How to write the letter e in latin. Translation of Russian letters into English (online)

For the most part, these records were made in Western Russian written language. In fact, East Slavic speech was written using the rules of Polish orthography (see, for example, the chronicle of Bykhovets, whose Cyrillic original was rewritten in the 17th century using the Polish Latin alphabet). In the 17th century, a fashion appeared in the Muscovite state to make short notes in Russian using the letters of the Latin alphabet. This practice spread especially widely in the 1680s - 1690s. .

Recordings of Russian speech by foreign travelers are known: a French phrasebook of the 16th century in the Latin alphabet and a dictionary-diary of Richard James, mainly in Latin graphics (with the influence of the spelling of various Western European languages), but interspersed with letters of the Greek and Russian alphabets.

Individual projects of the 19th century

see also

Notes

1. Alekseev M.P. Dictionaries of foreign languages ​​in the Russian alphabet of the 17th century: Research, texts and comments. L.: Nauka, 1968. S. 69-71; Shamin S. M. Russian records in Latin on books, icons and other objects (XVII - beginning of the XVIII century) // Ancient Rus'. Medieval Questions. 2007. No. 3 (29). pp. 122-123.
2. New improved letters for the Russian alphabet, or The most convenient means of learning to read and write Russian, even for foreigners, adapted together for the study of all European alphabets, with the application of some Historical remarks on the use of letters among Ancient and New peoples. - M.: type. Augusta Seeds, 1833.
3. Kodinskiy K. M. Simplification of Russian grammar. Upproscenie ruscoi grammatichi. - St. Petersburg. , 1842.

Latin alphabet (table), diphthongs, stress in words, letter combinations, pronunciation in Latin.

The Latin alphabet has changed its composition throughout the history of the development of the Latin language. The very first alphabet consisted of 21 letters, then in different eras new letters were added. Some of them have fallen into disuse, others have remained. As a result, the classical Latin alphabet appeared, consisting of 23 letters (some of which were given by the Greek language).

After the disappearance of the Roman Empire as a state, the Latin alphabet remained the basis for almost all languages ​​of Europe, but each of the variants had some changes of its own (the Romance languages ​​were closest to the classical version of the Latin alphabet: Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, French).

The modern Latin alphabet consists of 25 letters (if with the letter W, then 26). The letters of the Latin alphabet can be found in the table below:

In Latin capital letters are:

1. proper names;
2. names of nationalities and months of the year;
3. adjectives formed from proper names, as well as adverbs: Graecia Antiqua - Ancient Greece, Craece scribere - write in Greek

Diphthongs, letter combinations and pronunciation in Latin

The following diphthongs exist in Latin:

ae - pronunciation is similar to Russian sound [e]

oe - pronounced like German ö umlaut or French diphthong, for example, in the word peur

au - similar to a combination of Russian sounds [au]

ei - reads like [hey]

eu - similar to the sound of Russian sounds [eu]

It should be noted that if one of the letters in a combination of diphthongs has two dots or a quantity sign, then the sounds in this combination will be pronounced separately: po ë ta, poēta

The letter "c" in Latin reads like [k]: crocodilus, cultura, colonia (knees)

The letter "c" + e, i, y, ae, eu, oe reads like a sound [c]: Cicero, Cyprus, caelum (tselum)

* The letter h is similar in pronunciation to the Ukrainian sound [g]: humus (humus)

"J" - reads like [th]: major. If words begin with this letter, then it usually merges with the next vowel and is pronounced as one sound: Januarius, Juppiter.

** The letter "l" is similar in pronunciation to [la, l]: Latinus (latinus), luna (moon).

l + i gives the sound [li], for example: liber (liber).

*** The letter "q"Always occurs in combination qu + consonant and reads like [kv]: quadratus (quadratus). The exception is the word quum (godfather). In many publications, you can find the spelling of this word as cum.

The letter " s"In Latin, it reads like: universitas (universitas), if the letter" s"Stands between two vowels, then it is pronounced like [z]: Asia (Asia).

Please note that the combination of letters ti + vowel is read as [qi]: constitution (constitution). Exceptions are: the word totius (totius), as well as s, x, t + ti, for example: ostium (ostium), Bruttium (bruttium), in Greek words, for example: Boeotia (boeotia).

