalculation in this regard. He was taken by surprise, because thanks quick action Russian plans were disrupted.

How many warriors gathered under Russian banners before the Battle of Kulikovo? According to prof. ON THE. Khotinsky, set out in the book “History and Geography of the Battle of Kulikovo” (M., 1988. P. 29), “ancient written sources brought to us opposite information on this matter: from a clearly exaggerated figure of 400 thousand to 150 thousand fighters. Probably , a more realistic number of troops was indicated by A.N. Tatishchev, estimating it at approximately 60 thousand people. Most modern military historians are inclined to the same opinion, determining the total number of Russian troops at 50-60 thousand warriors. 80-90 thousand soldiers. Regiments of almost all the principalities of North-Eastern Rus' came to the Kulikovo field."

Mamai's army of thousands was defeated in 1380 on the Kulikovo Field. Rus' celebrated victory. However, two years later, the Golden Horde Khan Tokhtamysh, at the head of a huge army, unexpectedly attacked Rus', which had not yet fully recovered from the consequences of the Battle of Kulikovo. The Horde were able to capture Moscow. On August 26, 1382, Moscow was completely ruined and devastated.

After the capture of Moscow, Tokhtamysh's hordes scattered throughout the area, plundering and killing, burning everything in their path. But this time the Horde did not rampage for long. In the Volokolamsk region, they were unexpectedly attacked by Prince Vladimir Andreevich with an army of seven thousand. The Tatars ran. Having received a message about the strength of the Russian army and remembering the lesson of the Battle of Kulikovo, Tokhtamysh began to hastily go south. From that time on, the Horde began to fear an open clash with the Russian army and began to act with great cunning and caution, trying in every possible way to inflame the internecine struggle of the Russian princes. The heavy burden of tribute, although in a smaller volume than Mamai demanded, again fell on Rus'. Does this mean that the fruits of victory in the Battle of Kulikovo were completely lost? Of course not! Thanks to her, Mamai’s plan for the complete enslavement of Rus' was not carried out either by him or by the subsequent rulers of the Horde. On the contrary, from now on centripetal forces in the unification of the Russian principalities around Moscow became increasingly stronger. After the Battle of Kulikovo, Rus' strengthened its faith in its national forces, which played an important role in her eventual victory over the Horde. From that time on, the Russians stopped looking at the Horde as an irresistible force, as an inevitable and eternal punishment God. Dmitry Ivanovich, nicknamed “Donskoy” for his victory in the Battle of Kulikovo, led a generation of people who overcame the age-old fear inspired by Batu’s invasion. And the Horde themselves, after the Battle of Kulikovo, stopped looking at the Russians as unrequited slaves and gift givers.

After the Battle of Kulikovo, Rus' irreversibly began to strengthen, its dependence on the Horde weakened more and more. Already Dmitry Donskoy emphasized his independence from the khan’s will and, violating the order established by the Horde, in his spiritual testament he transferred the right to the great reign of Vladimir to his eldest son Vasily Dmitrievich. Since then, a method of transferring supreme power in northeastern Rus', independent of the Horde, has become the hereditary right of the Moscow princely family. A strong and experienced enemy was crushed on the Kulikovo Field. Although the Horde continued their campaigns of conquest later, they were never able to fully recover from the defeat in the Battle of Kulikovo. Its consequences largely predetermined the future fate of the horde. 1395 - practically Last year existence of the Golden Horde. The agony of the collapse of this once powerful state lasted until the middle of the 15th century. In place of the Golden Horde, new political formations appeared. 200 years later, after the creation of the Golden Horde by Batu Khan, it broke up into the following components: the Great Horde, the Astrakhan Khanate, the Kazan Khanate, the Crimean Khanate, the Siberian Khanate, and the Nogai Horde. They all existed separately, fighting and making peace with each other and with their neighbors. The history of the Crimean Khanate lasted longer than others, which ceased to exist in 1783. It was the last fragment of the Golden Horde, which came from the Middle Ages into modern times.

