Basic research. Social interests

Social interest

Another concept of critical importance in Adler's individual psychology is social interest. The concept of social interest reflects Adler's strong belief that we humans are social creatures, and if we want to understand ourselves more deeply, we must consider our relationships with other people and, even more broadly, the socio-cultural context in which we we live. But even more so, the concept reflects a fundamental, albeit gradual, change in Adler's views on what constitutes the enormous guiding force underlying all human endeavor.

At the very beginning of his scientific career, Adler believed that people are motivated by an insatiable thirst for personal power and the need to dominate others. In particular, he believed that people are driven forward by the need to overcome deep-seated feelings of inferiority and the desire for superiority. These views met with widespread protest. Indeed, Adler was much criticized for his emphasis on egoistic motives, ignoring social ones. Many critics believed that Adler's position on motivation was nothing more than a disguised version of Darwin's doctrine of survival of the fittest. However, later, when Adler's theoretical system was further developed, it took into account that people are largely motivated by social motives. Namely, people are driven to certain actions by an innate social instinct, which forces them to abandon selfish goals for the sake of the goals of the community. The essence of this view, which is expressed in the concept of social interest, is that people subordinate their personal needs to the cause of social benefit. The expression "social interest" comes from the German neologism Gemeinschaftsgefuhl, a term whose meaning cannot be fully conveyed in another language by a single word or phrase. It means something like "social feeling", "sense of community" or "sense of solidarity". It also includes the meaning of membership in the human community, that is, a sense of identification with humanity and similarity with every member of the human race.

1. Subsocial objects - inanimate objects, situations or activities (science, art, etc.). The interest shown in them is in no way connected with the individual’s own “I”. The ability for such an interest coming from within serves as the foundation for an individual’s future contribution to the development of humanity. But whether a person makes such a contribution or not depends largely on the development of focus on the second category of objects.

2. Social objects include all living things. Social interest here manifests itself as the ability to appreciate life and accept the point of view of another. At the same time, interest in actual social objects comes later than interest in subsocial objects, so we can talk about the corresponding stages of development of social interest. So, for example, at the subsocial stage, a child can play with interest with kittens and at the same time torment them and cause them pain. At the social stage, he is already more respectful and reverent about life.

3. Suprasocial objects are both living and non-living objects. Social interest here means a complete transcendence of oneself and unity with the entirety of the world, this is “a cosmic feeling and reflection of the community of the entire cosmos and life in us,” “a close union with life as a whole.”

The process of social interest can be directed toward objects of three kinds.

Table 3.1. Feelings, thoughts and characteristics of a person’s command, reflecting the development of his social interest

Adler believed that the prerequisites for social interest are innate. Since every man possesses it in some degree, he is a social creature by nature, and not by the formation of habit. However, like other innate inclinations, social interest does not arise automatically, but requires that it be consciously developed. It is trainable and produces results through proper guidance and training.

Social interest develops in a social environment. Other people - first of all the mother, and then the rest of the family - contribute to the process of its development. However, it is the mother, with whom contact is the first in the child’s life and has the greatest influence on him, who makes enormous efforts to develop social interest. In essence, Adler views maternal contributions to education as a double labor: encouraging the formation of mature social interests and helping to direct them beyond the mother's sphere of influence. Both functions are not easy to perform and are always influenced to some degree by how the child explains the mother's behavior.

Since social interest arises in the child's relationship with the mother, her task is to cultivate in the child a sense of cooperation, a desire to establish relationships and companionship - qualities that Adler considered closely intertwined. Ideally, a mother shows true love for her child - love that is focused on his well-being, and not on her own maternal vanity. This healthy love stems from a genuine concern for people and enables a mother to cultivate a social interest in her child. Her tenderness toward her husband, her other children, and people in general serves as a role model for the child, who learns through this pattern of broad social interest that there are others in the world. significant people, and not just family members.

Many attitudes formed during maternal upbringing can also suppress the child’s sense of social interest. If, for example, a mother is focused exclusively on her children, she will not be able to teach them to transfer social interest to other people. If she prefers her husband exclusively and avoids children and society, her children will feel unwanted and deceived, and the potential for their social interest will remain unfulfilled. Any behavior that reinforces children's feelings of being neglected and unloved leads to a loss of independence and inability to cooperate.

Adler considered the father as the second most important source of influence on the child's development of social interest. First, the father must have a positive attitude towards his wife, work and society. In addition to this, his formed social interest should be manifested in relationships with children. According to Adler, ideal father one who treats his children as equals and takes an active part, along with his wife, in their upbringing. A father must avoid two mistakes: emotional withdrawal and parental authoritarianism, which, oddly enough, have the same consequences. Children who feel alienated by their parents usually pursue the goal of achieving personal superiority rather than superiority based on social interest. Parental authoritarianism also leads to a defective lifestyle. Children of oppressive fathers also learn to fight for power and personal rather than social superiority.

Finally, according to Adler, the relationship between father and mother has a huge influence on the development of a child’s social sense. Thus, in the case of an unhappy marriage, children have little chance of developing social interests. If a wife does not provide emotional support to her husband and gives her feelings exclusively to the children, they suffer, since excessive guardianship extinguishes social interest. If a husband openly criticizes his wife, the children lose respect for both parents. If there is discord between husband and wife, children begin to play with one of the parents against the other. In this game, children ultimately lose: they inevitably lose a lot when their parents demonstrate a lack of mutual love.

According to Adler, the severity of social interest turns out to be a convenient criterion for assessing the mental health of an individual. He referred to it as a "barometer of normality" - a measure that can be used to assess a person's quality of life. That is, from Adler's perspective, our lives are valuable only to the extent that we contribute to increasing the value of other people's lives. Normal, healthy people truly care about others; their pursuit of excellence is socially positive and includes a commitment to the well-being of all people. Although they understand that not everything in this world is right, they take upon themselves the task of improving the lot of humanity. In short, they know that their own life has no absolute value until they dedicate it to their contemporaries and even to those not yet born.

In poorly adjusted people, on the contrary, social interest is not sufficiently expressed. As we will see later, they are self-centered, fight for personal superiority and dominance over others, and have no social goals. Each of them lives a life that has only personal meaning - they are absorbed in their own interests and self-defense.

Life style

Lifestyle, in the original version “life plan”, or “guiding image”, is the most characteristic feature of Adler’s dynamic theory of personality. This concept, essentially ideographic, presents an individual's unique way of adapting to life, especially in terms of the goals set by the individual himself and how to achieve them. According to Adler, life style includes a unique combination of traits, modes of behavior and habits, which, taken together, determine a unique picture of the existence of an individual.

How does an individual's lifestyle manifest itself in action? To answer this question we must return briefly to the concepts of inferiority and compensation, since they are the basis of our lifestyles. Adler concluded that as children we all feel inferior, either in our imagination or in reality, and this motivates us to compensate in some way. For example, a child with poor coordination may focus his compensatory efforts on developing outstanding athletic abilities. His behavior, guided by the awareness of his physical limitations, becomes, in turn, his lifestyle - a complex of behavioral activity aimed at overcoming inferiority. So, the lifestyle is based on our efforts to overcome feelings of inferiority and, through this, strengthen the feeling of superiority.

From Adler's point of view, a lifestyle is so firmly established at the age of four or five that it is almost impossible to change completely afterwards. Of course, people continue to find new ways to express their individual lifestyle, but this is essentially only an improvement and development of the basic structure laid down in early childhood. The lifestyle formed in this way is preserved and becomes the main core of behavior in the future. In other words, everything we do is shaped and guided by our unique lifestyle. It determines which aspects of our life and environment we will pay attention to and which we will ignore. All our mental processes (such as perception, thinking and feeling) are organized into a single whole and take on meaning in the context of our lifestyle. Let us imagine as an example a woman striving for superiority by expanding her intellectual capabilities. From the perspective of Adler's theory, her lifestyle predictably involves a sedentary lifestyle. She will place the main emphasis on intensive reading, study, reflection - that is, on everything that can serve the purpose of increasing her intellectual competence. She can plan her daily routine down to the minute - relaxation and hobbies, communication with family, friends and acquaintances, social activity - again in accordance with her main goal. Another person, on the contrary, works on his physical improvement and structures his life in such a way that the goal becomes achievable. Everything he does is aimed at achieving physical superiority. It is obvious that in Adler's theory, all aspects of human behavior arise from his lifestyle. The intellectual remembers, thinks, reasons, feels and acts very differently from the athlete, since both are psychologically opposite types, if we talk about them in terms of their respective lifestyles.

Personality types: attitudes related to lifestyles. Adler reminds us that the constancy of our personality throughout life is explained by our lifestyle. Our basic orientation towards the outside world is also determined by our lifestyle. He noted that the true form of our lifestyle can only be recognized by knowing what ways and means we use to solve life's problems. Every person inevitably faces three global problems: work, friendship and love. From Adler’s point of view, none of these problems stands alone - they are always interconnected, and their solution depends on our lifestyle: “The solution to one helps to get closer to the solution to the others; and indeed, we may say that they represent different aspects of the same situation and the same problem—the need for living beings to maintain life and continue to live in the environment they have” (Adler, 1956, p. 133).