Pronunciation of letter combinations: ngu and su:

ngu + vowel reads like [ngv]: lingua (lingua)

su + vowel reads like [sv], for example: suadeo (swadeo)

Stress in Latin

In words that consist of two syllables, the stress falls on the second syllable from the end: r about sa. In words that consist of more than two syllables, the stress falls on the second syllable from the end if it is long: nat u ra. If it is short - to the third from the end: f a brica.

Word + particles que , ve , ne shift the stress to the last syllable of the given word, for example: r about sa, but ros a que. If que is part of a word, then the stress is placed according to the general rule: it a que.

In the next article, we will look at pronouns in Latin.

There are 25 letters in the Latin alphabet: 7 vowels (a, e, i, j, o, u, y) and 18 consonants (b, c, d, f, g, h, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z).

In botanical literature, all names are capitalized, except for the specific and subspecific epithet in the names of species and subspecies.

Remember the pronunciation of vowels, diphthongs and some consonants. Translate into Russian the names of plants given as an example.

Features of the pronunciation of vowels

The vowels [a] [and] [y] are pronounced as in Russian:

A a– [a]: Acacia, Acer, Adonis, Agava etc.

I i– [and]: Angelica, Valeriana, Digitalis etc.

O o– [o]: Solanum, Fagopirum, Grossularia etc.

U u– [y]: Leonurus, Luzula, Muscari etc.

E e-[e]: the consonant before [e] is always pronounced firmly: Berberis, Gerbera, Geranium

Jj- [th]: written at the beginning of a syllable before a vowel and softens it: Juncus, Juniperus etc.

Yy - [And]: written in words of Greek origin: Hydrastis, Myrtus, Lychnis, Lysimachia, Symphytum etc.

Diphthongs. A diphthong is a sound consisting of two vowels:

ae Crataegus, Aegopodium, Aeonium, Aerva, Aesculus etc.

[ uh]

oe Boehmeria, Oenothera, Oenanthe etc.

In cases where the vowels "ae" and "oe" must be pronounced separately, they put the section sign "..": Aloё

au-[ay]: Laurus, Rauvolfia

eu-[eu]: Eucommia, Eucalyptus etc.

Features of the pronunciation of some consonants

c c – [c] or [ To]:

[c] is pronounced before the sounds [ uh] And [ And]: officinale, Cirsium, Citrus, Cereus, Cetraria, Cerasus etc.

[To] is pronounced in all other cases: Caulerpa, Carum, Carica, Canna, Cladonia, Conium etc.

Hh – [G']: pronounced with a deep breath: Hyosciamus, Hevea, Hibiscus etc.

Kk – [To]: written in words of non-Latin origin: Kalanchoё, Kalopanax, Kniphofia etc.

Ll – [eh]: softly pronounced: Lamiaceae, Secale etc.

Qq- is written only in combination with [ u] and in position before other vowels it is pronounced [ sq.]: Quercus, Aquilegia

Ss – [With] or [h]:

[h] is pronounced in position between vowels and in combination with - m- - n- Rosa, Rosmarinus, etc. .

[With] is pronounced in all other cases: Asparagus, Asplenium, Aster etc.

Xx- pronounced [ ks]: Panax, radix, cortex etc

Zz – [h]: written in words of Greek origin: Leuzea, Zea, Oryza, Zingiber etc.

Exceptions are words of German, Italian, etc. origin: Zincum etc.

Memorize Latin and Greek letter combinations and their pronunciation. Translate into Russian the names of plants given as examples.

Latin and Greek letter combinations

ti- before vowels it is pronounced [ qi], but after s, t, x pronounced like [ti]: Lallemantia, Nicotiana, but Neottia

- ngu- before vowels it is pronounced [ ngv]: Sanguisorba

-su- reads like [ St.]: Suaeda, Suillus etc.

-ch- pronounced like [ X]: Chamomilla, Arachis, Chenopodium, Chondrilla etc.

-sch- reads like [ cx], not [w.]: Schizandra, Schoenoplectus, Schoenus etc.

-rh- pronounced [r]: Rhamnus, Rhizobium, Rhododendron, Rheum, Rhinanthus etc.

-th- pronounced like [t]: Thymus, Thea, Thlaspi, Thladiantha etc.

