What was the dependence of the Russian lands on the Golden Horde? Forms of Rus''s dependence on the Golden Horde

mongol empire horde kulikovo

Golden Horde covered a vast territory from the Danube to the Irtysh (Crimea, North Caucasus, part of the lands of Rus' located in the steppe, former lands Volga Bulgaria and nomadic peoples, Western Siberia and part of Central Asia). The capital of the Golden Horde was the city of Sarai, located in the lower reaches of the Volga (sarai translated into Russian means palace). It was a state consisting of semi-independent uluses, united under the rule of the khan. They were ruled by Batu's brothers and the local aristocracy.

The role of a kind of aristocratic council was played by the “Divan”, where military and financial issues were resolved. Finding themselves surrounded by a Turkic-speaking population, the Mongols adopted the Turkic language. The local Turkic-speaking ethnic group assimilated the Mongol newcomers. A new people was formed - the Tatars. In the first decades of the Golden Horde's existence, its religion was paganism.

The Golden Horde was one of the largest states of its time. IN early XIV centuries, she could field an army of 300 thousand. The heyday of the Golden Horde occurred during the reign of Khan Uzbek (1312-1342). During this era (1312), Islam became the state religion of the Golden Horde. Then just like the others medieval states The Horde was going through a period of fragmentation. Already in the 14th century. The Central Asian possessions of the Golden Horde separated, and in the 15th century. The Kazan (1438), Crimean (1443), Astrakhan (mid-15th century) and Siberian (late 15th century) khanates stood out.

Russian lands and the Golden Horde. The Russian lands devastated by the Mongols were forced to recognize vassal dependence on the Golden Horde. The ongoing struggle waged by the Russian people against the invaders forced the Mongol Tatars to abandon the creation of their own administrative bodies of power in Rus'. Rus' retained its statehood. This was facilitated by the presence in Rus' of its own administration and church organization. In addition, the lands of Rus' were unsuitable for nomadic cattle breeding, unlike, for example, Central Asia, the Caspian region, and the Black Sea region.

In 1243, the brother of the great Vladimir prince Yuri, who was killed on the Sit River, Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (1238-1246) was called to the khan's headquarters. Yaroslav recognized vassal dependence on the Golden Horde and received a label (letter) for the great reign of Vladimir and a golden tablet ("paizu"), a kind of pass through the Horde territory. Following him, other princes flocked to the Horde.

To control the Russian lands, the institution of Baskaq governors, leaders of military detachments of the Mongol-Tatars, who monitored the activities of the Russian princes, was created. Denunciation of the Baskaks to the Horde inevitably ended either with the prince being summoned to Sarai (often he was deprived of his label, or even his life), or with a punitive campaign in the rebellious land. Suffice it to say that only in the last quarter of the 13th century. 14 similar campaigns were organized in Russian lands.

Some Russian princes, trying to quickly get rid of vassal dependence on the Horde, took the path of open armed resistance. However, the forces to overthrow the power of the invaders were not yet sufficient. So, for example, in 1252 the regiments of the Vladimir and Galician-Volyn princes were defeated. Alexander Nevsky, from 1252 to 1263 Grand Duke of Vladimir, understood this well. He set a course for the restoration and growth of the economy of the Russian lands. The policy of Alexander Nevsky was also supported by the Russian church, which saw the greatest danger in Catholic expansion, and not in the tolerant rulers of the Golden Horde.

In 1257, the Mongol-Tatars undertook a population census “recording the number”. Besermen (Muslim merchants) were sent to the cities, and they were in charge of collecting tribute. The size of the tribute (“exit”) was very large, only the “tsar’s tribute”, i.e. the tribute in favor of the khan, which was first collected in kind and then in money, amounted to 1300 kg of silver per year. Yasamk (Mongolian zasag - power) - in the language of the Mongolian and Turkic tribes means tribute, usually paid in kind, mainly furs (soft junk, as it was called in Rus'). The constant tribute was supplemented by “requests” for one-time exactions in favor of the khan. In addition, deductions from trade duties, taxes for “feeding” the khan’s officials, etc. went to the khan’s treasury. In total there were 14 types of tribute in favor of the Tatars.

Population census in the 5060s of the 13th century. marked by numerous uprisings of Russian people against the Baskaks, Khan's ambassadors, tribute collectors, and census takers. In 1262, the inhabitants of Rostov, Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Suzdal, and Ustyug dealt with the tribute collectors, the Besermen. This led to the fact that the collection of tribute from the end of the 13th century. was handed over to the Russian princes.

From the middle of the 14th century. There was a significant increase in monastic land ownership. The Mongols, interested in maintaining their dominance, left land holdings in the hands of the church. Russian princes were also interested in supporting the church. If previously the tax in favor of the church - tithe - was paid in money or in kind, then in the new conditions the princes replaced the tithe with the distribution of land. Land ownership and wealth of the monasteries also grew because, unlike the lands of secular feudal lords, the lands of the monasteries were not divided among the heirs, as was the case after the death of the secular landowner.

The most famous among Russian monasteries was the Trinity Monastery, founded by Sergius of Radonezh (c. 1321-1391) 70 kilometers north of Moscow (now the Trinity-Sergius Lavra). Located in a forested, sparsely populated, secluded area (desert), the monastery grew into the largest religious and economic center. Disciples and followers of the great Sergius in the XIV-XV centuries. built about 100 monasteries of communal type, i.e. based on joint ownership of the farm and collectivist organization of life in the monastery.