Since each person has a unique lifestyle, identifying personality types based on this criterion is only possible as a result of rough generalization. Following this view, Adler was very reluctant to propose a typology of lifestyle attitudes (Dreikurs, 1950). In this classification, types are distinguished based on how the three main life tasks are solved. The classification itself is built on the principle of a two-dimensional scheme, where one dimension is represented by “social interest” and the other by “degree of activity”. Social interest is a feeling of empathy for all people; it manifests itself in cooperation with others for the sake of common success rather than for personal gain. In Adler's theory, social interest is the main criterion of psychological maturity; its opposite is selfish interest. Activity level has to do with how a person approaches life's problems. The concept of “degree of activity” coincides in meaning with modern concepts"excitement" or "energy level". As Adler believed, each person has a certain energy level, within the boundaries of which he attacks his life problems. This level of energy or activity is usually established in childhood; it can vary in different people from lethargy, apathy to constant frantic activity. The degree of activity plays a constructive or destructive role only in combination with social interest.

The first three Adlerian types of attitudes associated with lifestyles are control, acquisition and avoidance. Each of them is characterized by insufficient expression of social interest, but they differ in the degree of activity. The fourth type, socially useful, has both high social interest and a high degree of activity. Adler reminds us that no typology, no matter how ingenious they may be or seem, can accurately describe the individual's desire for excellence, perfection, and integrity. Nevertheless, the description of these attitudes accompanying lifestyles will to some extent facilitate the understanding of human behavior from the perspective of Adler’s theory.

Control type. People are self-confident and assertive, with little, if any, social interest. They are active, but not socially. Consequently, their behavior does not imply concern for the well-being of others. They are characterized by an attitude of superiority over the outside world. When faced with basic life challenges, they solve them in a hostile, antisocial manner. Juvenile delinquents and drug addicts are two examples of Adlerian executive types.

Avoidant type. People of this type do not have sufficient social interest or activity necessary to solve their own problems. They fear failure more than they strive for success, their lives are characterized by socially useless behavior and flight from solving life's problems. In other words, their goal is to avoid all problems in life, and therefore they avoid everything that suggests the possibility of failure.

Socially useful type. This type of person is the embodiment of maturity in Adler's belief system. It combines a high degree of social interest and a high level of activity. Being socially oriented, such a person shows true concern for others and is interested in communicating with them. He perceives the three main tasks of life - work, friendship and love - as social problems. Person related to this type, recognizes that meeting these life challenges requires cooperation, personal courage and a willingness to contribute to the well-being of others.

In the two-dimensional theory of lifestyle attitudes, one possible combination is missing; high social interest and low activity. However, it is impossible to have a high social interest and not be highly active. In other words, individuals with high social interest have to do something that will benefit other people.

Another concept crucial to Adler's individual psychology is social interest.The concept of social interest reflects Adler's strong belief that we humans are social creatures, and if we want to understand ourselves more deeply, we must consider our relationships with other people and, even more broadly, the socio-cultural context in which we are living. But even more so, the concept reflects a fundamental, albeit gradual, change in Adler's views on what constitutes the enormous guiding force underlying all human endeavor.

<Добровольная помощь в обеспечении питанием нуждающихся - одно из реальных проявлений социального интереса.>

Since social interest arises in the child's relationship with the mother, her task is to cultivate in the child a sense of cooperation, a desire to establish relationships and companionship - qualities that Adler considered closely intertwined. Ideally, a mother shows true love for her child - love that is focused on his well-being, and not on her own maternal vanity. This healthy love stems from a genuine concern for people and enables a mother to cultivate a social interest in her child. Her tenderness towards her husband, other children and people in general serves as a role model for the child, who learns through this pattern of broad social interest that there are other significant people in the world, not just family members.

Many attitudes formed during maternal upbringing can also suppress the child’s sense of social interest. If, for example, a mother is focused exclusively on her children, she will not be able to teach them to transfer social interest to other people. If she prefers exclusively her husband and avoids children and society, her children will feel unwanted and deceived, and the potential for their social interest will remain unrealized. Any behavior that reinforces children's feelings of being neglected and unloved leads to a loss of independence and inability to cooperate.

Adler considered the father as the second most important source of influence on the child's development of social interest. First, the father must have a positive attitude towards his wife, work and society. In addition to this, his formed social interest should be manifested in relationships with children. According to Adler, the ideal father is one who treats his children as equals and takes an active part, along with his wife, in their upbringing. A father must avoid two mistakes: emotional withdrawal and parental authoritarianism, which, oddly enough, have the same consequences. Children who feel alienated by their parents usually pursue the goal of achieving personal superiority rather than superiority based on social interest. Parental authoritarianism also leads to a defective lifestyle. Children of oppressive fathers also learn to fight for power and personal rather than social superiority.

Social interest as an indicator of mental health. According to Adler, the severity of social interest turns out to be a convenient criterion for assessing the mental health of an individual. He referred to it as a "barometer of normality" - a measure that can be used to assess a person's quality of life. That is, from Adler's perspective, our lives are valuable only to the extent that we contribute to increasing the value of other people's lives. Normal, healthy people truly care about others; their pursuit of excellence is socially positive and includes a commitment to the well-being of all people. Although they understand that not everything in this world is right, they take upon themselves the task of improving the lot of humanity. In short, they know that their own life has no absolute value until they dedicate it to their contemporaries and even to those not yet born.

Creative "I"

We noted earlier that the foundation of a lifestyle is laid in childhood. According to Adler, the lifestyle is so firmly crystallized by the age of five of a child’s life that he then moves in the same direction throughout his life. With a one-sided interpretation, it may seem that this understanding of the formation of a lifestyle indicates the same strong determinism in Adler’s reasoning as in Freud’s. In fact, both emphasized the importance of early experiences in shaping adult personality. But, unlike Freud, Adler understood that in the behavior of an adult, early experiences are not simply revived, but rather there is a manifestation of the characteristics of his personality, which was formed in the first years of life. Moreover, the concept of lifestyle is not as mechanical as it might seem, especially when we turn to the concept of the creative self, which is part of Adler's belief system.

The concept of the creative “I” is the most important construct of Adler’s theory, his highest achievement as a personologist. When he discovered and introduced this construct into his system, all other concepts took a subordinate position in relation to it. It embodied the active principle of human life; that which gives it meaning. This is exactly what Adler was looking for. He argued that lifestyle is formed under the influence of the creative abilities of the individual. In other words, every person has the opportunity to freely create their own lifestyle. Ultimately, people themselves are responsible for who they become and how they behave. This creative force is responsible for the purpose of human life, determines the method of achieving this goal and contributes to the development of social interest. The same creative force influences perception, memory, fantasy and dreams. It makes every person a free (self-determining) individual.

Assuming the existence of creative power, Adler did not deny the influence of heredity and environment on the formation of personality. Each child is born with unique genetic capabilities, and he very soon acquires his own unique social experience. However, people are more than just the results of heredity and environment. Humans are creative beings who not only respond to their environment, but also influence it and receive feedback from it. A person uses heredity and environment as building material to form the building of personality, but the architectural design reflects his own style. Therefore, ultimately only the person himself is responsible for his lifestyle and attitudes towards the world.

Where are the sources of human creative power? What motivates her to develop? Adler did not fully answer these questions. The best answer to the first question is likely to be this: human creative power is the result of a long history of evolution. People have creative power because they are human. We know that creativity flourishes in early childhood, and this accompanies the development of social interest, but exactly why and how it develops remains unexplained. However, their presence gives us the opportunity to create our own unique lifestyle based on the abilities and opportunities given by heredity and environment. Adler’s concept of the creative “I” clearly reflects his conviction that people are the masters of their own destiny.

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What do you think: what are the reasons for these events? What needs to be done to prevent such phenomena? Work with the source Read an excerpt from the work of Russian sociologist R.V. Rybkina about crime in Russia. The entire course of reforms was accompanied not only by an increase in the number of crimes, but also by serious changes in the structure of crime itself. In particular, the “weight” of organized crime has sharply increased. But most importantly, it has transformed from a purely criminal force into a self-organizing one social system, integrated into all power and economic structures and practically not under the control of law enforcement agencies, moreover, into the social institution of Russian society. This means that it gave birth to: 1) its own “roof” organizations specific to it; 2) special norms of shadow behavior (such as “racketeering”, “rollback”, “rollback”, etc.); 3) special social roles to which the implementation of these norms is assigned, and 4) special social relationships between participants in criminal communities into which they enter when implementing 3*

of certain criminal operations, as well as the special relationship between crime and government.

The main process indicating the institutionalization of criminal activity is its increasing fusion with power. This process occurs at all levels - both at individual enterprises and firms in the regions of the country, and in higher authorities legislative (parliament) and executive (government) powers. This allows us to talk about two new processes for Russia that arose in the era of economic liberalization: the first process is the shadowization of society, i.e., the increasing withdrawal of various social structures into the shadows... and the second process is the criminalization of society, t i.e. the increasing strengthening in it of the role of criminal elements associated with certain political, legal, economic and other structures of society.

Ryvkina R. B. Drama of change. - M., 2001. -S. 37-38.

IIIHI Questions and assignments to the source. 1) What new does the source give you compared to the educational text? 2) What do the words “going into the shadows” mean in the text of the document? How do you understand the words in quotation marks: “roofs”, “racketeering”, “rollback”, “rollback”? Why does the author use them in a sociological study? 3) Why do you think market reforms in Russia were accompanied by the criminalization of society? 4) What information in this source confirms the special danger of organized crime for society and the state? 5) What measures do you consider priority for the fight against organized crime? § 7. Social interests and formssocial interaction Remember: what is social interaction? What are the types of social relationships? What is interest? What is conflict? Social interest and social interaction are the subject of a comprehensive study of various socio-humanitarian sciences. So, sociology explores the essential characteristics of social interaction as a generic concept of social science, studies its varieties and principles of regulation, analyzes the means of exchange, general types and forms of interactions. Social Psychology considers social interaction as the interactive side of communication, paying primary attention to the psychological content, structure and mechanisms of this process.