-ph- pronounced [f]: Phellodendron, Phacelia Phaseolus etc.

Latin stress rules

The number of syllables in a word is equal to the number of vowels; diphthong vowels make up one syllable:

Salvia - Sal-vi-a- 3 syllables

Althaea - Al-thae-a - 3 syllables

Eucalyptus - Eu-ca-lyp-tus - 4 syllables

in words that consist of two syllables, the stress never falls on the last syllable: fungus, labor, tuber, herba, Crocus, etc.

In words that consist of three or more syllables, the stress may fall on the second or third syllable from the end:

Foe-ni-cu-lum, me-di-ca-men-tum

The place of stress depends on the length and or shortness of the second syllable from the end of the word:

If the second syllable is long, it will be stressed;

If the second syllable is short, then the stress goes to the third syllable;

A syllable is long if:

The vowel comes before two or more consonants, -x- or -z-:

exst'actum, Schiz'andra, Or'yza

contains a diphthong:

Spir`aea, Crat`aegus, Alth`aea

contains a long vowel sound, which is always marked with a longitude sign (-) in the dictionary:

Urtica, Solanum

A syllable is short if:

A vowel comes before another vowel:

Polem'onium, Hipp'ophaё,

Contains a short vowel, which is marked with a short sign (~) in the dictionary

`Ephedra, V`iola

Usually in dictionaries there is no sign of brevity, and longitude

put:

Familiarize yourself with Latin botanical nomenclature. Answer, what is the main botanical category?

How can a specific epithet be expressed and what features of a plant can indicate?

Latin botanical nomenclature. species name

In modern botanical nomenclature, the binominal principle of designating a plant species, which was introduced in the 18th century, is adopted. Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus. The rules for the design of Latin names of plants are regulated International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. According to these rules, the main botanical category is viewSpecies. The species name consists of two words: the genus name and the specific epithet. Name kindGenus is a noun in the nominative singular. In the botanical name of a plant, it always comes first and is capitalized. specific epithetnomen specificum- this is a definition that indicates a trait characteristic of a given plant species. The specific epithet is in second place and is written with a lowercase letter. If the specific epithet consists of two words, then they are written with a hyphen.

1. The specific epithet expressed by the definition may indicate various distinguishing features:

a) - flowering time:

Adonis vernalis - spring adonis, adonis

Convallaria majalis - May lily of the valley

Colchicum autumnale - autumn colchicum

b) - appearance, color, structural features and other features:

Anethum graveolens - fragrant dill

Galeopsis speciosa - beautiful pikulnik

Hyoscyamus niger - black henbane

Cicuta virosa - poisonous milestone

Centaurea cyanus - blue cornflower

c) - habitat:

Arachis hypogaea - peanut, peanut

Trifolium montanum - mountain clover

Ledum palustre - wild rosemary

Lathyrus pratensis - meadow rank

Anthriscus sylvestris - forest bush

Festuca pratensis – meadow fescue

Caltha palustris - marsh marigold

Quercus petraea – sessile oak

d) - geographical distribution:

Acacia arabica - Arabian acacia

Anacardium occidentale - western anacardium

Hamamelis virginiana - virginian witch hazel

Hevea brasiliensis - Brazilian hevea

Hydrastis canadensis - Canadian hydrastis (yellow root)

Bunias orientalis - eastern sverbiga

Trollius europaeus - European bathing suit

e) - the absence of characteristic features:

Barbarea vulgaris - common colza

Artemisia vulgaris - common wormwood

Hordeum vulgaris - common barley

2. The specific epithet can be expressed by a noun

Atropa belladonna - belladonna belladonna

Carica papaya - melon tree

Theobroma cacao - chocolate tree

Punica granatum - pomegranate tree

Panax ginseng - Panax ginseng

Salsola richteri - Richter's hodgepodge

3. The specific epithet can be expressed in two words:

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi - bearberry

Capsella bursa-pastoris - shepherd's purse

Vaccinium vittis idaea - cowberry

Memorize the Latin names of taxa.