The struggle to overthrow the Golden Horde yoke began in the XIII-XV centuries. main national task. The restoration of the country's economy and its further development created the prerequisites for the unification of Russian lands. The question was being resolved around which center the Russian lands would unite. First of all, Tver and Moscow laid claim to leadership. The Tver principality as an independent inheritance arose in 1247, when it was received by the younger brother of Alexander Nevsky, Yaroslav Yaroslavich. After the death of Alexander Nevsky, Yaroslav became Grand Duke (1263-1272). The Tver principality was then the strongest in Rus'. But he was not destined to lead the unification process. At the end of the 13th - beginning of the 14th centuries. The Principality of Moscow is rapidly rising.

Moscow, which before the Mongol-Tatar invasion was a small border point of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, at the beginning of the 14th century. turns into important political center that time. What were the reasons for the rise of Moscow?

Moscow occupied a geographically advantageous position central position among Russian lands. From the south and east it was protected from Horde invasions by the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod and Ryazan principalities, from the north-west by the Tver principality and Veliky Novgorod. The forests surrounding Moscow were impassable for the Mongol-Tatar cavalry. All this caused an influx of population to the lands of the Moscow Principality. Moscow was a center of developed crafts, agricultural production and trade. It turned out to be an important junction of land and water routes, serving both trade and military operations. Through the Moscow River and the Oka River, the Moscow Principality had access to the Volga, and through the tributaries of the Volga and the system of portages it was connected with the Novgorod lands. The rise of Moscow is also explained by the purposeful, flexible policy of the Moscow princes, who managed to win over not only other Russian principalities, but also the church.

The founder of the dynasty of Moscow princes was younger son Alexander Nevsky Daniil Alexandrovich (1276-1303). Under him, the territory of the Moscow Principality grew rapidly. In 1301, Kolomna, conquered from the Ryazan prince, became part of it. In 1302, according to the will of the childless Pereyaslavl prince, his possessions passed to Moscow. In 1303, Mozhaisk was annexed from the Smolensk Principality to Moscow. Thus, the territory of the Moscow Principality doubled in three years and became one of the largest in North-Eastern Rus'. Since Mozhaisk is located at the source of the Moscow River, and Kolomna is located at the mouth, with their annexation the entire river came into the possession of the Moscow princes. Pereyaslavl-Zalessky was one of the richest and most fertile regions of the northeast, so its inclusion in the Moscow Principality significantly increased the economic potential of the latter. The Moscow prince entered into the struggle for the Great Reign.

The struggle of Moscow and Tver for the grand-ducal throne. As a representative of an older branch, the Tver prince Mikhail Yaroslavich (1304-1319) received a label for the great reign in the Horde. In Moscow at this time, the son of Daniil Alexandrovich Yuri (1303-1325) ruled.

Yuri Danilovich Moskovsky was married to the sister of Khan Uzbek Konchak (Agafya). He promised to increase tribute from Russian lands. The Khan gave him the label to the Grand Duke's throne. In 1315, Mikhail started a war with Yuri, defeated his squad, and captured the khan’s sister, who soon died in Tver. Yuri blamed the Tver prince for the death of his wife. Summoned to the Horde, Mikhail was executed. For the first time in 1319, the Moscow prince received the label of the Great Reign. However, already in 1325, Yuri was killed by the eldest son of Mikhail Tverskoy, Dmitry Groznye Ochi. Khan Uzbek executed Dmitry, but continuing the policy of pitting Russian princes against each other, he transferred the Great Reign to the brother of the executed man, Alexander Mikhailovich (1325-1327).

Uprising in Tver. In 1327, the population of Tver rebelled against the tax collector Baskak Cholkhan (in Rus' he was called Shchelkan), a relative of Uzbek. Outraged by the extortions and violence, the residents of Tver turned to Prince Alexander Mikhailovich for help. The Tver prince took a wait-and-see attitude. The rebels of Tver killed the Tatars. Taking advantage of this, the Moscow prince Ivan Danilovich came to Tver with a Mongol-Tatar army and suppressed the uprising. At the cost of the lives of the population of another Russian land, he contributed to the rise of his own principality. At the same time, the defeat of Tver deflected the blow from the rest of the Russian lands.

And today the debate continues about two possible trends in the fight against the Horde. Who was right in the rivalry between the two principalities of the 14th century? Moscow, which was accumulating strength to fight the enemy, or Tver, which opposed the invaders with an open visor? There are supporters of both one and the other point of view.

Ivan Kalita. Ivan Danilovich (1325-1340), having defeated the uprising in Tver, received a label for the Great Reign, which from that time on almost constantly remained in the hands of the Moscow princes. Grand Duke managed to achieve a close alliance between the grand ducal power of Moscow and the church. Metropolitan Peter lived for a long time and often in Moscow, and his successor Theognost finally moved there. Moscow became the religious and ideological center of Rus'.

Ivan Danilovich was an intelligent, consistent, although cruel in achieving his goals, politician. Under him, Moscow became the richest principality in Rus'. Hence the prince’s nickname “Kalita” (“money bag”, “purse”). Under Ivan Kalita, the role of Moscow as the center of unification of all Russian lands increased. He achieved the necessary respite from the Horde invasions, which made it possible to boost the economy and accumulate forces to fight the Mongol-Tatars. Ivan Kaliga received the right to collect tribute from the Russian principalities and deliver it to the Horde. Without resorting to weapons, he significantly expanded his possessions. Under him, the Galich (Kostroma region), Uglich, and Belozersk (Vologda region) principalities submitted to the Moscow principality.