For Rus', the victory on the Kulikovo field over a strong and cruel enemy was great value. The Battle of Kulikovo not only significantly enriched Russian army military-strategic experience of major battles, but also affected the entire subsequent political history of the Russian state. The victory on the Kulikovo Field cleared the way for national liberation and consolidation of Rus'.

The most destructive for Rus' was the invasion of the Tatar-Mongol conquerors. The Horde yoke slowed down the economic development of Rus' for a long time, destroyed its agriculture, and undermined Russian culture. The Tatar-Mongol invasion led to a decline in the role of cities in the political and economic life of Rus'. Due to the destruction of cities, their destruction in fires and the captivity of skilled artisans, complex types of crafts disappeared for a long time, urban construction was suspended, and fine and applied arts fell into decay.

Many people were killed, and no less were taken into slavery. In some destroyed cities and villages, life has never been restored. The death of many princes and warriors, professional warriors and feudal lords stopped the development of feudal agriculture.

However, despite all the dire consequences for Rus', the Golden Horde invasion of Rus' also had some features that contributed to the fact that the Russian people, under conditions of yoke, not only preserved their national independence, but also found the strength to forever expel the conquerors from their native places.

The conquerors entered Western Europe significantly weakened as a result of the powerful resistance they encountered in Rus'. This largely explains the fact that if the Tatar-Mongols managed to establish their yoke in Rus', Western Europe only experienced an invasion, and then on a smaller scale. This is the historical role of the heroic resistance of the Russian people to the invasion of the Tatar-Mongols. One of the main reasons for the defeat of Rus' was the feudal fragmentation that existed at that time. The Russian principalities were defeated one by one by the enemy. The consequences of this invasion for Rus' were extremely difficult; First of all, the population of the country sharply decreased, many people were killed and taken into slavery. Many cities were destroyed. After the Tatar-Mongol invasion, Rus' became a country dependent on the Golden Horde. A system developed in which the Grand Duke had to receive approval from the Horde, a “label” for the great reign.

Ticket No. 5/1

Reasons for the rise of Moscow. Stages of formation of a unified Russian state.

Geographical position. The Moscow principality occupied a rather profitable central position in relation to other Russian lands. The river and land routes passing through its territory gave Moscow the significance of the most important hub of trade and other connections between Russian lands.

Moscow became in the 14th century. a major trade and craft center. It was in Moscow that Russian artillery was born and received its baptism of fire.

The geographical position of the Moscow principality also predetermined its role as the ethnic core of the emerging Great Russian nation. All this, combined with the purposeful and flexible policy of the Moscow princes in relations with the Golden Horde and other Russian lands, ultimately determined the victory of Moscow for the role of the leader and political center of the formation of a unified Russian state.

Economic factor

1. Strengthening the connection between city and countryside. Development of commodity-money relations.

At the beginning of the 14th century, intensive development of agriculture began.

An increase in the surplus product in agriculture makes it possible to develop livestock farming, as well as sell bread externally.

The increasing need for agricultural implements determines the necessary development of crafts. IN the result is the process of separating crafts from agriculture is becoming deeper and deeper. It entails the need for exchange between peasant and artisan, that is, between city and countryside. This exchange takes place in the form of trade, which is this period intensifies accordingly. Local markets are created on the basis of exchange.

Political factor. Another factor that determined the unification of the Russian lands was the intensification of the class struggle, the strengthening of the class resistance of the peasantry. The rise of the economy and the opportunity to obtain an ever-increasing surplus product encourage the feudal lords to intensify the exploitation of the peasants. Moreover, the feudal lords strive not only economically, but also legally to assign the peasants to their estates and estates, to enslave them. Such a policy caused natural resistance from the peasantry, which gained various shapes. Peasants kill feudal lords, seize their property, and set fire to their estates. The flight of peasants is taking on certain proportions, especially to the south, to lands free from landowners. In such conditions, the feudal lords are faced with the task of keeping the peasantry in check and completing enslavement. This task could only be solved by a powerful centralized state.

The process of forming a single Russian state happened around beginning of the 14th century and up to mid-16th century. And three periods can be distinguished:

I period (late XIII (late XIV) - mid-XIV centuries)

During this period, two processes take place:

1) the formation of large feudal centers in northeastern Rus' (Tver, Moscow principalities, etc.);

2) identifying the strongest from them - the future core and political center in the formation of a centralized state.