SOCIAL INTERESTS

As you already know, interest is one of the forms of personality orientation. A person is interested in what can satisfy his needs. Social interests are one of the important driving forces activities of any social subject (individual, group, any social community, society as a whole). They are inextricably linked with the needs of a given community. Let us recall that, in contrast to needs aimed primarily at satisfying a certain set of material and spiritual goods, human interests, as a rule, are aimed at those social conditions that make it possible to satisfy the corresponding need. These include: social institutions, institutions, norms of relationships in society, on which the distribution of objects, values and benefits depends (power, votes, territory, privileges, etc.). The sociality of interests is due to the fact that they always contain an element of comparison of person to person, one social group to another. Thus, we can talk about social interests, i.e. interestspeople who make up a social community(stratum, ethnic group), this or that collective, association (political party, professional association, etc.). A set of specific social interests, along with a set of certain rights and responsibilities, is an indispensable attribute of everyone social status. First of all, these social interests are aimed at preserving or transforming those institutions, orders, social norms on which the distribution of goods necessary for a given social group depends. Therefore, the difference in interests, as well as the difference in the level of income, working and rest conditions, the level of prestige and the opening prospects for advancement in social space, refers to manifestations of social differentiation. Social interest underlies all forms of competition, struggle and cooperation between people. Habitual, established interests, recognized public opinion, are not subject to discussion, thus acquiring the status of legitimate interests. For example, in multinational states, representatives of various ethnic groups interested in preserving their language and their culture. Therefore, schools and classes are created in which the national language and literature are studied, and cultural-national societies are opened. Any attempt to infringe upon such interests is perceived as an attack on the livelihoods of the corresponding social

ny groups, communities, states. Historical experience indicates that, as a rule, none of social groups does not sacrifice his interests voluntarily, on the basis of moral and ethical considerations or calls for humanism, for taking into account the interests of the other party, other groups or communities. On the contrary, each of the groups strives to expand its interests, to consolidate the achieved success and its development, as a rule, at the expense of the interests of other groups and communities. (Illustrate this position with examples.)

The modern world is a complex system of interaction between real social interests. The interdependence of all peoples and states has increased. The interests of preserving life on Earth, culture and civilization come to the fore. FORMS OF SOCIAL INTERACTION The main forms of social interactions include cooperation And rivalry.(Remember what you know about cooperation or competition.) Cooperation involves participation in a common in fact. It manifests itself in many specific relationships between people: business partnership, friendship, political alliance between parties, states, etc. This is the basis for uniting people in organizations or groups, showing mutual assistance and mutual support. What features characterize this type of social interaction? First of all, the presence of common social interests and activities in their defense. Thus, the desire to satisfy one’s interests, to gain power or to gain the opportunity to participate in its implementation leads to the formation of social and socio-political movements and political parties. With such interaction, both parties who are interested in the beneficial nature of their joint activities have a certain common goal that determines the nature and content of this activity. Collaboration often involves compromise. Each party independently determines what concessions it is willing to make in the name of common interests. The intersection and divergence of interests related to fundamental issues of social existence (material and other resources, access to power, etc.) often lead to rivalry between participants in social interaction. How does this manifest itself in people's behavior? They, as a rule, strive to surpass each other and achieve a certain success in realizing their social interests. Each side views the other, its social positions, and actions as an obstacle to achieving its goal. Not

it is impossible that relations of envy, hostility, and bitterness may arise between them, the strength of the manifestation of which depends on the form of rivalry.

Rivalry can take the form of competition and conflict. (Remember what competition is, what types of competition you know.) Let us emphasize that in competition, rivals, as a rule, strive to get ahead of each other in achieving their social interests. Let us recall that competition presupposes the mandatory recognition of the rights of one of the parties by a third party. Competition does not always imply knowledge of a specific opponent. For example, competition for admission to a university is caused by the fact that there are many more applicants for a place than the number of places provided by the university. Applicants, as a rule, do not know each other. Their actions are aimed at achieving recognition of their efforts by someone else (in this case, from the admissions committee), i.e., achieving preference. In other words, competition does not involve direct influence on an opponent (maybe, except for competition in sports such as wrestling, etc.), but a demonstration of one’s capabilities in front of a third party. But in some cases, competitors may ignore the rules and resort to direct influence on the other side in order to push it aside. In this case, competition develops into conflict. Rivals strive to force each other to renounce their claims, impose their will, change the behavior of the other, etc. Conflicts have long become an integral part of the social life of society, so let us consider in detail such issues as the causes of social conflict, its main stages, types and methods of resolution.

SOCIAL CONFLICT

In the scientific literature there are many definitions of the concept of “conflict”. (Remember what you have already learned about conflicts in lessons in basic school and in 10th grade.) They argue about this The question of the essence of conflict causes a lot of disagreement. Here are the opinions of several modern Russian scientists. A. G. Hello about my thoughts. “This is a form of relationship between potential or actual subjects of social action, the motivation of which is determined by opposing values and norms, interests and needs.” E. M. Babosov. “Social conflict is a limiting case social contradictions, expressed in many ways different forms struggle between individuals and different

social communities aimed at achieving economic, social, political, spiritual interests and goals, neutralizing or eliminating an imaginary rival and not allowing him to achieve the realization of his interests.”

Yu. G. Zaprudsky. “Social conflict is an obvious or hidden state of confrontation between objectively diverging interests, goals and development trends of social subjects... a special form of historical movement towards a new social unity.” What unites these opinions? As a rule, one side has certain material and intangible (primarily power, prestige, authority, information, etc.) values, while the other is either completely deprived of them or has insufficient values. At the same time, it is not excluded that the dominance may be imaginary, existing only in the imagination of one of the parties. But if any of the partners feels disadvantaged in the possession of any of the above, then conflict state. It can be said that social conflict is a specialinteraction of individuals, groups and associations when faced with the introduction of their incompatible views, positions and interests; confrontation of social groups over diverse life support resources. IN literature, two points of view are expressed: one - about the harm of social conflict, the other - about its benefits. In essence, we are talking about the positive and negative functions of conflicts. Social conflicts can lead to both disintegrative and integrative consequences. The first of these consequences increases bitterness, destroys normal partnerships, and distracts people from solving pressing problems. The latter help solve problems, find a way out of the current situation, strengthen the cohesion of people, and allow them to more clearly understand their interests. It is almost impossible to avoid conflict situations, but it is quite possible to ensure that they are resolved in a civilized manner. There are many different social conflicts going on in society. They differ in their scale, type, composition of participants, causes, goals and consequences. The problem of typology arises in all sciences that deal with many heterogeneous objects. The simplest and most easily explained typology is based on identifying areas of manifestation of conflict. According to this criterion, economic, political, interethnic, everyday, cultural and social (in the narrow sense) conflicts are distinguished. By-

Let us make it clear that the latter include conflicts arising from conflicting interests in the sphere of labor, healthcare, social security, and education; for all their independence, they are closely connected with such types of conflicts as economic and political.

Changes in social relations in modern Russia are accompanied by an expansion of the scope of conflicts, since they involve not only large social groups, but also territories that are both nationally homogeneous and inhabited by different ethnic groups. In turn, interethnic conflicts (you will learn about them later) give rise to territorial, confessional, migration and other problems. Most modern researchers believe that in the social relations of modern Russian society there are two types of hidden conflicts that have not yet clearly manifested themselves. The first is the conflict between hired workers and the owners of the means of production. This is largely due to the fact that workers, after half a century of social security and all the rights in the field of social policy and labor relations that they were endowed with in Soviet society, find it difficult to understand and accept their new status as a hired worker, forced to work under conditions - market views. The other is the conflict between the poor majority of the country and the rich minority, which accompanies the accelerated process of social stratification. The development of social conflict is influenced by many conditions. These include the intentions of the parties to the conflict (to achieve a compromise or completely eliminate the opponent); attitude towards means of physical (including armed) violence; the level of trust between the parties (the extent to which they are willing to follow certain rules of interaction); adequacy of the conflicting parties' assessments of the true state of affairs. All social conflicts go through three stages: pre-conflict, immediate conflict and post-conflict. Let's look at a specific example. At one enterprise, due to the real threat of bankruptcy, the workforce had to be reduced by a quarter. This prospect worried almost everyone: employees feared layoffs, and management had to decide who to fire. When it was no longer possible to postpone the decision, the administration announced a list of those who were to be fired first. There were legitimate demands from candidates for dismissal to explain why they were being fired; applications began to be submitted to the labor dispute commission, and some decided to resign.

go to court. Resolving the conflict took several months, and the company continued to operate with fewer employees. Pre-conflict stage- this is a period during which contradictions accumulate (in this case, caused by the need to reduce the number of employees). Direct conflict stage- this is a set of certain actions. It is characterized by a clash between opposing sides (administration - candidates for dismissal).

The most open form of expression of social conflicts can be various kinds of mass actions: presentation of demands to the authorities by dissatisfied social groups; using public opinion to support their demands or alternative programs; direct shares social protest. Forms of expression of protest can be rallies, demonstrations, picketing, civil disobedience campaigns, strikes, hunger strikes, etc. Organizers of social protest actions must be clearly aware of what specific problems can be solved with the help of a particular action and on what kind of public support they can expect. Thus, a slogan that is sufficient to organize picketing can hardly be used to organize a campaign of civil disobedience. (Which historical examples Do you know of such actions?) To successfully resolve a social conflict, it is necessary to promptly determine its true causes. The opposing sides should be interested in jointly searching for ways to eliminate the causes that gave rise to their rivalry. On post-conflict stage measures are being taken to completely eliminate the contradictions (in the example under consideration - dismissal of employees, if possible, removal of socio-psychological tension in the relationship between the administration and the remaining employees, search for optimal ways to avoid such a situation in the future). Conflict resolution can be partial or complete. Complete resolution means the end of the conflict, dramatic change the entire conflict situation. At the same time, a kind of psychological restructuring occurs: the “image of the enemy” is transformed into the “image of the partner”, the attitude towards struggle is replaced by an attitude towards cooperation. The main disadvantage of partial resolution of the conflict is that only its external form changes, but the reasons that gave rise to the confrontation remain. Let's look at some of the most common methods of conflict resolution.