Names of taxa of botanical classification

All plants are combined into subordinate systematic groups - taxa, specific genera, families, orders, classes, departments:

View - species – genus name + specific epithet

Genus - genus- noun in the nominative case

Subfamily - subfamily– base + (o) ideae

Family - family– base + ceae

Order - order– lbase + ales

Subclass - subclassic– base + idae

Class - classic– base + opsida

Department - division– base + (o) phyta

Examples:

Family names:

Fabaceae - legumes

Poaceae - bluegrass

Lamiaceae - Lamiaceae

Order names:

Cucurbitales - pumpkin

Piperales - pepper

Theales - tea

Subclass names:

Caryophyllidae - caryophyllids

Liliidae - liliids,

Asteridae - asterids,

Class names:

Liliopsida - monocots

Magnoliopsida - dicots

on the example of a species of wild rose

Briefdictionary of botanical terms

Abaxial - out-of-axis

Agrocenosis, or agrophytocenosis- an artificial agricultural plant community created by a person when sowing or planting cultivated plants.

Adaxial- directed towards the axis.

azonal vegetation- vegetation that does not form an independent zone anywhere, but is found in a number of zones, for example, water meadows.

Androecium- a collection of stamens of a flower.

Anemophilia- wind pollination.

Anemochory- distribution of fruits, seeds and other diasporas by air currents.

anthropophytes, anthropophilous plants - constantly found in phytocenoses or agrocenses due to unconscious or deliberate human influence. These include weeds, ryderal plants and plants cultivated by humans.

Antecology - flower and ecology; flower and flowering ecology. Anteclogical studies include the production of nectar, pollen, and seeds.

Apomixis- the formation of an embryo without fertilization - from an unfertilized egg (parthenogenesis), from gametophyte cells (apogamy) or from other cells.

Apoplast- a set of interfibrillar spaces of cell membranes and intercellular spaces, through which free transport of water-soluble substances is carried out.

area- the part of the earth's surface within which the species is distributed.

Areola- a small area of ​​the mesophyll of the leaf, limited by small intersecting veins.

Arillus- seedling, a formation characteristic of the seeds of many flowering plants and consisting either of succulent tissues, or having the appearance of a film, fringe; develops in different parts of the seed.

Aspect- the appearance of a phytocenosis, changing throughout the year in accordance with the alternation of the phases of plant development. Aspects are named according to the color of aspective species.

association vegetable- the main unit of vegetation classification, which is a set of homogeneous phytocenoses.

autecology- the science of the adaptability of individual plant species to living conditions.

Aerenchyma- the air-bearing tissue of plants containing large intercellular spaces.

Biogeocenosis- a homogeneous area of ​​the earth's surface with a certain composition of living and inert components, united by the metabolism and energy into a single natural complex, i.e. it is an ecosystem within the boundaries of one phytocenosis.

Biomorphs- life forms of plants, due to their genetic nature, form of growth and biological rhythm.

Biotope- a territory with homogeneous ecological conditions, occupied by a certain biocenosis and serving as a habitat for one or another species of plants or animals.

botanical geography- the science of the regularities of the geographical distribution of vegetation cover on the earth's surface.

Vacuole- a cavity in the cell surrounded by a membrane - tonoplast, filled with cell sap.

Velamen- a multi-layered epidermis covering the aerial roots of some tropical epiphytic orchids and aroids, as well as some terrestrial monocots.

The age composition of the population - distribution of individuals of the coenotic population by age and developmental phases. There are latent, juvenile, virginal, generating, senile individuals.

halophytes Plants adapted to living in saline soils.

Gametogenesis- the process of formation of germ cells - gametes.

Heliophytes- light-loving plants that do not tolerate shading.

Helophytes- plants of shallow waters and waterlogged shores of reservoirs, a transitional group between hydrophytes and terrestrial plants; in the narrow sense - swamp plants.

Hemicryptophytes- perennial grasses with dying above-ground shoots, the renewal buds of which are at the level of the soil surface.

Geotropism- orientation of the axial organs of plants - shoots and roots, caused by the unilateral action of the force of gravity. The positive geotropism of the root causes its directed growth towards the center of the earth, the negative geotropism of the shoot - from the center.

geophytes- plants whose renewal buds are under the soil level.

Hygrophytes- land plants that grow in conditions of high humidity of the soil and air.

hydrophytes- Plants that live in the aquatic environment.

Gynoecium- a set of carpels of a flower.