II period (2nd half of the XIV-50s of the XV centuries)

The first stage ends with the Principality of Moscow becoming the strongest. Based on this, it was in the 60-70s of the 14th century. defeated its main opponents: Tver, the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod principality. By this time, the Moscow Principality had accumulated such an amount of human, material and political resources that it needed minimal support in the struggle for unification. And his opponents were forced to turn to outside help. The third forces were the Horde and Lithuania.

Moscow began to unite the lands around itself. The annexation of the principalities meant their loss of state sovereignty. Moscow takes the lead in the fight against the Tatar-Mongol yoke.

III period (the reign of Ivan III and partially the reign of Vasily III.)

During this period, the process of territorial unification continues. This process is associated with endless wars with Lithuania, as Russian lands began to come back under the rule of Moscow.

The Tatar-Mongol yoke was eliminated (standing on the Ugra River).

A new state mechanism is beginning to take shape.

Having completed their bloody campaigns of conquest, the Tatar-Mongol troops, burdened with huge convoys with looted goods and crowds of prisoners, settled at the end of 1242 in the vast steppes between the Danube and Ob. The new owners of the Kipchak steppes began not only to debug their own state, but also to establish relations with their surrounding neighbors. By right of succession, Khan Vatu, the grandson of Genghis Khan, became the supreme partner. He remained on the throne of the Golden Horde for 14 years (1242-1256). The first priority in organizing the internal structure of the state for Vatu was the distribution of land plots (uluses) to the steppe aristocracy in accordance with military positions. At the same time, a state apparatus was being formed, aimed exclusively at collecting taxes and tribute. It was also necessary to establish a system of political dominion over peoples territorially not included in the Golden Horde. First of all, this applied to Rus'. Vatu managed to accomplish all this in the shortest possible time.

However, with all the power of the army and the splendor of the khan's court, the Golden Horde was not an independent state politically, but formed part of a single empire ruled from Karakorum.

Obedience consisted of the obligatory transfer to Karakorum of a portion of all collected taxes and tribute. To accurately establish this amount, special officials, the so-called “chislenniks,” were sent to census the population. In Rus', “numerals” appeared in 1257. The Khans of the Golden Horde did not have the right to confirm Russian Grand Dukes on the Vladimir throne, but could only appoint holders of lower ranks. That is why the Russian princes Yaroslav and his son Alexander Nevsky were forced to make a long journey from Rus' to Mongolia. The capital of the Golden Horde was Sarai (near modern Astrakhan).

Real terror was used against the Russian princes, which was supposed to intimidate them and deprive them of even the thought of opposing the Saransk ruler. Many Russian princes were killed, in particular in 1387 Mikhail Yaroslavich Tverskoy was killed. In Rus', punitive detachments of the Golden Horde appeared every now and then. In a number of cases, the intimidated Russian princes themselves brought tribute to the khan’s headquarters.

When merciless military pressure was replaced by no less heavy, but more sophisticated - economic pressure, the Tatar-Mongol yoke in Rus' entered a new stage.

In the spring of 1361, a tense situation developed in the Golden Horde. The situation was aggravated by civil strife, the struggle for dominance between individual khans. Mamai became one of the central figures in the Golden Horde during this period. By pursuing an energetic policy, he was able to ensure that the isolation of the territory of the feudal lords was eliminated. A decisive victory was needed, which would not only guarantee the unification of the state, but also provide a greater opportunity to manage vassal territories. There were not enough resources and strength for such a decisive turn. Mamai demanded both from the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich, but was refused. Rus' began to prepare for the fight against Mamai.

Despite all the terrible hardships, losses and losses, the Russian farmer, with his hard work, created the material basis for consolidating forces for liberation from Tatar-Mongol oppression. And finally the time came when the united regiments of northeastern Rus', led by the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich, entered the Kulikovo field. They challenged the Tatar-Mongol rule and entered into open battle with the Horde.