Conflict Avoidance Method means leaving or threatening to leave, is to avoid encounters with the enemy. But avoiding conflict does not mean eliminating it, because its cause remains. Negotiation method involves the parties exchanging views. This will help reduce the severity of the conflict, understand the opponent’s arguments, and objectively assess both the true balance of power and the very possibility of reconciliation. Negotiations allow you to consider alternative situations, achieve mutual understanding, reach agreement, consensus, and open the way to cooperation. Me-How to use mediation is expressed as follows: the warring parties resort to the services of intermediaries (public organizations, individuals, etc.). What conditions are necessary for successful conflict resolution? First of all, it is necessary to timely and accurately determine its causes; identify objectively existing contradictions, interests, goals. The parties to the conflict must free themselves from mistrust of each other and thereby become participants in negotiations in order to defend their positions openly and convincingly and consciously create an atmosphere of public exchange of opinions. Without such mutual interest of the parties in overcoming contradictions, mutual recognition of the interests of each of them, a joint search for ways to overcome the conflict is practically impossible. All negotiators must show a tendency towards consensus, that is, towards agreement.

ShhBasic concepts: social interest, social interaction, competition, social cooperation, social conflict, ways to resolve social conflict. SHI Terms: rivalry, stages of social conflict. Test yourself 1) Explain the content of the concept of “social interest”.

Think, discuss, do 1. In the course of world history, interests have rarely appeared in their pure form. They, as a rule, clothed themselves in one or another ideological, moral and ethical “clothes”, with the help of

in which private interest acquired the form of general or even universal interest. Ideology plays a decisive role in this process of “generalization” of private interest. Give some examples from history.

Let us note that in this institution the procedure for rewarding employees was not documented. Management decisions often caused dissatisfaction. Describe the main stages of development of this conflict situation. What is the reason for the conflict? Under what conditions could it be avoided? How can this be resolved? 5. The employees of the design bureau did the work
under contract. When the work was paid, between the co-workers
A dispute arose over how to distribute the money. As for me-
K., the group leader distributed the money inappropriately
carefully. But K. decided to remain silent. Is it possible to consider
Is this conflict a social one? Give reasons for your answer -
those. What is this method of behavior in conflict called?
What are the disadvantages of this method? Name other ways. Work with the source Read an excerpt from the work of the German sociologist R. Dahrendorf (born in 1938). The regulation of social conflicts is a decisive condition for reducing the violence of almost all types of conflicts. Conflicts do not disappear by resolving them; they do not necessarily become less intense at once, but to the extent that they can be regulated, they become controlled, and their creative power is put at the service of the gradual development of social structures...
Textbook

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480 rub. | 150 UAH | $7.5 ", MOUSEOFF, FGCOLOR, "#FFFFCC",BGCOLOR, "#393939");" onMouseOut="return nd();"> Dissertation - 480 RUR, delivery 10 minutes, around the clock, seven days a week and holidays

Martirosyan Sofia Ashotovna. Social interest in political space (Social and philosophical analysis): Dis. ...cand. Philosopher Sciences: 09.00.11: Rostov n/d, 2005 144 p. RSL OD, 61:05-9/194

Introduction

CHAPTER 1. SOCIAL INTEREST: PROBLEM FIELD AND RESEARCH METHODS

1.2. Interests as a source of social dynamics 41

CHAPTER 2. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL INTEREST RELATIONSHIP AND MUTUAL INFLUENCE 62

2.1. The role of social interest in the formation of a system of political participation 62

2.2. Political interest as a projection of the stratification structure of modern Russian society 85

CONCLUSION 116

List of used literature 128

Introduction to the work

The relevance of research. In the modern world, serious transformation processes are taking place, affecting political, economic, social and other spheres of society. Significant changes in the sphere of public consciousness are also obvious. It is hardly possible to find a phenomenon that would be most subject to such changes, on the one hand, and on the other, would be a better indicator of the depth of the changes taking place - than interest. Even with a cursory glance at the trends in the development of social consciousness, one can clearly see the logic of its change semantic content, as well as to isolate the mutual influence of various social factors and interests of society and the individual. Often, certain malignant behavioral patterns are a way of realizing certain social interests. In this connection, the search for adequate forms of stopping such patterns is impossible without a clear understanding of the content of interests, as well as an understanding of their interaction both within the individual and group, and during interpersonal and inter-personal interaction.

IN modern society The political situation inevitably becomes more complicated, where society and social communities of people cannot do without the integration of interests and aspirations to achieve a better life, prosperity, and develop in a civilized manner in the field of domestic and world politics. Man living in public environment, firstly, strives to consciously realize its potential strengths and activity in all areas and spheres of existence in accordance with its needs and interests, or is looking for supporters, people with close or similar interests in order to realize them together. Therefore, secondly, he is involved in the collective field of human action, that is, in politics. Politics, thanks to its institutions, resources, means and mechanisms, is able to help a person realize his interests or, on the contrary, can hinder their realization.

Particularly important is the understanding of modern changes social structure associated with the transition of society to the post-industrial stage of development. Taking into account these changes is necessary, first of all, to analyze the development of institutions of political representation that emerged during the development of industrial society, as well as to identify the characteristics of modern individual and collective actors in the socio-political process.

In this regard, the modern situation inevitably dictates the need to analyze socio-political interests in the process of becoming a social subject of politics. The issue of inclusion in political activity in order to satisfy their interests.

The category “social interest” is a general humanitarian category. The prerequisites for its emergence were laid down, in our opinion, by ancient Greek philosophers, in particular, Plato and Socrates in the concept of “innate ideas.” Subsequently, the category developed and in recent decades has been actively used by various specialists in descriptive and explanatory models, including philosophical, political science, psychological, economic, sociological and other paradigms. In specialized literature, the following types of social interests are found: national interests, state interests, economic interests, interests of various subjects (for example, the interests of a child or various social groups), interest in learning, legal interests, personal interests, etc. and so on.

However, there are different interpretations of this category. Interest acts both as a “set of the most important incentives” and as

“orientation of the individual, group, social layer”, and as “an element of the motivational-need sphere”. In other words, in various subject areas the category is loaded with its specific content, which, on the one hand, indicates its versatility and globality, on the other hand, is evidence of insufficient theoretical elaboration. In our opinion, a socio-philosophical analysis of social interest in the political space can be a significant step in this direction.

The degree of scientific development of the problem. Modern science has a significant amount of empirical and theoretical knowledge on various aspects of the problem, which was chosen for research by the author of the dissertation. The study of the phenomenon of social interest in the process of its formation and transformation was carried out throughout the history of the development of philosophical, sociological, political science, psychological thought (Plato, Aristotle, N. Machiavelli, Descartes, J.-J. Rousseau, Hegel, Kant, Marx, Engels , M. Weber, P. Bourdieu, etc.).

On modern stage the given problems act as the subject and object of research, both foreign and domestic scientists from various fields of socio-political thought. The literature presents theoretical constructions and empirical works aimed at analyzing the social determinants of the emergence and evolution of interests at the micro- and macro-levels (G.K. Lshin, G. Burbulis, V.Yu. Vereshchagin, L.I. Guseva, L.I. Demidov, O Offerdal, E.V. Okhotsky, L.S. Panarin, A.V. Shpak, etc.

On the other hand, the scientific literature covers in detail the problem of transferring public knowledge to the level of its technological application. This determined the approach to social interest as a macrosystem - ideas in this direction can be traced in the works of B.C. Dudchenko, G.I. Ikonnikova, M. Markova, V.I. Patrusheva, N. Stefanova.

Analysis of political interest as a way to optimize and algorithmize professional political activity, as well as elements of research into their influence on the transformation of social interests, constitutes the content of modern research conducted by M.G. Anokhin, S. Black, B.L. Borisov, I.A. Vasilenko, G.V. Grachev, A.A. Degtyarev, A.V. Dmitriev, 10.G. Zaprudsky, B.S. Komarovsky, E.N. Pashentsev, G. Simon, P. Sharan, etc.).

The dissertation research also uses the results of political science analysis of social interests in relation to the problem of political participation (M. Albert, G. Benvetiste, V.D. Citizens, A.I. Kitov, M. Meskon, A.L. Sventsitsky, F. Khedouri, V.M. Shepel, etc.).

However, despite the extensive scientific literature on various aspects of the analysis of the concept of interest, one can quite reasonably say that there are a number of pressing problems in understanding the essence of the phenomenon of social interest in its interpretation in relation to the political sphere public life, specific Russian features of its development, as well as its acquisition of new properties and traits in the conditions of modern society.

We can put forward the author’s hypothesis that social interest in the modern social space of Russia is in the formative stage and is incomplete. His analysis in relation to the policy sphere presents scientific interest in the sense that progressive changes in the political sphere of Russian society are especially noticeable.

Methodological and theoretical basis dissertation, a synthetic research method was introduced, including logical and philosophical analysis, systematic and active approaches to studying the phenomenon of social interest. For specific analysis purposes, methods of institutional, technological, structural and functional analysis were used, as well as individual methods, ideas and principles developed by political science and sociology: the method of collecting and analyzing documentary and statistical material, the observation method, the comparative method. At the same time, the theoretical basis of the study was the basic concepts and constructs contained in the works of leading domestic and foreign scientists.