Under the sons of Ivan Kalita Semyon (1340-1353), who received the nickname “Proud” for his arrogant attitude towards other princes, and Ivan the Red (1353-1359), the Moscow principality included the Dmitrov, Kostroma, Starodub lands and the Kaluga region.

Dmitry Donskoy. Dmitry (1359-1389) received the throne as a nine-year-old child. The struggle for the Grand Duke's Vladimir table broke out again. The Horde began to openly support Moscow's opponents.

A unique symbol of the success and strength of the Moscow Principality was the construction in just two years of an impregnable white stone Kremlin Moscow (1367) the only stone fortress on the territory of north-eastern Rus'. All this allowed Moscow to repel its claim to all-Russian leadership Nizhny Novgorod, Tver, to repel the campaigns of the Lithuanian prince Olgerd.

The balance of power in Rus' changed in favor of Moscow. In the Horde itself, a period of “great turmoil” began (50-60s of the 14th century), weakening central power and the struggle for the khan’s throne. Rus' and the Horde seemed to be “testing” each other. In 1377 on the river. Drunken (near Nizhny Novgorod) the Moscow army was crushed by the Horde. However, the Tatars were unable to consolidate their success. In 1378, the army of Murza Begich was defeated by Dmitry on the river. Vozha (Ryazan land). These battles were a prelude to the Battle of Kulikovo.

Battle of Kulikovo. In 1380, the temnik (head of the tumen) Mamai, who came to power in the Horde after several years of internecine hostility, tried to restore the shaken dominance of the Golden Horde over the Russian lands. Having concluded an alliance with the Lithuanian prince Jagiel, Mamai led his troops to Rus'. Princely squads and militias from most Russian lands gathered in Kolomna, from where they moved towards the Tatars, trying to forestall the enemy. Dmitry proved himself to be a talented commander, making an unconventional decision for that time to cross the Don and meet the enemy on the territory that Mamai considered his own. At the same time, Dmitry set a goal to prevent Mamai from connecting with Jagiel before the start of the battle.

The troops met on the Kulikovo field at the confluence of the Nepryadva River with the Don. The morning of the battle, September 8, 1380, dawned foggy. The fog cleared only by 11 o'clock in the morning. The battle began with a duel between the Russian hero Peresvet and the Tatar warrior Chelubey. At the beginning of the battle, the Tatars almost completely destroyed the leading Russian regiment and wedged themselves into the ranks of a large regiment stationed in the center. Mamai was already triumphant, believing that he had won. However, there followed an unexpected strike for the Horde from the flank of a Russian ambush regiment led by governor Dmitry Bobrok-Volynpe and Prince Vladimir Serpukhovsky. This blow decided the outcome of the battle by three o'clock in the afternoon. The Tatars fled in panic from the Kulikovo field. For personal courage in battle and military leadership, Dmitry received the nickname Donskoy.

The defeat of Moscow by Tokhtamysh. After the defeat, Mamai fled to Kafa (Feodosia), where he was killed. Khan Tokhtamysh seized power over the Horde. The struggle between Moscow and the Horde is not over yet. In 1382, using the help of the Ryazan prince Oleg Ivanovich, who pointed out the fords across the Oka River, Tokhtamysh and his horde suddenly attacked Moscow. Even before the Tatar campaign, Dmitry left Stolipa to the north to gather a new militia. The population of the city organized the defense of Moscow, rebelling against the boyars who rushed out of the capital in panic. The Muscovites managed to repel two enemy assaults, using for the first time in battle the so-called mattresses (forged iron cannons of Russian production). Realizing that the city could not be taken by storm and fearing the approach of Dmitry Donskoy with his army, Tokhtamysh told the Muscovites that he had come to fight not against them, but against Prince Dmitry, and promised not to plunder the city. Having broken into Moscow by deception, Tokhtamysh subjected it to a brutal defeat. Moscow was again obliged to pay tribute to the khan.

The meaning of the Kulikovo victory. Despite the defeat in 1382, the Russian people, after the Battle of Kulikovo, believed in their imminent liberation from the Tatars. The Golden Horde suffered its first major defeat on the Kulikovo Field. The Battle of Kulikovo showed the power and strength of Moscow as the political and economic center of the organizer of the struggle to overthrow the Golden Horde yoke and unify the Russian lands. Thanks to the Kulikovo victory, the size of the tribute was reduced. The Horde finally recognized the political supremacy of Moscow among the rest of the Russian lands. The defeat of the Horde in the Battle of Kulikovo significantly weakened their power. Residents from different Russian lands and cities walked to the Kulikovo field, and they returned from the battle as the Russian people. Before his death, Dmitry Donskoy transferred the Great Reign of Vladimir to his son Vasily (1389-1425) in his will as the “fatherland” of the Moscow princes, without asking for the right to a label in the Horde. There was a merger of the Grand Duchy of Vladimir and Moscow.

The cruel and bloody campaigns of Batu led to the emergence of the Mongol-Tatar yoke over the Russian people. Rus''s dependence on the Golden Horde forced people to adapt to new conditions and a new state system.

The conquest of Rus' led to a relationship of subordination of the Russian people to the Golden Horde khans. Later, a system of domination of the Mongol-Tatars was organized.

The chronicle of 1243 says that Prince Yaroslav went to Batu and sent his son to Kanovich. The Kagan of the Golden Horde received Yaroslav with great honors and appointed him the most senior prince over all the princes of Rus'.