Hypocotyl- the axial part of the embryo and seedling, located between the cotyledons and the root.

homeostasis in plants- relative constancy and stability of internal factors of metabolism and basic physiological functions in changing environmental conditions. Homeostasis ensures the maintenance of vital activity and the consistent implementation of ontogenesis under various fluctuations in external conditions.

Double fertilization - a type of fertilization characteristic of angiosperms, in which one of the sperm fuses with the egg to form a diploid zygote, giving rise to the seed embryo, and the other sperm merges with the diploid nucleus of the central cell to form a triploid nucleus, giving rise to the endosperm.

Diaspora - a unit of dissemination, a naturally separated part of a plant that serves for its reproduction and settling.

Dominants- plant species dominating in phytocenoses.

Sapwood- the outer part of the wood of the stem or root, containing living cells and reserve substances and conducting water.

Ovary- the lower part of the carpel or gynoecium, consisting of fused carpels; contains ovules and differentiates into a fruit.

Zoochory– dispersal of seeds, fruits and other diaspores of plants by animals.

Variability- the property of plants to deviate in their characteristics and in the characteristics of individual development from parental forms. Distinguish variability genotypic caused by changes in gene and chromosomal structures - mutations - or resulting from a new combination of parental genes in a daughter organism, and phenotypic– modification variability in the manifestation of genes during the implementation of hereditary information in different external conditions.

Callosa- a polysaccharide that forms glucose during hydrolysis, a component of the cell wall in sieve elements.

Callus- a tissue consisting of large thin-walled, meristematically active cells, formed as a result of plant damage on healing wounds and grafts, as well as in tissue culture.

Carpella, carpel- the same as the carpel.

cell wall- structural formation on the periphery of the plant cell, gives strength, shape to the cell, limits the size of the protoplast and protects it. It is a waste product of the protoplast.

cell sap- an aqueous solution of various substances; contained in the vacuole, is a waste product of the protoplast.

Coleoptile- vaginal leaf-like formation, having the form of a cone-shaped closed cap, surrounding the epicotyl and germinal bud in cereals.

coleorhiza- membranous sheath around the root of the germ of cereals.

Collenchyma- a mechanical tissue consisting of living cells with unevenly thickened cell walls that never lignify.

Root- the main vegetative organ of the plant, which fixes the plant in the substrate and provides soil nutrition (absorbs water and minerals from the soil).

root cap- formation covering the apical meristem of the root in the form of a cap; its tissues perform important functions. Sometimes the term “calyptra” is given as a synonym for “root cap” - a cap, a lid.

Spine- germinal main root; forms the basal continuation of the hypocotyl in the embryo.

Cosmopolitans Plants and animals found in most of the inhabited regions of the Earth.

Cryptophytes- perennial grasses in which the renewal buds are under the soil level or under water (geophytes, helophytes, hydrophytes).

Xerophytes Plants adapted to life in arid habitats.

Xylem- the conductive tissue of plants (wood), which provides an upward flow of water with dissolved minerals from the root to the shoot.

Cuticle- lipophilic film covering the surface of the epidermis in plants.

Lignification– impregnation of cell membranes with lignin.

Sheet- the lateral organ of the plant, performing the functions of photosynthesis, transpiration and gas exchange.

Leaf mosaic- the mutual arrangement of the leaves, due to which they do not obscure each other. It is especially manifested in shade-tolerant plants and is an adaptation in low light conditions.

lithophytes- Plants of rocky habitats.

Mesophytes- plants adapted to life in conditions of moderate water supply

meristems- educational tissues, the cells of which retain the ability to divide for a long time.

Mosaic- horizontal heterogeneity of phytocenoses and their division into smaller structures.

Morphogenesis– shaping, formation of morphological structures and the whole organism in the process of ontogenesis.

Nastia– non-directional movements of organs relative to the axis of immobile plants in response to a change in diffusely acting external factors (light-darkness, heat-cold).

Nyctynastic movements- movements of organs caused by the change of day and night, as well as a change in temperature (thermonasty), or light intensity (photonasty), or both.

reaction rate– hereditarily determined amplitude of possible changes in the implementation of the genotype. The reaction rate determines the number and nature of possible variants of the phenotype, or modifications, under various environmental conditions.