The object of the study is social interest in the space of society as a complex dynamic system.

The subject of the study is social interest as a macrosystem in relation to interests arising at other levels of society.

The purpose of the dissertation is a socio-philosophical analysis of the specifics of social interest in relation to its manifestation in the political space.

The goal was specified in the following tasks:

1. Carry out a conceptual analysis of social interest as an object of interdisciplinary research

2. Reveal the specifics of the content of social interest as a macrosystem in relation to microsystems of interests at other levels.

3. Analyze the forms and mechanisms of manifestation of social interests in the political system of society.

4. Identify areas and features of the influence of political interests on the social sphere, in particular on the stratification structure of Russian society.

Scientific novelty of the research. The dissertation research contains a fundamentally new approach to social interest as a macrosystem that makes it possible to predict and manage social processes at a higher level.

1. It is shown that the scientific and theoretical understanding of the content of the concept of social interest, achieved when studying it at an interdisciplinary level, allows us to define it as a multidimensional social-personal phenomenon, motivational-evaluative, subject-active and referent-oriented in nature.

2. It has been established that the specificity of social interest is a social-personal system implemented at various levels

4. It has been revealed that political interest, being a specific macrosystem, is in a relationship of transformation and modification with other social interests

Provisions for defense:

1. Social interest, being a complex and multi-dimensional social and personal phenomenon, from the point of view of the activity approach, is the result of objective activity and interaction with other people in various forms referentially significant activity, determining the internal guidelines for a person’s choice of objects of interest to himself, his social circle, reference groups, relationships of socialization and cooperation, and are the subject of interdisciplinary research that reveals additional compensatory characteristics that express evaluative and satisfactory needs for power and control over events and people and are the basis of social differentiation of society.

2. The essence of social interest is that it is a personal and social macrosystem that determines the content and structure of micro- and macrosystems of interests at other levels, personal and social interaction of society. At the same time, the interests on the basis of which the subjects act, determined by their social, economic, political, religious, spiritual nature, are at the same time determined by the entire set of cultural value and worldview positions of the subjects. Social interests are a socio-dynamic system that changes depending on the transformation of the social subjects themselves, the variability of the social environment and forms of social interaction.

3. Interdisciplinary analysis of social interests, their forms and mechanisms of manifestation from the point of view of rational (socio-philosophical approach) and non-rational (motivational-value socio-psychological approach) are the basis for social modeling and forecasting of social interests as a functional social system.

4. Political interests are in a complex and contradictory relationship with social interests: being formed under their influence, they not only transform and modify social interests, but are also transformed themselves. The dynamics of mutual influence of interests as macrosystems is determined by the criterion parameters of the stages of development of society (socio-dynamic functioning, development, stagnation, decline, systemic crisis, regression).

Theoretical and practical significance of the research.

The dissertation research complements existing views on the problem of social interest, revealing the latter through the analysis of its theoretical and practical components. The conclusions presented in the work fill concrete content with the phenomenon of social interest as a macrosystem, and also determine its role in relation to microsystems of interests at other levels.

The conclusions and proposals formulated in the dissertation are of interest both from the point of view of theoretical understanding of the phenomenon described, and from the point of view of practical significance in predicting and modeling development social processes in society, developing solutions in the field social policy, organizing the work of socio-political organizations.

The dissertation material can be used in the process of teaching theoretical and applied sociology, applied political science, conflict studies, as well as in practical activities in forecasting and planning socio-political development in the country and region.

Approbation of work. The dissertation materials were presented at the scientific and practical conference “Violence in Modern Russia” (Rostov n/D., 1999); at the All-Russian scientific conference “Teaching comparative political science and world politics in Russian universities” (Novorossiysk, 2000); at the interuniversity scientific and theoretical conference “Political and Legal Institutions” (Rostov-on-Don, 2000); at the regional scientific and theoretical conference “Political and legal culture and spirituality” (Rostov n/D., 2001); at the scientific and practical conference “Globalization and regionalization in the modern world” (Rostov-on-Don, 2001); 3rd Russian Philosophical Congress “Rationalism and Culture on the Threshold of the Third Millennium” (Rostov-on-Don, 2002).

Implementation of research results. The dissertation materials were used in the educational process when delivering the special course “Political Interests in the Modern Political Process” to 3rd year students of the Department of Political Science at Rostov State University.

Structure and scope of work. The dissertation consists of an Introduction, two chapters, a conclusion with conclusions and practical recommendations and bibliography. The list of references includes 225 titles, of which 28 are foreign languages. The volume of the dissertation is 143 pages.

The category “interest” in the context of social sciences and humanities

To determine the diversity of the content of the category “interest”, it is advisable to consider, on the one hand, the genesis of the concept in the humanitarian fields of knowledge, and on the other hand, to identify the specific semantic plans of the concept in each of the disciplines under consideration.

Among scientists in the humanities there is no consensus in understanding the problem of the nature and genesis of interest. This, in our opinion, is due to the fact that this issue was not a priority until recently. Research on the philosophical, sociological and political content of interest is practically absent in the specialized literature. We believe that social processes in modern Russia and the world as a whole, including multidirectional and sometimes contradictory trends, have clearly formed a social order for the development of this issue. In this regard, the reasons for the intensive development of special areas of social sciences that use the category of “interest” and give it one or another specific meaning are also obvious. Most authors working in the field of humanities, one way or another, operate with this category. And this circumstance testifies both to the capacity and globality of the category, and to the relevance of theoretical research aimed at understanding and systematizing the content of the concept of “interest” as a philosophical category.

Interest (from Latin interest) - matters, important - in scientific vocabulary it is used in different meanings. The main meanings can be identified as follows: attention shown to something; entertaining, exciting; importance, meaning; benefit, benefit; aspirations, needs, requests1.

All pre-Marxist sociology derived interest, like other categories of philosophy, from the ideas of people, from reason and spirit. Sociologists of that time argued that society develops not according to objective laws, but according to the will of people. Some statements and guesses regarding the interdependence of individuals in society and causal relationships can also be found among ancient thinkers. For the first time in ancient philosophy, Democritus had the idea that the driving force human history there was a need, that is, the material needs and interests of people.

Representatives of philosophical and socio-political thought interpreted the concept of “interest” differently, sometimes extremely broadly. Thus, the author of the pamphlet “Leaves of the Tree of Life”, published in 1648, W. Sedwick attributed a unifying meaning to interest.

The prominent French philosopher C.L. Helvetius called interest “an omnipotent wizard that changes the appearance of every object in the eyes of all beings”3. In this book (“On the Mind”) he tried to create a theory of interest as the driving force of human actions. In the figurative expression of Helvetius: “Rivers do not flow, and people do not go against the rapid flow of their interests”4.

Interest, according to Helvetius, is selfishness. The author believed that interest is a natural feeling. It can be transformed into both a vice and a virtue. It all depends on the tastes and passions of the person.

Since ancient times, thinkers have distinguished the concepts of general interest and private interest, often contrasting one with the other. But if in theology the idea of the “common good” is considered irreducible to accidental manifestations of this good (according to the scholastic definition, where this idea comes from), then the concept of common interest, by definition, is under constant pressure from numerous external manifestations through which it is perceived by individuals.

There is no doubt that the problem of clarifying in practice what the common interest is also arises when turning to the idea of the “common good.” Special difficulty The problem faced when trying to formulate different ideas about the general interest is associated with the need to recognize the possibility of synthesizing multiple and conflicting particular interests while preserving their specificity.

IN modern era It was not so much Hobbes, for whom the problem of the transfer of interests was, in general, secondary in comparison with the urgent need to establish political order, but Rousseau who formulated the problem in socio-political terms, defining it as the “general will.” In its deepest premises, this definition of Rousseau has many points of contact with the theological concept of the common good.

The problem of conflict of individual or private interests takes on special significance for a scientist. Rousseau appeals directly to it in order to justify defining the nature of politics as an “art”, and not as a pure science or technique of government. Thus, in “The Social Contract” (1761) he writes that “If there were no different interests, it would be difficult to feel a common interest that would not meet obstacles; it would go by itself and politics would cease to be an art” (Book II, Chapter III). However, according to the thinker, it is impossible to derive a common interest from a simple sum of individual expressions of will (from this the will of all or the will of the majority is obtained). Therefore, Rousseau constantly emphasizes that it is necessary that what is intended to express a general interest should always and in any case concern only general objects. One can thus assume the opposite: that the “general will” is in conflict with the wishes of the numerical majority of individuals making up society. In this case, as Rousseau writes in the spirit of Hobbes in Chapter XI of the third book of the Social Contract, we find ourselves witnessing the “death of the political body” due to measures of a particularistic nature and decrees that have no overall impact.

Thus, Rousseau's social contract theory anticipates the “dilemma” that manifests itself in various forms in modern game theory in various versions of the “prisoner” or “collective action”: it is difficult to unite private interests that are irreducible and opposed to each other. , which also compete with each other, and their consistent implementation can lead to damage for everyone. Take the example of “common water”: the owners of two pieces of land bordering each other might use a common water source in a way that satisfies their own interests exclusively, but thereby acting to the detriment of their mutual interests, albeit distant in time and not so obvious. Even when the common interest is easily identifiable, there may be insurmountable difficulties in achieving it through a social contract.

Consequently, for Rousseau, in contrast to supporters of utilitarianism, starting with Hume, the problem is not to harmoniously combine private and public interest, but also to understand that the general interest is not reducible to individual benefit.