In 1246, the Pope sent a mission led by Plano Carpini, a famous Franciscan, to the Khan of the Golden Horde to collect information about the Tatars. The Europeans were frightened by the Mongol-Tatar invasion of Europe and the conquest of Rus'. In the Horde he met the Russian prince. In the report, he described in detail all the honors given to him and the prince by the Tatars.

The Vladimir-Suzdal and Kyiv lands. However, Yaroslav did not visit Kyiv, and appointed boyar Dmitry Eykovich to govern. The conquered lands did not become part of the Golden Horde.

For the Horde Khanate, the lands of Rus' were politically autonomous with their own power, but were obliged to pay a “exit” (tribute). There were also emergency payments called requests. For example, a khan was organizing a military campaign and needed cash. He sent an unexpected “request” to the Russian princes, which had to be collected strictly. A lot of gold was required to appease the khan, his relatives and ambassadors with expensive gifts, and to bribe courtiers and officials of the Golden Horde.

It was announced to the Russian people that the supreme ruler would be the ruler of the Mongol Empire, and Batu Khan would rule everything. The Khan of the Golden Horde was called “king”. The feudal principalities of Rus' found themselves in vassal dependence on the khan. The princes who survived the campaigns were ordered to come to the Horde to receive a label for government from Batu. This charter must be documentary evidence of the prince’s authority to govern a certain principality. Dependence was expressed in the “tsar's grant” of the Russian princes by the khan. The Russian metropolitan or the khan's authorized representative sat the prince on the table. The princes found themselves under the control of the Horde khan. Control was exercised by the Baskaks, of whom there was one in each principality.

At the end of the 13th century, the Baskaks were killed by the rebel people. The princes began to collect tribute. However, there was still a formal dependence. The princes were still confirmed in their places by the Tatar khans.

The entire population paid the Tatar “exit”. The Kaganate even ordered a population census. For the first time, the Baskaks collected tribute and registered the people. In 1257, the new khan already took advantage of the numbers. The Laurentian Chronicle says that they appointed temniks, thousanders, centurions and tens. Next, almost every khan rewrote the Russian people in the conquered territories in a new way.

There was no exact process of census assessment, but the units of taxation are precisely known: plow, plow, ralo. They existed in Rus' before, and the Tatars simply took advantage of them.

There is a well-known story when Prince Vasily brought tribute to the khan (0.5 hryvnia per plow). The Khan was dissatisfied with the tribute brought and ordered a new census of the population. Some church chronicles list the payments that the people made. The Tatars excluded the clergy from the number of taxpayers. They considered the church a political force that they used to their advantage. In fact, this was so: submission to the Tatars was secured by the public prayer of clergy for the khans.

In addition to tribute, duties were also determined to strengthen the power of the Golden Horde.

All of occupied Rus' was divided into tumens - districts that fielded 10,000 men in the militia in case of war. The people in them were divided into thousands, hundreds and tens. A total of 29 tumens were formed.

Apparently, the Tatars in Rus' took people and money. The clergy, exempt from duties, did not supply soldiers to the Tatar army.

There were duties using human power. For example, the Yamskaya duty - the people supplied horses to Tatar officials and ambassadors. Rus' found itself in the system of routes of the Golden Horde: inns with stables were organized at a given interval along the route. The surrounding people worked there – yamchas. They were obliged to ensure the non-stop movement of the khan's messengers.

As mentioned above, from the 14th century Russian princes began to collect tribute. They sent tribute workers to collect tribute. The size of the “exit” was constantly changing. The princes competed with each other and sought to enrich the Horde khan to a greater extent. The khan also increased the amount of “exit” at his discretion.

To maintain power in Rus', the Tatars periodically carried out raids. For example, during the second half of the 13th century, 14 raids were organized and carried out.

The princes understood the strength of the Golden Horde and refrained from uprisings. This was the only opportunity to save his people from death and slavery. Several generations of princes visited the Horde with expensive gifts and tried to win over the Kagan. At the same time, there was a struggle among the princes for labels for the principality. The Horde government inflated such conflicts in every way in order to weaken Rus'. But the prince’s right to collect tribute made it possible to accumulate money in order to attract supporters and intimidate opponents.

In the second half of the 14th century, the Mongol-Tatar yoke weakened. The internal fragmentation of the Golden Horde weakened it; the Mongols could not organize large armies for military campaigns.

250 years of yoke have had and positive effect to the Russian people. He learned from the Horde technical techniques of combat, combat skills, customs duties, many items of clothing. The Yam service existed in Rus' for several centuries.

Happened mixed marriages. It was prestigious to become related to the Tatar nobility. After the collapse of the Golden Horde, some Horde members moved to Rus' and became the founders of the famous families of the Glinskys, Godunovs, Turgenevs, Shakhmatovs, Urusovs, etc.

This process was most active in the 13th-16th centuries, that is, during the period of the existence of Rus' under the influence of the great Golden Horde. Need to pay serious attention to those available at that time numerous examples productive interaction between two state traditions. It was in accordance with Horde customs that the fiscal system in Rus' was rebuilt, military organization, embassy customs. During the period of Horde supremacy, the financial benefits of the Orthodox Church were based initially on the Yasa (code of laws) of Genghis Khan, and then on the norms of Muslim law (Sharia). The similarity of state administrative orders in the Horde and in Rus' was so significant that in “Zadonshchina” (XV century) Rus' is referred to as the “Zalesskaya Horde”. It is no coincidence that among the Turkic words borrowed into the Russian language there are such as treasury, denga, altyn, tamga (and its derivative customs), yam (from where the coachman, yam service). This indicates at least significant Tatar influence in such important functions of the state as the organization financial system and mail messages. One can list for a long time the numerous historical names in Moscow (Kitai-Gorod, Arbat, Balchug, Ordynka, etc.) also dating back to Horde times, when Rus' and the Golden Horde actually lived within the framework of a single state- political systems and to some extent they were similar to each other.