Nucellus- the central part of the ovule, in which the embryo sac develops, is usually considered as a homologue of the megasporangium.

abundance- the number of individuals with an eye assessment in points of a particular scale

Ontogeny, or individual development- the whole complex of consistent and irreversible changes in the vital activity and structure of a plant from its emergence from a zygote or any diaspora to natural death due to aging. Ontogeny is a consistent implementation of the hereditary program for the development of a plant organism in specific environmental conditions.

Pollination- the process of transferring pollen from the anthers to the stigma of the pistil.

The body as a system- a plant as an integral system with several subordinate levels of organization - organismic, organ, tissue, cellular, molecular. Regulation of the growth and development of the whole organism is carried out by integrating processes occurring at all levels, interconnected by numerous direct and feedback links.

Pericarp- the same as the pericarp.

Periodization of ontogeny- a set of stages and life states of plants (according to Uranov, 1975)

Plasmolysis The process by which the cytoplasm separates from the cell wall. Occurs due to the loss of water by the cell.

plastids are two-membrane plant cell organelles. Contain circular DNA, ribosomes, enzymes. There are three types of mature plastids: chloroplasts, leukoplasts, and chromoplasts.

Fetus- the reproductive organ of flowering (angiosperms) plants, develops from a flower and contains seeds.

The escape- the main vegetative organ of the plant, which performs the functions of air nutrition, consists of a stem, leaves and buds.

Polarity- specific orientation of processes and structures in space, characteristic of plants, leading to the emergence of morphophysiological gradients and expressed in the difference in properties at opposite ends or sides of cells, tissues, organs and the whole plant.

population- a set of individuals of the same species inhabiting a certain territory, freely interbreeding with each other and, to a certain extent, isolated from neighboring populations.

Protoplast- the living contents of the cell, the cytoplasm with the nucleus.

Development- qualitative changes in the structure and functions of the plant and its individual parts - organs, tissues and cells that occur in the process of ontogenesis.

Vegetation- a set of plant communities, or phytocenoses, of the Earth or its individual regions.

relics- species of plants and animals that have been preserved in modern ecosystems as the remains of disappeared floras and faunas of past geological epochs and are in some inconsistency with modern conditions of existence.

Height- an irreversible quantitative increase in the size, volume and weight of the body, associated with the formation of new body structures.

Seismonic movements- movements of organs that occur in response to shocks and tremors experienced by plants. Characteristic of Compositae flowers and bashful mimosa leaves.

seed coat- the cover of the seed, in the formation of which the integuments, and sometimes other parts of the ovule, take part.

Seed- the organ of reproduction and settlement of seed plants.

Symplast- a set of interconnected protoplasts of plant cells and their plasmodesmata.

Scarification- a technique that accelerates the germination of hard seeds, consisting in scratching the seed coat without damaging the embryo.

Sclerenchyma- mechanical tissue consisting of dead cells with evenly thickened lignified cell walls.

infertility- a collection of fruits frolicking from one inflorescence

sporogenesis- the process of spore formation - microspores (microsporogenesis) and megaspores (megasporogenesis).

Stem- the axis of the shoot, consists of internodes and nodes.

Seed stratification- a technique that accelerates their development and germination. It consists in preliminary keeping the seeds on a moist substrate.

Successions- unidirectional changes of some plant communities (biogeocenoses, ecosystems) by others in time.

taxis- directed movements of the whole organism, due to the unilateral influence of external stimuli, gravity, light, chemical exposure.

Therophytes- annual plants that tolerate the unfavorable season in the form of seeds.

Tonoplast a membrane that encloses the vacuole.

Tropisms- oriented movements of the organs of immobile plants in response to the unilateral action of external factors (light, gravity, etc.).

Phanerophytes- trees and shrubs with open buds of renewal high above the ground.

Phenotype- the whole complex of external and internal signs and properties of the organism, manifested during its ontogenesis. The phenotype is the result of the implementation of the genotype in certain environmental conditions.

plant phylogeny- the process of evolutionary development of plant organisms belonging to a particular taxon. Phylogeny is made up of a historical sequence of related ontogenies.

Phytocenosis (plant community)- a historically established stable set of various plant species in a certain area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe territory. Phytocenosis is characterized by certain relationships between its plant species, as well as between plant species and environmental conditions.