Interests as a source of social dynamics

It is obvious that the social significance of interests as a source of social dynamics manifests itself most acutely during the transition period of the development of society in social, ethnic conflicts, deep economic and political transformations in society, when questions are raised about the ways and methods of its transformation. It is interests that act as incentives for the activities of people, social communities, and activate the life of classes, peoples, religious and other social groups. “A closer examination of history convinces us,” Hegel notes, “that the actions of people follow from their needs, their passions, their interests... and only they play the main significance”16.

In conditions of sustainable dynamic development, both the political system and society as a whole depend on the skillful consideration and coordination of the interests of various subjects.

The essence of interest lies in the need to realize the needs of the subject through his objective inclusion in social relations. A scientific examination of social interest reveals its following elements: needs and the subject’s awareness of the need to satisfy them, social living conditions and the choice of specific practical actions that allow the subject to realize the need.

Social subjects are in constant interaction, their life situation is strongly influenced by society, which is twofold. Either the situation of people is endangered, that is, it worsens, destabilizes, or, on the contrary, it opens up new opportunities for them to improve their lives, increase their prestige, etc. From this interaction interest is born. It can be defined as the desire of the subject to change, improve or maintain, strengthen his living conditions and position with the help of social means. Specifically, interest manifests itself as the desire of people and social groups for certain values, institutions, processes, connections, norms, and for a specific attitude towards reality17.

Interests express certain needs and are aimed at certain goals of people or their groups. Bearers of personal needs and interests unite into groups in order to express their interests within groups and more effectively represent them in relations with the state and other groups, which is hardly possible for one person. The process of interest formation lies in the fact that first, the most diverse social interests and needs of members of a social group, their personal, emotionally charged opinions, judgments, in the course of communication and exchange, are translated into specific forms or requirements of a particular association or institution. In order to identify and make obvious often still little realized interests, so that common views become collective aspirations, a sense of community and the concept of “we” must arise (“we are miners”, “we are Yakuts”, “we are patriots”, “ we are Cossacks”, etc.). As L.G. Zdravomyslov notes, interests, like needs, represent a special kind of social relations; they do not exist on their own, in the abstract, outside of those individuals, social groups, classes and other forces that act as their carriers. This is one of the grounds for classifying interests. The other side of the matter is that interest, like need, is directed towards a specific object. The objects of interest are material and spiritual values, social institutions and social relations, established customs and orders. If a need is focused, first of all, on the subject of its satisfaction, then interest is directed to those social relations, institutions, institutions on which the distribution of objects, values, and benefits that ensure the satisfaction of needs depends. Interests are especially closely related to distribution relations in society, being aimed either at changing or at consolidating existing distribution relations.

Because of this, interests turn out to be in a certain sense more significant, important from the point of view of ensuring actual living conditions. They are aimed primarily at rational means of subsistence. When a certain level of satisfaction of needs is achieved, interests come to the fore. For some, these are “legitimate claims” to the current level of consumption; for others, this is a desire for a qualitative change in living conditions. What needs and interests have in common is that in both cases we are dealing with people's aspirations that directly affect their social and economic behavior. However, if needs orient people's behavior towards the possession of those goods that turn out to be vitally necessary or stimulate vital ways of human activity, then interests are those incentives for action that stem from the mutual attitude of people towards each other.

The immediate subject of social interest is not the good itself, but those positions of the individual or social layer that provide the opportunity to obtain this good. But these positions are unequal, to the extent that interests are, in a certain sense, more conflict-prone than needs. Both in everyday speech and in theoretical analysis interests are much more often connected with social status, which fixes for a certain time the totality of opportunities provided acting person society. It is social position that outlines the boundaries of what is accessible and possible for an individual and a social group. Through the possible and, in principle, accessible, it also influences the formation of realistic desires and aspirations. The situation, reflected in desires, feelings, attitudes and life plans, turns into a set of complex stimuli for activity - into interests, which act as the direct cause of social behavior.

Interests appear in the form of feelings, desires, moods and aspirations to satisfy needs, which are reflected, comprehended and realized in the individual and collective consciousness. The process of awareness is manifested in the selectivity and directed activity of the subjects of interest, which emphasizes its subjectivity.

Most supporters of sociological and psychological interpretations see the nature of interest as dialectical, viewing it through the prism of the unity of objective and subjective components. In particular, a number of authors highlight a three-member structure of interest: the need to satisfy a need (which in turn presupposes the presence of the need itself); the ability to satisfy a need (this requires the availability of conditions and means to satisfy it); awareness of the need to meet needs and opportunities to meet them19.

Interests directly reflect the relations of inequality that have developed in society; they constantly contain an element of comparison of person to person, one social group to another. This is precisely the basis of that effectiveness, that real power that lies in interests. They directly reflect the social position of individuals, which determines their role as the most important incentives for action. social development.

The role of social interest in the formation of a system of political participation

One of the most important characteristics of political processes is the participation of people in political life. Individuals, groups, and social strata are involved in the political process, constantly interact with the political environment and perform various roles.

Political participation is the involvement of ordinary citizens in the formation of government bodies, in the recognition of the legitimacy of power, in the formation of policies pursued by the ruling group and control over its implementation, in the development and establishment of political culture, and, finally, in monitoring the behavior of elites. It's about about the involvement in one form or another of members of society in the process of forming a system of political participation. If citizens take part in the political life of a society, then the political system of that society can be considered participatory. However, individuals and social groups are not equally involved in the political process, and this largely depends on the political regime.

Thus, in a democratic political regime, political participation is universal and free. It acts as a means for citizens to achieve their goals and realize their interests. Political participation makes it possible to identify the real role of the citizen, individual layers, and groups in the political process.

Difficulties in forming a system of political participation may be caused by a lack of trust among various groups in relation to each other, their desire to take a maximalist position, as well as the weakness of political institutions.

Resolving this problem is possible by identifying, firstly, the potential for shared participation in power, mitigating the causes of various conflicts; secondly, the difficulties of transition to democracy, since it tends to intensify rather than mitigate the various causes of conflict; thirdly, differences in systems of political participation.

Citizens' engaged political participation is a fundamental component of democratic governance and the development of civil society. According to the theories of democracy, all citizens of the country should not only have the chance to participate in making socially important decisions, but also use it from time to time. This is exactly what the theory of “civic culture” suggests, proposed by G. Lloyd and S. Verba1 to describe the political culture of democratic countries. Civic culture consists of elements of an activist political culture, balanced by elements of a more passive subject culture and an apathetic, apolitical patriarchal culture. The activist element ensures innovation and rational involvement of the population in solving important public problems. But for stability, it must be balanced by other elements, more passive, traditional, emphasizing the individual’s loyalty to the political system. Therefore, the idea of a “reserve of influence” appears, which all citizens of a democratic state have. Using their reserve of influence, they can from time to time actively engage in political activities in order to satisfy their interests.

Despite the fact that the topic of political participation is of interest to researchers from different countries, it must be noted that in our country this topic has not yet found adequate coverage.

If a democratic system functions successfully, it provides group members with the opportunity to choose political leaders and achieve economic success and social status without political restrictions. Individuals and groups can use the electoral system to gain official support and respect for their local institutions by voting for sympathetic candidates.

If the electoral system is properly organized, it reduces tensions by preventing some radicals from gaining power. Working with elected representatives can help a group build a voting coalition, change controversial legislation, or defend the group's prerogatives. Successful collaboration, in turn, helps future relationships by demonstrating that groups can work together and have common interests.

In rare cases, a system of political participation can satisfy the ambitions of leadership groups. When one group controls the state (or can take control of the state due to a threat to its privileged position), then the core ambitions of the leadership group are secure. Thus, when a democratic system guarantees one group control over the process, it reduces conflict based on satisfying the ambitions of the leadership group. Under these conditions, the less democracy there is, the greater the effectiveness of peacekeeping efforts, since a more equitable democratic system allows any group to have unfettered access to political power.

Some forms of democracy can successfully provide shared power in divided societies. Liberal democracy is based on the principle of a variable majority to avoid the tyranny of the majority. This means that individuals can temporarily form various coalitions, based on economic, social interests, uniting on a regional basis or on other grounds, which guarantees that diversity of opinions is taken into account. Majoritarian system It is effective when the majority changes from election to election, as happens in the USA and other Western democracies.

Paragraph 6 deviant behavior

Questions to the text of the paragraph:

1) What are the causes of deviant behavior?

2) What is the social danger of crime?

3) Why does organized crime pose a particular danger to individuals, society, and the state?

4) What is social control?

5) What is the meaning of self-control?

1) What new does the source give you compared to the educational text?

2) What do the words “going into the shadows” mean in the text of the document? How do you understand the words in quotation marks: “roofs”, “racketeering”, “rollback”, “rollback”? Why does the author use them in a sociological study?

3) Why do you think market reforms in Russia were accompanied by the criminalization of society?

4) What information in this source confirms the special danger of organized crime for society and the state?

5) What measures do you consider priority for the fight against organized crime?

Paragraph 7 Social interests

Questions to the text of the paragraph:

1) Expand the content of the concept of “social interest”.

2) Name the main forms of social interactions.

3) List the features that characterize social cooperation.

4) Describe rivalry as a form of social interaction.

5) What is the common cause of social conflicts?

6) What are the main stages of social conflict?

7) What consequences do social conflicts lead to?

8) Name the main methods of conflict resolution and illustrate each of them with an appropriate example.

Questions and assignments to the source:

2) Based on the text of the paragraph and the document, formulate the basic principles of a compromise resolution of the conflict.

3) Explain the meaning of the last phrase of the text and give examples to support your judgment.