Distinctive features statehood of Rus' during the period Tatar-Mongol yoke:

Preservation of the statehood of the principalities;

The church played an important role in the activities of the state;

Administration preserved Kievan Rus.

Rus' paid taxes (fees). The collection of taxes was carried out by the prince who was given the khan's label. The owner of this label bore the title of Grand Duke, had a powerful political power and military support for the Golden Horde.

At the end of the 13th century. The taxation system changed: merchants (tax collectors) were replaced by official collectors. The Russian Church was exempt from paying taxes and conscription of people subject to it into the Mongol army. Veliky Novgorod remained autonomous and received the right to free trade.

Russian princes became vassals of the khan of the Golden Horde, monitored by the khan's representatives (baskaks). Each prince individually owned his principality and himself collected tribute for the khan. In Kyiv and Pereyaslavl, the Mongols ruled independently.

The Khan decided all legal and financial issues and had the right to announce the mobilization of Russians into the Mongol army.

The judicial system during the Tatar-Mongol yoke in Rus':

The Supreme Court of the Golden Horde - the highest judicial authority, considered disputes between Russian princes;

Mongolian courts heard disputes between Russians and Mongols;

The princes resolved disputes among themselves.

Similar features of the administrative management of the Moscow and Mongolian states:

System and procedure of taxation;

Yamsk transport service;

Formation of troops;

Financial-state system.

12. Features political system Novgorod and Pskov.
Novgorod and Pskov lands were located in the north-west of Rus'. Until the 12th century. Novgorod land was part of Kievan Rus. At the beginning of the 12th century, presumably in 1136, the boyars of Novgorod, taking advantage of the uprising of the urban lower classes and peasantry against the prince, seized power and established their political dominance. A republican (feudal) system developed in Novgorod.
The Pskov land was part of the Novgorod Republic until the mid-14th century. In 1348, Pskov, which had grown into a large trade and craft center, separated from Novgorod and also became a feudal republic.
The features of the social and political systems of Novgorod and Pskov were determined by the originality of their economic development. The dominant position was occupied by boyars - feudal lords, large landowners. The Novgorod (Pskov) boyars were closely connected with trade with Western and Russian principalities, crafts, and exploitation of the population of dependent lands.
The intensive development of crafts and trade led to the emergence of a wide middle class of Novgorod-Pskov society, which included “living people”, “countrymen” and merchants. The “living people” included middle feudal lords, who were also involved in trade and usury. “Svoezemtsy” were small landowners who cultivated the land themselves or rented it out. The merchant class united into hundreds (guilds) and traded with the Russian principalities and abroad.
The urban population consisted of merchants and artisans - the “elders” and “black people”.
The Novgorod (Pskov) peasantry consisted of community smerds, lads - dependent peasants working for part of the product on the master's land, mortgagees and slaves.
In Novgorod and Pskov, an unusual form of government for medieval Rus' developed - a feudal republic.
State administration of Novgorod and Pskov was carried out by the veche - a meeting of full-fledged male residents. Formally there was a meeting supreme body authorities who decided all the most important economic, political, military, judicial and administrative issues. The powers of the veche included the election of the prince. Decisions at meetings had to be made unanimously. There was a veche administration - veche clerks, veche hut.
Real power in Novgorod and Pskov belonged to the boyar council, which included noble boyars and representatives of the city administration. The archbishop presided over the council. The Boyar Council was an organizational and preparatory body. His competence included: preparation of bills, veche decisions, control activities, convening of the veche, preparation of the agenda, selection of candidates for officials elected at the veche, etc.
The armed forces included the prince's squad, the lord's regiment and the city militia.
The highest officials of Veliky Novgorod were the mayor, the thousand, the archbishop and the prince.
The mayor was elected by the veche for one to two years from among the noble boyars. He presided over the meeting, led the boyar council, was in charge of the administration and foreign policy affairs; Together with the prince, he carried out issues of administration, court and command of the armed forces.
Tysyatsky was elected at a meeting from noble representatives of the aristocracy. He dealt with issues of trade and the merchant court, headed the people's militia and resolved other management issues, helping the mayor.
The archbishop was elected from among monks who came from the boyar environment. He was the custodian of the state treasury, the controller of trade measures and weights. The main role of the archbishop was reduced to leadership in the church hierarchy.
The prince was invited to reign by citizens. His candidacy was previously discussed at the boyar council and then submitted for approval in the veche. The main goal The prince was responsible for organizing the defense of the republic from external enemies. The prince carried out military, judicial and administrative activities together with the mayor.
The territory of the Novgorod state was divided into pyatinas, the administration of which was built on the principles of local autonomy. Each pyatina was assigned to one of the five ends of Novgorod: Plotnitsky, Slovensky, Zagorodsky, Nerevsky or Goncharsky. Pyatina were divided into volosts, volosts into graveyards. The center of Pyatina's self-government was the suburb.
One of the suburbs was Pskov, which grew into an independent political center around which the Pskov state was formed. The state organization of Pskov was similar to Novgorod: a veche system, an elected prince, two sedate posadniks, six “ends”, 12 suburbs.