Phloem- conductive tissue of plants (bast), which provides a downward flow of water with organic substances (assimilates) from leaves to roots, flowers, fruits and growing shoots.

photoperiodism- the reaction of plants to the ratio of the length of day and night, expressed in a change in the processes of growth and development and associated with the adaptation of ontogenesis to seasonal changes in external conditions. One of the main manifestations of photoperiodism is the photoperiodic response of plant flowering.

Phototropism- orientation of the axial organs of the plant - shoots and roots - to one-sided illumination, expressed in directed growth or bending towards the light (positive stem phototropism) or away from the light (negative root phototropism).

Chalaza- the basal part of the ovule, in which the integuments originate and at the base of which the vascular bundle ends or branches, following from the funiculus.

Hamefites- plants whose shoots do not die off for the winter, renewal buds are close to the soil surface and are protected by litter and snow cover.

chlorenchyma- chlorophyll-bearing parenchyma (assimilative tissue), a photosynthetic tissue consisting of cells with many chloroplasts; performs the function of photosynthesis.

Flower- the reproductive organ of flowering (angiosperms) plants

Cytoplasm- part of the cell located between the plasmalemma and the nucleus; hyaloplasm with organelles.

cuttings- a method of vegetative propagation of plants using cuttings - parts of a stem, leaf or root separated from the plant. Accordingly, stem, leaf and root cuttings are distinguished.

Shield- the cotyledon (or part of the cotyledon) of the cereal germ, specialized for nutrients from the endosperm.

Environmental factors– environmental conditions affecting the growth, development and distribution of plants. Environmental factors include climatic (temperature, light, air, water), soil, topography, as well as the impact on plants of other plants, animals and humans.

Ecotop- a set of abiotic conditions of the inert environment of a given site, which is the habitat of a particular community.

Endemics- plant and animal species limited in their distribution to a certain territory.

epiblast- a small membranous outgrowth located opposite the shield in the germ of cereals.

epiblema- a single-layer integumentary tissue of a young root, bearing root hairs.

Epicotyl- the shoot part of the embryo or seedling above the cotyledons or cotyledons, consisting of an axis ending in the apical meristem and leaf primordia.

Epiphytes- plants that settle on other plants and use them exclusively as a substrate for attachment.

Ephemeroids- perennial herbaceous plants, which, like ephemers, are characterized by a short growing season.

Ephemera are annual herbaceous plants that complete their full cycle of development in a very short and usually wet period.

nuclear envelope- a double-membrane membrane that surrounds the nucleus of a cell.

nucleolus- a dense body located inside the nucleus, not separated from the nuclear juice by a shell. Consists of granular and fibrillar components. Contains protein, DNA and RNA.

Layered- vertical division of the plant community into elements of different composition and closeness.

References

1. Suvorov V.V., Voronova I.N. Botany with the basics of geobotany / V.V. Suvorov, I.N. Voronova.- 3rd ed.-M.: ARIS, 2012. - 520 p.

2. Andreeva I. I. Botany / I. I. Andreeva, L.S. Rodman. – 3, 4th ed. - M.: KolosS, 2010. - 488 p.

3. Yakovlev G.P. Botany: a textbook for universities / G.P. Yakovlev, V.A. Chelombitko, V.I. Dorofeev; ed. R.V. Camelina. - 3rd ed., Rev. and additional - St. Petersburg: SpecLit, 2008. - 689 p.

4. Guidelines for the study of botanical nomenclature / N.M. Naida. - St. Petersburg: SPbGAU, 2008. - 16 p.

5. Botanical geography with the basics of plant ecology. Textbook for universities / V. G. Khrzhanovsky, S. V. Viktorov, P. V. Litvak, B. S. Rodionov, L. S. Rodman. and additional – M.: Kolos, 1994. – 240 s.

6. Terminology of growth and development of higher plants / M.Kh. Chailakhyan, R.G. Butenko, O.N. Kulaeva. – M.: Nauka, 1982. – 96 p.

In the 5th century BC e. Latin language(self-name Lingua Latina) was one of the many Italic languages ​​spoken in central Italy. Latin was used in the area known as Latium (the modern name is Lazio), and Rome was one of the cities in this area. The earliest inscriptions in Latin date from the 6th century BC. BC e. and made using an alphabet based on the Etruscan script.