Deviant behavior and social control

People's behavior does not always correspond to social norms. You probably remember that behavior that does not conform to the norms, does not correspond to what society expects from a person, is called deviant behavior. Sociologists give another definition: deviant behavior is a form of disorganization of an individual’s behavior in a group or category of people in society, revealing a discrepancy with established expectations, moral and legal requirements of society. The problem of deviant behavior is also studied by psychologists, devoting significant space to the study of its motives. The attention of lawyers is directed to the study of one of the most dangerous manifestations of deviant behavior - crime. In this section we will consider the problem mainly from the standpoint of sociology, which also studies the mechanism social control , providing targeted influence on people’s behavior in order to strengthen order and stability, including mitigating deviations from accepted norms that arise in society.

DEVIANT BEHAVIOR

Negative deviations from social norms at the personal level manifest themselves, first of all, in crimes and other offenses, in immoral acts. At the level of small social groups, these deviations manifest themselves in deformations and disruptions in normal relationships between people (discord, scandals, etc.). In the activities of state and public organizations, such deviations are manifested in bureaucracy, red tape, corruption and other phenomena.

Deviations from norms can also be positive, i.e. have consequences useful for society (for example, manifestations of initiative, innovative proposals aimed at improving social relations). There are also purely individual, non-harmful features of an individual’s behavior: eccentricity, eccentricity.

Manifestations of negative deviant behavior are varied. Their common feature is harm, damage caused to society, a social group, other people, as well as an individual who allows negative deviations.

Social deviations as a mass phenomenon are especially dangerous. Drug addiction, religious fanaticism, racial intolerance, terrorism - these and other similar negative processes in the development of society bring incalculable damage to humanity.

What are the causes of deviant behavior? Researchers have different points of view on this issue.

IN late XIX V. was put forward biological explanation reasons for deviations: the presence in some people of an innate predisposition to violations of social norms, which is associated with the physical characteristics of the individual, criminal temperament, etc. These theories were later subjected to convincing criticism.

Other scientists searched psychological explanation reasons for deviations. They came to the conclusion that an important role is played by the value-normative ideas of the individual: understanding of the world around him, attitude to social norms, and most importantly, the general orientation of the interests of the individual (remember what the orientation of the individual is and what significance it has). The researchers came to the conclusion that behavior that violates established norms is based on a different system of values and rules than the one enshrined in law. For example, psychological research such motives for illegal actions as cruelty, greed and deceit, showed that among criminals these qualities are most pronounced, and their admissibility or necessity is justified by them (“It’s always better to show your strength”, “Beat your own so that strangers will be afraid!”, “Take everything you can from life!”).

Scientists have come to the conclusion that these personality deformations are a consequence of its improper development. For example, cruelty can be the result of a cold, indifferent attitude towards a child on the part of parents, and often cruelty of adults.

Research has shown that low self-esteem, self-deprecation in adolescence is further compensated by deviant behavior, with the help of which it is possible to attract attention to oneself and gain approval from those who will evaluate violation of norms as a sign of a “strong” personality.

Received wide recognition sociological explanation reasons for deviations from social norms. The famous sociologist E. Durkheim showed the dependence of deviant behavior on crisis phenomena in social development. During crises, radical social changes, in conditions of disorganization social life(unexpected economic downturns and booms, decline in business activity, inflation) life experience a person ceases to correspond to the ideals embodied in social norms. Social norms are destroyed, people become disorientated, and this contributes to the emergence of deviant behavior.

Some scientists have linked deviant behavior to a conflict between the dominant culture and the culture of a group (subculture) that denies generally accepted norms . In this case, criminal behavior, for example, may be the result of an individual’s primary communication with carriers of criminal norms. The criminal environment creates its own subculture, its own norms, opposing the norms recognized in society. The frequency of contacts with representatives of the criminal community affects how a person (especially young people) learns the norms of antisocial behavior.

There are other explanations for deviant behavior. Think about the points of view presented and try to explain for yourself the reasons for the deviation of behavior from social norms.

In relation to persons who allow negative deviations from norms, society applies social sanctions, i.e. punishments for disapproved, unwanted actions. Weak forms of deviant behavior (mistake, deception, rudeness, negligence, etc.) are corrected by other people - participants in the interaction (remark, suggestion, irony, censure, etc.). More significant forms of social deviations (offences, etc.), depending on their consequences, entail condemnation and punishment coming not only from the public, but also from government bodies.

Of the many manifestations of deviant behavior, let us consider in more detail one of the most dangerous - crime.

CRIME

Crime is a manifestation of deviant behavior that causes the greatest damage to society. The word “crime” is derived from the word “crime,” which in Russian has always meant “an act contrary to the law, lawlessness, atrocity.” Let us recall that from a legal point of view, a crime is a socially dangerous act committed guilty of guilt, prohibited by the Criminal Code under threat of punishment. The totality of crimes committed in a given society and in this period time, is designated by the concept of “crime”. Crime is not just a sum of crimes, but a mass phenomenon that has patterns of its existence and development, causes, conditions that contribute to it. This is a social phenomenon, since it is rooted in the depths of social relations, reflects the characteristics of social life, and acts as an extreme expression of the contradictions and shortcomings of the development of society. It causes dire consequences for society and its members, like no other negative phenomenon of social development. Feature of crime: the presence of a certain contingent of people - criminals for whom criminal activity has become professional.

The types of crimes provided for in the criminal codes of different countries are very diverse. Two groups predominate, occurring in all countries: acquisitive crimes (embezzlement, theft, fraud, bribes, etc.), violent aggressive crimes (murder, bodily harm, rape, etc.).

These types of crimes account for 75 to 90% of all intentional crimes. More and more widespread in the world economic crimes , encroaching on the interests of consumers, causing damage to the environment, local and international terrorism , including hostage taking and destruction of government property. Racial discrimination, torture, kidnappings and massacres occur.

Of particular danger is organized crime . In the broadest sense of the word, it refers to any group of persons organized on a permanent basis to obtain funds through illegal means. American criminologists (“crime” is a word of Latin origin meaning “criminal offense”) highlight organized group according to the following characteristics:

1) these are two or more people who united to commit crimes of a material and mercenary nature;

2) the group is built on the principle of hierarchy, certain norms of behavior apply within it;

3) an organized criminal structure, as a rule, has its own material and technical base, which includes cash, vehicles, communications and weapons;

4) the group has channels for money laundering;

5) the presence of corruption, i.e. connections with representatives of government and administrative bodies who either act or fail to act in the interests of this group;

6) division of spheres of influence between individual groups either on a territorial or sectoral basis.

Organized crime is characterized by a particular danger to the individual, society, and state.

Personal danger consists of suppressing her rights and freedoms through acts of violence and other means. This is manifested in the destruction of small entrepreneurs who refuse to pay money to receive “protection” from criminals (racketeering); forcing women and teenagers into prostitution; the spread of influence and control, for example over trade unions; the possibility of complete suppression of the constitutional rights and freedoms of citizens through physical, moral and material terror.

Danger to society consists of intercepting the rights of ownership and disposal of material assets of the entire society by organized criminal communities and corrupt groups of officials (especially in the areas of trade, production and distribution of strategic raw materials, precious metals, production and trafficking of weapons); the ability to manipulate significant capital, penetrate into areas of legitimate business and ruin their competitors through price controls; propagation of the ideology of the criminal world, its romanticization, cultivation of mafia and corrupt relations, violence, cruelty, aggressiveness, which creates conditions for “social contamination” by criminal customs and traditions.

The danger of organized crime for the state manifests itself in the creation at the regional level of parallel illegal power structures and illegal armed groups; preparation, financing and organization of direct anti-constitutional actions in the form of inciting national hatred; organizing mass riots, conspiracies to seize power; promoting state crimes such as banditry and smuggling; penetration into political parties and the state apparatus; corruption of politicians and government officials; a desire to weaken federal power in order to facilitate the control of organized crime over entire regions.

Sociologists and criminologists who study the causes of crime pay attention primarily to real life conditions, the contradictory development of the economy, social sphere, spiritual culture. In the 90s XX century in Russia and other CIS countries, the negative consequences of market reforms have become evident: the impoverishment of large sections of the population as a result of a deep economic crisis; the growth of nationalism, which in some cases led to armed confrontation; breaking the consciousness of people in the conditions of democratic transformations, the need to abandon habitual life attitudes; ignoring legal norms by central and local authorities; complicating the work of law enforcement agencies, their low level of technical equipment.

But in such difficult conditions, not everyone becomes a criminal. The personality of a person is also of great importance. Criminologists identify the most characteristic features of a person who is psychologically ready to break the law:

limited needs and interests;
imbalance between their different types;
a distorted idea of “what is good and what is bad”;
recognition of the possibility of using antisocial ways to satisfy one’s needs and interests;
lack of a sense of social responsibility, the habit of uncritically assessing one’s behavior.

As for recidivist criminals (i.e., those who commit repeated crimes), experts note the following features in this category of people: a negative attitude towards basic social norms; deeply ingrained negative views of social relationships and values; negative features of personal experience; increased aggressiveness and excitability; primitive drives and lack of restraint in their satisfaction. Such a complex of personality traits predisposes one to choose an illegal path to achieve one’s goals.

In modern conditions great importance has the fight against crime. This is a social regulatory activity that is carried out to ensure that citizens do not commit acts prohibited by criminal law. It includes, firstly, measures of a political, economic, social, socio-psychological, managerial, cultural nature that make it possible to eliminate conditions conducive to crime; secondly, the development of the legal consciousness of citizens; thirdly, special preventive activities aimed at identifying and eliminating the immediate causes of crime; fourthly, the application of criminal legislation in relation to persons who have committed crimes.