The growing power of northeastern Rus' was demonstrated already in 1378, when on the Vozha River (a tributary of the Oka) the Grand Duke of Moscow defeated a large Mongol-Tatar detachment, capturing prominent military leaders of Mamai. In the spring of 1380, having crossed the “great” Volga, Mamai and his hordes invaded the Eastern European steppes. He reached the Don and began to wander around its left tributary - the Voronezh River, intending to go to Rus' closer to autumn. His plans were of a particularly sinister nature: he wanted to carry out not just a raid for the purpose of robbery and increasing the size of tribute, but to completely capture and enslave the Russian principalities.

Having learned about the impending threat, Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich hastily took measures to strengthen Moscow, Kolomna, Serpukhov and other cities. Moscow becomes the organizing center for preparing resistance to the new invasion. Soon numerous princes and governors of the nearest principalities arrive here.

Dmitry Ivanovich energetically began to form the Russian army. An order was sent out to assemble in Kolomna on August 15.

• On August 18, Dmitry Ivanovich visited the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and received the blessing of Abbot Sergius of Radonezh for the battle with the Horde. This elder, the founder of the monastery, who with his ascetic life gained enormous authority among various segments of the population, played a prominent role in the social and spiritual life of Rus'.
• On August 27, the army left Moscow for Kolomna, where a combined arms review took place, at which a governor was assigned to each regiment. The Grand Duke takes his first decisive step towards the enemy - he crosses the Oka River - the main southern defensive line of Rus' against the nomads.

Conducting constant reconnaissance, the Russians were well aware of the location and intentions of the enemy. Mamai, believing in his complete superiority, made a serious miscalculation in this regard. He was taken by surprise as his plans were thwarted by the quick actions of the Russians.

How many warriors gathered under Russian banners before the Battle of Kulikovo? According to prof. N. A. Khotinsky, set out in the book “History and Geography of the Battle of Kulikovo” (M., 1988. P. 29), “ancient written sources brought to us opposite information on this matter: from the clearly exaggerated figure of 400 thousand to 150 thousand . fighters. Probably, A. N. Tatishchev indicated a more realistic number of troops, calculating it at about 60 thousand people. Most modern military historians are inclined to the same opinion, determining the total number of Russian troops at 50-60 thousand Horde warriors. The regiments apparently numbered 80-90 thousand soldiers. Regiments of almost all the principalities of North-Eastern Rus' came to the Kulikovo field."

Mamai's army of thousands was defeated in 1380 on the Kulikovo Field. Rus' celebrated victory. However, two years later, the Golden Horde Khan Tokhtamysh, at the head of a huge army, unexpectedly attacked Rus', which had not yet fully recovered from the consequences of the Battle of Kulikovo. The Horde were able to capture Moscow. On August 26, 1382, Moscow was completely ruined and devastated.

After the capture of Moscow, Tokhtamysh's hordes scattered throughout the area, plundering and killing, burning everything in their path. But this time the Horde did not rampage for long. In the Volokolamsk region, they were unexpectedly attacked by Prince Vladimir Andreevich with an army of seven thousand. The Tatars ran. Having received a message about the strength of the Russian army and remembering the lesson of the Battle of Kulikovo, Tokhtamysh began to hastily go south. From that time on, the Horde began to fear an open clash with the Russian army and began to act with great cunning and caution, trying in every possible way to inflame the internecine struggle of the Russian princes. The heavy burden of tribute, although in a smaller volume than Mamai demanded, again fell on Rus'. Does this mean that the fruits of victory in the Battle of Kulikovo were completely lost? Of course not! Thanks to her, Mamai’s plan for the complete enslavement of Rus' was not carried out either by him or by the subsequent rulers of the Horde. On the contrary, from that time on the centripetal forces in the unification of the Russian principalities around Moscow became increasingly stronger. After the Battle of Kulikovo, Rus' strengthened its faith in its national strength, which played an important role in its final victory over the Horde. From that time on, the Russians stopped looking at the Horde as an irresistible force, as an inevitable and eternal punishment of God. Dmitry Ivanovich, nicknamed Donskoy for his victory in the Battle of Kulikovo, led a generation of people who overcame the age-old fear inspired by Batu’s invasion. And the Horde themselves, after the Battle of Kulikovo, stopped looking at the Russians as unrequited slaves and tributaries.