Economic dependence on the Horde of North-Eastern and North-Western Rus' was expressed in the removal of artisans to Horde centers and cities, the payment of a very burdensome regular tribute (“Horde exit”), ruinous additional taxes, as well as the existence of a special service organization of direct producers who must were to provide for all the needs of the ambassadors, messengers, and special representatives who came from the khan to Rus'. Political dependence was manifested primarily in the fact that the decisive condition for the legitimacy of the power of any sovereign prince (great or appanage) was the khan's grant (label). The heredity of princely tables within the borders of local Rurik dynasties was then an important, but still less significant factor in the legitimacy of the power of monarchs. Russian princes were also obliged to participate with their troops in the campaigns of the rulers of the Golden Horde.

Historically, the forms of Horde control have been variable. First, which existed for a relatively short time, was the institution of direct representatives of the khan (“baskaks”). Then the method of indirect control was adopted. The most striking example is the former Vladimir-Suzdal land. The Grand Duke's table in Vladimir was not hereditarily assigned by the khans to any one line of descendants of Grand Duke Vsevolod the Big Nest. The prince who received the label for him, was personally responsible to the khan for the correct payment of the output by all the princes, their timely participation in the Horde military campaigns, their loyalty to the Saransk ruler, etc. As a reward, he received the right to govern and judge the population of the territories of the Vladimir table, the right to deliver the output from all reigns and lands in the Horde, the princely table in Veliky Novgorod (close relatives and their governors were usually sent there), the status of the “eldest” prince. Throughout most of the 14th century. The Great Reign of Vladimir became the object of fierce rivalry between the Moscow, Tver, and then Nizhny Novgorod-Suzdal princely dynasties, which made it easier for the khans to function as arbiters.

The victory of the Moscow Rurikovichs (they united in their hands the territories of the Moscow and Vladimir great principalities) became the reason last change: from the end of the 14th century. all the great and independent principalities of North-Eastern Rus' began to communicate directly with the Horde regarding the payment of tribute, and to receive khan's labels, and on other issues.

Documentation

During the period of existence of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, not a single document in the Tatar or Mongolian language has been preserved. But there are many documents from this time in Russian.

Lack of objective evidence confirming the hypothesis of the Tatar-Mongol yoke

At the moment there are no originals of any kind historical documents, which would objectively prove that there was a Tatar-Mongol yoke. But there are many fakes designed to convince us of the existence of a fiction called the “Tatar-Mongol yoke.” Here is one of these fakes. This text is called “The Word about the Destruction of the Russian Land” and in each publication it is declared “an excerpt from a poetic work that has not reached us intact... Tatar-Mongol invasion»

On all maps that were published before 1772 and were not subsequently corrected, you can see the following picture. The western part of Rus' is called Muscovy, or Moscow Tartary... This small part of Rus' was ruled by the Romanov dynasty. Until the end of the 18th century, the Moscow Tsar was called the ruler of Moscow Tartaria or the Duke (Prince) of Moscow. The rest of Rus', which occupied almost the entire continent of Eurasia in the east and south of Muscovy at that time, is called Tartaria or the Russian Empire

In the 1st edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica of 1771 the following is written about this part of Rus':

“Tartaria, a huge country in the northern part of Asia, bordering Siberia in the north and west: which is called Great Tartary. Those Tartars living south of Muscovy and Siberia are called Astrakhan, Cherkasy and Dagestan, those living in the northwest of the Caspian Sea are called Kalmyk Tartars and which occupy the territory between Siberia and the Caspian Sea; Uzbek Tartars and Mongols, who live north of Persia and India, and, finally, Tibetans, living northwest of China..."

Ticket 11.

General terms cultural development. Already in the second half of the 11th century, turbulent times began in Rus', the struggle for power and princely civil strife flared up with renewed vigor. According to tradition, the Grand Duke “seats” his sons according to their inheritance. Land is distributed according to seniority. The princes had to take care of the protection of their territories and the zemstvo system. They had the right to issue judicial statutes

From Pravda Yaroslavich we learn about the structure of the estate. Its center was the princely or boyar courtyard with many storerooms and cellars where the princely “goods” were stored: iron, copper, wine. It was considered prestigious to have herds of horses. The prince, as a rule, received two names, one at birth, the other at baptism. The custom applied to infants of both sexes. Boys from 2 to 4 years old underwent the rite of tonsure - the first cutting of their hair. On this occasion, feasts were held in his father's house. The little one was put on a horse for the first time.

Children were married early: sons at 11 years old, daughters at 8, and sometimes at 5–7 years old. CM. Solovyov gives a description of the wedding of Vsevolod III’s daughter, Verkhuslava, who married Rostislav Rurikovich: “... and gave her countless amounts of gold and silver; and he bestowed great gifts on the matchmakers and sent them away with great honor; He followed his dear daughter to three camps, and her father and mother cried for her, because she was sweet and young to them: only eight years old... Prince Rurik... played a rich wedding for his son Rostislav, the likes of which had never happened in Rus', too many 20 princes feasted on it; He gave his daughter-in-law many gifts and the city of Bryagin...” Large lands were concentrated in the hands of the prince. His servants also had undivided power. Wealth was replenished from the lands and property of guilty people or boyars who served his predecessor.