Growing crime has become a real threat to Russia's national security. Solving this problem is one of the most important national tasks.

SOCIAL CONTROL

Social norms constitute one of the elements of the mechanism for regulating relations between the individual and society, which is called social control . In the first lessons of the course, we talked about the fact that society is a complex system that includes many different elements. The purposeful influence of this system on people's behavior in order to strengthen order and stability is ensured by social control. How does the social control mechanism work?

Any activity is diverse, each person performs many actions, interacting with social environment(with society, social communities, public institutions and organizations, the state and other individuals). These actions, individual actions, and human behavior are under the control of the people, groups, and society around him. As long as they do not violate public order or existing social norms, this control is invisible. However, as soon as you violate established customs and rules, or deviate from patterns of behavior that are accepted in society, social control manifests itself. One person ran across the street in front of moving vehicles, another lit a cigarette in the cinema, a third committed theft, a fourth was late for work... In all these cases, the reaction of other people may follow: comments, other manifestations of dissatisfaction on the part of others, corresponding actions of the administration, police, court. This reaction of others is due to a violation of relevant social norms, rules, and traditions. People who reacted to these situations reflect the attitudes of public consciousness (or public opinion), which supports the order protected by norms. That is why their reaction was to condemn these actions.

Expressing dissatisfaction, reprimanding, imposing a fine, punishment imposed by the court - all these are sanctions; Along with social norms, they are an essential element of the mechanism of social control. Sanctions mean either approval and encouragement or disapproval and punishment aimed at maintaining social norms. In other words, sanctions can be either positive, aimed at encouraging, or negative, aimed at stopping undesirable behavior. In both cases, they are classified as formal if they are applied in accordance with certain rules(for example, awarding an order or punishment by a court verdict), or informal sanctions, if they are manifested in an emotionally charged reaction of the immediate environment (friends, relatives, neighbors, colleagues).

Society (large and small groups, the state) evaluates the individual, but the individual also evaluates society, the state, and himself. Perceiving assessments addressed to him from surrounding people, groups, government institutions, a person accepts them not mechanically, but selectively, rethinks them through his own experience, habits, and previously acquired social norms. And a person’s attitude towards other people’s assessments turns out to be purely individual: it can be positive and sharply negative. Let us remember what was said at the beginning of the course: a person constantly evaluates himself, and self-esteem can change depending on the maturity of the individual and the social conditions in which he operates. A person correlates his actions with the social patterns of behavior that he approves when performing those social roles with which he identifies himself.

Thus, along with the highest control from society, group, state, other people, vital importance It has internal control , or self-control , which is based on norms, customs, and role expectations learned by the individual.

In the process of self-control, conscience plays an important role, i.e. feeling and knowing what is good and what is bad, what is fair and what is unfair; subjective consciousness of compliance or non-compliance of one’s own behavior with moral standards. In a person who, in a state of excitement, by mistake or succumbing to temptation, commits a bad act, conscience causes a feeling of guilt, moral worries, a desire to correct the mistake or atone for the guilt.

The ability to exercise self-control is the most valuable quality of a person who independently regulates his behavior in accordance with generally accepted norms. Self-control is one of the most important conditions for a person’s self-realization and his successful interaction with other people.

So, the most important elements of the mechanism of social control are social norms, public opinion, sanctions, individual consciousness, and self-control. By interacting, they ensure the maintenance of socially acceptable patterns of behavior and the functioning of the social system as a whole.

Basic concepts: deviant behavior, social control.

Terms: crime.

1. One of the foreign works on the problem of deviant behavior says: “Deviations are a natural part of social life. And condemnation, regulation and prohibition, moral improvement do not reduce deviations, since stricter standards of behavior arise. Specific deviations may disappear, while others may appear... The disappearance of major crimes will lead to increased attention to smaller ones.” Do you agree with the stated point of view? Is it possible to rid society of deviations? Explain your answer.

2. Reveal the meaning of the statement by the English historian G.T. Bakla (1821–1862): “Society prepares a crime, the criminal commits it.” Do you share this point of view? Explain your position with some example taken from newspapers.

3. Do you agree with the statement of the French playwright J. Racine (1639–1699): “Major crimes are always preceded by minor ones. Has anyone ever seen timid innocence suddenly turn into unbridled debauchery? Give reasons for your answer.

During the period from 1989 to 1994, Russia experienced a significant increase in teenage crime. The number of crimes increased by 41.1%, and the number of teenagers who committed crimes - by 35.5% (from 150 thousand to 203.3 thousand). What are the reasons for this phenomenon? What is its social danger? What, from your point of view, needs to be done to reduce juvenile crime?

5. A discussion arose on the issue of fighting crime.

One point of view: punishments need to be toughened. Look at Singapore. If you were caught with drugs - capital punishment, with an illegal weapon, even if you did not use it - the same. In some Muslim countries, the law requires the hand to be cut off for theft. And no one has been stealing there for a long time.

Another point of view: the severity of punishment will make crime more violent. The main thing is the inevitability of punishment. If everyone knows that any crime will be solved, crime will decrease dramatically.

What do you think about this?

6. June 9, 2002, hooligan football “fans” after a failure Russian team in a match with the Japanese team, they staged a pogrom in the center of Moscow, where thousands of fans gathered around a huge screen. As a result, bystanders were beaten, many of whom had to be hospitalized. 8 cars, 36 shop windows, payphones, as well as lampshades and door windows in the metro were burned and 40 were smashed. In connection with these events, various reasons were given: some said that the instigators were “skinheads” belonging to gangster groups, others believed that spontaneous riots were related to the sale of alcoholic beverages, others believed that the pogrom was provoked by a video shown on the screen in which a man breaks a car with an ax.

What do you think: what are the reasons for these events? What needs to be done to prevent such phenomena?

Work with the source

Read an excerpt from the work of Russian sociologist R.V. Rybkina on crime in Russia.

The entire course of reforms was accompanied not only by an increase in the number of crimes, but also by serious changes in the structure of crime itself. In particular, the “weight” of organized crime has increased sharply. But most importantly, it has transformed from a purely criminal force into a self-organizing social system, integrated into all power and economic structures and practically not under the control of law enforcement agencies, moreover, into a social institution of Russian society. This means that it gave birth to: 1) its own, specific “roof” organizations; 2) special norms of shadow behavior (such as “racketeering”, “rollback”, “rollback”, etc.); 3) special social roles to which the implementation of these norms is assigned, and 4) special social relationships between participants in criminal communities into which they enter when carrying out certain criminal operations, as well as special relationships between criminals and the authorities.

The main process indicating the institutionalization of criminal activity is its increasing fusion with power. This process occurs at all levels - both at individual enterprises and firms in the regions of the country, and in the highest bodies of legislative (parliament) and executive (government) authorities. This allows us to talk about two new processes for Russia that arose in the era of economic liberalization: the first process is the shadowization of society, i.e., the increasing withdrawal of various social structures into the shadows... and the second process is the criminalization of society, i.e. the increasing strengthening in it of the role of criminal elements associated with certain political, legal, economic and other structures of society.

Ryvkina R. B. Drama of change. – M., 2001. – P. 37–38.

Questions and assignments to the source:

1) What new does the source give you compared to the educational text? 2) What do the words “going into the shadows” mean in the text of the document? How do you understand the words in quotation marks: “roofs”, “racketeering”, “rollback”, “rollback”? Why does the author use them in a sociological study? 3) Why do you think market reforms in Russia were accompanied by the criminalization of society? 4) What information in this source confirms the special danger of organized crime for society and the state? 5) What measures do you consider priority for the fight against organized crime?

Social interests and forms of social interaction

Social interest and social interaction are the subject of a comprehensive study of various social sciences and humanities. So, sociology explores the essential characteristics of social interaction as a generic concept of social science, studies its varieties and principles of regulation, analyzes the means of exchange, general types and forms of interactions. Social Psychology considers social interaction as the interactive side of communication, focusing on the psychological content, structure and mechanisms of this process.

SOCIAL INTERESTS

The sociality of interests is due to the fact that they always contain an element of comparison between person and person, one social group with another. Thus, we can talk about social interests, i.e. interests of people who make up any social community (stratum, ethnic group), this or that collective, association ( political party, professional association, etc.) . A set of specific social interests, along with a set of certain rights and obligations, is an indispensable attribute of each social status. First of all, these social interests are aimed at preserving or transforming those institutions, orders, social norms on which the distribution of goods necessary for a given social group depends. Therefore, the difference in interests, as well as the difference in the level of income, working and rest conditions, the level of prestige and the opening prospects for advancement in the social space, refers to manifestations of social differentiation.

Social interest underlies all forms of competition, struggle and cooperation between people. Habitual, established interests, recognized by public opinion, are not subject to discussion, thus acquiring the status of legitimate interests. For example, in multinational states, representatives of various ethnic groups are interested in preserving their language and their culture. Therefore, schools and classes are created in which the national language and literature are studied, and cultural-national societies are opened. Any attempt to infringe upon such interests is perceived as an attack on the livelihoods of the corresponding social groups, communities, and states. Historical experience shows that, as a rule, not a single social group sacrifices its interests voluntarily, on the basis of moral and ethical considerations or calls for humanism, for taking into account the interests of the other party, other groups or communities. On the contrary, each of the groups strives to expand its interests, to consolidate the success achieved and its development, as a rule, at the expense of the interests of other groups and communities. (Illustrate this point with examples.)

The modern world is a complex system of interaction of real social interests. The interdependence of all peoples and states has increased. The interests of preserving life on Earth, culture and civilization come to the fore.