After the Battle of Kulikovo, Rus' irreversibly began to strengthen, its dependence on the Horde weakened more and more. Already Dmitry Donskoy emphasized his independence from the khan’s will and, violating the order established by the Horde, in his spiritual testament he transferred the right to the great reign of Vladimir to his eldest son Vasily Dmitrievich. Since then, a method of transferring supreme power in northeastern Rus', independent of the Horde, has become the hereditary right of the Moscow princely family. A strong and experienced enemy was crushed on the Kulikovo Field. Although the Horde continued their campaigns of conquest later, they were never able to fully recover from the defeat in the Battle of Kulikovo. Its consequences largely determined the future fate of the Horde. 1395 is practically the last year of the existence of the Golden Horde. The agony of the collapse of this once powerful state lasted until the middle of the 15th century. In place of the Golden Horde, new political formations appeared. 200 years after the creation of the Golden Horde by Batu Khan, it broke up into the following components: the Great Horde, the Astrakhan Khanate, the Kazan Khanate, the Crimean Khanate, the Siberian Khanate, and the Nogai Horde. They all existed separately, fighting and making peace with each other and with their neighbors. The history of the Crimean Khanate lasted longer than others, which ceased to exist in 1783. It was the last fragment of the Golden Horde, which came from the Middle Ages into modern times.

Left a reply Guest

The yoke is the political and economic dependence of Rus' on the Horde. Tatar-Mongol yoke represented complex system, main goal which was the use of the economic and military potential of Rus' in the interests of the Golden Horde. IN economically it was manifested in the annual payment by Russia of a huge tribute to the Tatars or, as it was called in Rus', the “Horde exit.” The tribute collectors were the Baskaks, who, after a special census, collected tribute from the household. Political dependence was expressed in a change in the position of the princes. The princes had to go to the Horde and receive khan's labels for their principalities there. The Khan thus became the source of princely power.

Economic dependence was manifested in the fact that they took not only tribute from the residents, but also plows, pits, and “fodder,” and they collected warriors and artisans.

Most yoke researchers believe that the results of the Mongol-Tatar yoke for Russian lands were destruction and regression. The yoke threw the Russian principalities back in their development and became the main reason for Russia's lag behind Western countries. It was a brake on the growth of the productive forces of Rus', which were at a higher socio-economic level compared to the productive forces of the Mongol-Tatars, and preserved the natural nature of the economy for a long time.
Researchers note in Rus' during the period of the yoke the decline of stone construction and the disappearance of complex crafts, such as the production of glass jewelry, cloisonne enamel, niello, granulation, and polychrome glazed ceramics. “Rus was thrown back several centuries, and in those centuries, when the guild industry of the West moved to the era of primitive accumulation, the Russian handicraft industry had to go through part of that again historical path, which was done before Batu"

A system of dependence of Rus' on the Golden Horde was created
1) The Russian princes fell into political vassalage to the Mongol khans, since they had to receive the label - the khan's charter for rule. The label gave the right to political and military support from the Horde. The procedure for receiving the label itself was humiliating. Many Russian princes, especially in the first years of dependence, could not come to terms with this and died in the Horde.
Under such a system, politically, the Russian principalities retained autonomy and administration. The princes, as before, ruled the subject population, but were forced to pay taxes and submit to the representatives of the khan. The Mongol khans exercised strict control over the activities of the Russian princes, not allowing them to consolidate;
2) The economic dependence of the Russian lands was expressed in the fact that every year the Russian people had to pay tribute. Economic coercion was carried out through a clear tax system. In rural areas, a land tax was introduced - kharaj (plow tax - tax from the plow), in cities - tamga (trade duty), etc. To streamline the collection of taxes, the Mongols carried out censuses of the solvent population three times, for which enumerators were sent to the Russian land. The tribute from Rus' sent to the khan was called the Horde exit.
3) In addition to tribute, the Russian princes had to supply recruits for the Khan’s army (1 from every 10 households). Russian soldiers had to participate in the military campaigns of the Mongols.