The main source of income was still tribute. Hence the desire to buy settlements or occupy new, empty lands and populate them, which became one of the reasons for the princely strife, which sometimes lasted 12–17 years. To wage war according to the rules meant causing as much harm as possible to the enemy's volost - burning, robbing, killing, taking prisoners. It happened that the population of cities was completely transported from one place to another, populating free territories. The peace was concluded by kissing the cross, it was fragile and constantly violated. All this causes mass discontent and popular uprisings. It is no coincidence that additional articles on the protection of the property of the feudal lord and his estate ("Pravda Yaroslavichey") are included in "Russkaya Pravda".

The change of princes did little to strengthen princely power. Each new prince tried to introduce own orders and show how untenable his predecessor was. Striving for stability local residents create opposition to the authorities in the form of city councils, which gain greater power over time. Cities begin to choose their own favorite princes and expel those who are too zealous and do not listen to the local voice. The princes were forced to take into account the opinion of the veche. Cities are acquiring the importance of a leading political force and increasing freedom.

To stop the strife, on the initiative of Vladimir Monomakh, the Lyubech Congress of Princes was held in 1097, where the principle “Let everyone maintain his fatherland” was proclaimed. In fact, this meant the division of Rus'. However, strife continued after the Lyubech Congress. Only the need to repel those who appeared by the middle of the 11th century. in the southern Russian steppes, the nomadic Polovtsians still kept Kievan Rus for some time from disintegrating into separate principalities.

Nomad invasions became a real disaster. The chronicle lists 37 significant Polovtsian raids. Princes in civil strife considered it normal to resort to the help of the Polovtsians. The volosts were devastated and ruined. As a result, physical disasters come. In all local chronicles we find descriptions of crop failures, famine and diseases that devastated the land no worse than the Polovtsians.

The collapse of state political unity and the decline in the prestige of princely power lead to a strengthening of the role of the clergy. Bishops become the prince's main advisers, take part in the reconciliation of princes, pacifying popular uprisings, and act as intermediaries between the population and the princes.

A special attitude and respect of the people towards monasticism is developed. This is another, higher world. Tales of miraculous icons and healings. "The exploits of St. monks shine with miracles more than worldly power...” – wrote a 12th-century chronicler. Monasteries, including women's ones, appeared in Turov, Pereyaslavl, Chernigov, Vladimir, Smolensk, Novgorod and many other cities. Vsevolod Yaroslavich's daughter Yanka went to a monastery in her youth and “gathered many nuns around her and lived with them according to the monastic rite.”

Monasteries are gaining strength very quickly. They receive gifts of land, priceless Jewelry, icons, various amounts of money, precious frames for monastery icons are made. Even individual monks become rich. According to chroniclers, they kept their “goods” in their cells and did not want to give it to the poor. There were cases when the monastic brethren refused to bury poor monks.

At the same time, monasteries still remain centers of education. There are schools and colleges for training clergy here. In Rus' they understood the importance of education. Princes familiar with “book wisdom” were especially respected. In the Tatishchevsky Code, praise is given to Konstantin Vsevolodovich for the fact that he was smart, had many ancient Greek books translated into Russian, collected information about the affairs of the ancients glorious princes, often wrote himself.

“The whole Russian land was in disarray,” the chronicler wrote in 1132. Kievan Rus is disintegrating. Separate principalities were formed - Chernigov, Polotsk, Pereyaslavl, Galician, Volyn, Smolensk, Ryazan, Rostov-Suzdal, Kiev, Novgorod land and a number of other small principalities. However, the process of disintegration did not end there. There were more and more princes and the Russian land was becoming smaller and smaller. By the middle of the 12th century. On the basis of Kievan Rus, approximately 15 principalities and lands were formed by the beginning of the 13th century. there were about 50 of them.

Over time, the Kiev metropolis, “for two centuries devastated by fire and sword, by foreigners and its own,” as Karamzin writes, loses its significance. Its role is transferred to other principalities. Dnieper Rus' is replaced by Upper Volga Russia.

The collapse of Kievan Rus had extremely important positive consequences. Smaller territories were easier to manage. Now each ruler took care of the principality as his own property and sought to strengthen and enrich it. The economy (handicraft, agricultural production) is rising to a new qualitative level. Absence internal borders promotes the development of trade and commodity-money relations.

Rus' was previously called the “country of cities.” Now there are more of them, they are increasing in size, and their socio-political significance is growing. The city consisted of several parts. The city itself was surrounded by embankments with a moat and wooden, less commonly stone walls. This internal part was called the child. Settlements were formed around the main city, which were also surrounded by walls. The result was a double strengthening.

The outer city was called a fort. Walls with towers and gates were erected. Each gate had its own name: according to the cardinal directions - Eastern, according to decorations - Golden, Silver, according to those parts of the urban population that adjoined them - Zhidovsky, Lyadsky. They built bridges across rivers, prisons, cellars, houses and princely palaces, and shopping areas. Most of the buildings were wooden, so Rus' was not spared the troubles common to all medieval cities: fires often devastated half the city. In Novgorod, from 1054 to 1228, 11 large fires are mentioned.

With the territorial disintegration, the political unity of the Russian lands finally collapsed. Two irreconcilable trends are coming into conflict: the desire to create a powerful centralized state structure (Vladimir-Suzdal lands) and the development of, albeit limited, but still democratic foundations government system(Novgorod).

Public consciousness, quite obviously (the creation of city councils, the choice of princes by townspeople, the reaction of the population to increasing enslavement), is inclined towards a democratic choice, which was explained by centuries-old Slavic traditions, and the fall in the authority of princely power, the inability of rulers to agree among themselves, and the intensification of internecine conflicts.

But most importantly, in contrast to the political disintegration, economic, social and church-moral ties between different regions of Rus' are strengthening. IN. Klyuchevsky calls this process the awakening in Russian society of “the feeling of zemstvo unity, the emergence of the Russian nationality” (emphasis - author).

Main trends in literature and art. Period feudal fragmentation became a time of unprecedented flowering of artistic culture. The princes in the allocated territory are trying to settle down and introduce orders similar to those in Kyiv. This was one of the reasons for the extremely rapid spread of high cultural traditions throughout Rus'.

Quantity new churches, stone buildings, and monuments of monumental architecture numbered in the thousands. They needed icons, liturgical utensils, and craftsmen who could decorate the interior. On the eve of the Tatar invasion, many artels were working everywhere. Despite the strengthening of the Church, which at this time was too carried away by worldly affairs, the destruction of centralization leads to freedom of creativity. Each artel develops its own style and tries to take into account the tastes of the customer.

As a result, the regions are developing their own art schools, and new features associated with local everyday life, socio-political and geographical conditions are infused into artistic culture.

Literature of this period developed as quickly as architecture and painting. The variety of genres of literary works is striking: hagiographies (biographies of saints), various epistles, historical stories, geographical works, etc. At the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th century, chronicle collections were compiled in Chernigov, Vladimir, Smolensk and many other cities.

Many works are permeated by the idea of ​​the unity of Rus' in the face of external danger. An unknown author left an invaluable written monument, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” which tells about the campaign of Igor Svyatoslavich against the Polovtsians in 1185. The prince of the small Novgorod-Seversky principality with small forces goes on a long campaign. And this was caused not only by the desire to protect the Russian land from the Polovtsians, but also by the thirst for glory. The author is sympathetic to Igor Svyatoslavich, he emphasizes that he is fearless, noble, he himself understands and deeply worries about his mistake. The main reproach is addressed to the princes, who “with their sedition began ... to bring filth to the Russian land, ... because of the strife, violence began from the Polovtsian land!”

A fragmented state cannot successfully defend itself from enemies, and an appeal to the princes passionately sounds: “Enter, gentlemen, into the golden stirrup for the insult of this time... Block the gates of the Field with your sharp arrows for the Russian land, for the wounds of Igor, the brave Svyatoslavich!” .

The story is based on the traditions of Russian folk art. The most lyrical moment of the work is the monologue-cry of Yaroslavna, Igor’s faithful and devoted wife. According to the old pagan tradition, she addresses the natural elements as animated forces: “Oh wind, sail! ...Oh Dnepr Slavutich!” The author calls Russian soldiers the sons of Dazhdbog. Often uses epithets characteristic of oral folk art: gray wolf, open field, black earth.

“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” had a huge impact on the entire Russian culture. It became a model for the creation of " Zadonshchiny"- a poetic work about the victory of Dmitry Donskoy on the Kulikovo Field. In the 19th and 20th centuries, writers and artists never ceased to turn to the events of that time. The paintings of I. Vasnetsov, V. Serov, N. Roerich are well known.

The disintegration of Kievan Rus into separate principalities leads to a weakening of military power; the princes were never able to unite in the face of danger, which is the main negative consequence of the period of feudal fragmentation.

Since the middle of the 13th century, Rus' has presented a gloomy picture. Destroyed and burned cities, devastated villages, forested fields; the population was exterminated, driven away by the Tatars. Crafts are dying down, some are completely disappearing. The production of spindle whorls from Ovruch slate, glass bracelets, products with niello and grain, cloisonné enamel, and multi-color glazed ceramics used in construction has ceased; stone construction has been suspended. Even lands that had not experienced direct enemy attack suffered.

In works of literature, an invasion is perceived as a catastrophe, an invasion of otherworldly forces, something unprecedented. In the middle and second half of the 13th century, works dedicated to the events of the Tatar-Mongol yoke appeared. They are very emotional and poetic. A significant place among them is occupied by “The Tale of the Destruction of the Russian Land.” This is a cry about the “brightly bright and beautifully decorated Russian land.” In literary works the most important events this difficult period for Rus'. In “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu” folk hero, the warrior Evpatiy Kolovrat gathered a small squad and fiercely went against the enemy: “One fought with a thousand, and two with darkness.” This battle was more like the revenge of the dead rebel Russians.

The life of Alexander Nevsky told about the Neva battle with the Swedes, about the Battle of the Ice on Lake Peipsi, about the relationship of Alexander Nevsky with the Golden Horde and the death of the prince. All these and other works are permeated with warmth, lyrical sorrow about the past, about the former greatness of Rus'.

It is difficult to imagine the damage caused by the Tatar-Mongols. The development of Russian culture was interrupted for more than two centuries. V. Klyuchevsky calls the XIII, XIV centuries. “at times of general decline in Rus'”, when “people became timid and cowardly”, when the entire population of the country (from commoners to princes) acts in the name of personal interests, when they physically destroy brave, enterprising princes and openly support those who are not very talented, but submissive , when Russian rulers adopt oriental manners of luxury and permissiveness. And these shifts in public consciousness had, perhaps, the most negative, and most importantly, long-term consequences, when, according to the same Klyuchevsky, the instincts of “self-preservation and capture” become the main features.

I. TYPES, FORMS AND DIRECTIONS OF ORGANIZING INDEPENDENT WORK OF STUDENTS