Gradually, the influence of Rome spread to other parts of Italy, and through them to Europe. Over time, the Roman Empire took over Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. Throughout the empire, Latin began to be used as the language of law and authority, and, to an increasing extent, the language of everyday life. The Romans were literate, and many of them read the works of famous Latin authors.

Meanwhile, in the eastern Mediterranean, Greek remained the lingua franca, and educated Romans were bilingual. The earliest examples of Latin literature known to us are translations of Greek plays and Cato's agricultural manual into Latin, dating from 150 BC. e.

Classical Latin, which was used in the early works of Latin literature, differed in many ways from colloquial, so-called Vulgar Latin. However, some writers, including Cicero and Petronius, used Vulgar Latin in their writings. Over time, the spoken versions of the Latin language moved further and further away from the literary standard, and gradually italic / romance languages ​​​​appeared on their basis (, spanish, portuguese, etc.).

Even after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476, Latin continued to be used as a literary language in Western and Central Europe. A huge amount of medieval Latin literature of various styles appeared - from the scientific works of Irish and Anglo-Saxon writers to simple fairy tales and sermons intended for the general public.

During the XV century. Latin began to lose its dominant position and the title of the main language of science and religion in Europe. To a large extent, it has been replaced by written versions of local European languages, many of which are derived from or influenced by Latin.

Modern Latin was used by the Roman Catholic Church until the middle of the 20th century, and today, to some extent, continues to exist, especially in the Vatican, where it is recognized as one of the official languages. Latin terminology is actively used by biologists, paleontologists and other scientists to name species and preparations, as well as doctors and lawyers.

Latin alphabet

The Romans used only 23 letters to write in Latin:

There were no lowercase letters in Latin. The letters I and V could be used as consonants and vowels. The letters K, X, Y and Z were only used to write words of Greek origin.

The letters J, U and W were added to the alphabet later for writing in languages ​​other than Latin.

The letter J is a variant of I and was first introduced into use by Pierre de la Ramais in the 16th century.

The letter U is a variant of V. In Latin, the sound /u/ was denoted by the letter v, for example IVLIVS (Julius).

W was originally a doubled v (vv) and was first used by Old English scribes in the 7th century, although the runic letter Wynn (Ƿ) was more commonly used to represent the /w/ sound. After the Norman Conquest, the letter W became more popular and by 1300 completely replaced the letter Wynn.

Reconstructed phonetic transcription of Classical Latin

Vowels and diphthongs

Consonants

Notes

• Vowel length was not displayed in writing, although modern redactions of classical texts use the macron (ā) to indicate long vowels.
• The pronunciation of short vowels in mid-position is different: E [ɛ], O [ɔ], I [ɪ] and V [ʊ].

Phonetic transcription of Church Latin

Vowels

diphthongs

Consonants

Notes

• Double vowels are pronounced separately
• C = [ʧ] before ae, oe, e, i or y, and [k] in any other positions
• G = [ʤ] before ae, oe, e, i or y, and [g] in any other positions
• H is not pronounced except in words mihi And nihil where the /k/ sound is pronounced
• S = [z] between vowels
• SC = [ʃ] before ae, oe, e, i or y, and in any other positions
• TI = before a vowel a and after all letters except s, t, or x, and in any other position
• U = [w] after q
• V = [v] at the beginning of a syllable
• Z = at the beginning of a word before vowels, and before consonants or at the end of a word.

November 11th, 2013

Numerous reforms of the Russian language from the beginning of the 18th century to the present day have never allowed for the possibility of replacing the Cyrillic alphabet with the Latin alphabet.

Peter introduced the civil alphabet, had a major quarrel with the church, brought guest workers into the country, but did not encroach on the Slavic letters.

At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century, when - according to c. L. Tolstoy - the court and high society spoke exclusively French, and the vast majority of the population was illiterate, the moment was exceptionally convenient. However, the important issue of transformation was not even considered. The nobles preferred to riot on the Senate.

In 1918, during the last major reform, the Bolsheviks abolished several letters, but they did not introduce a foreign alphabet even in the light of the approaching world revolution.

The need to use the Latin alphabet grew every year, but the position of the Soviet leadership on this issue remained unshakable. It was not influenced either by the accession to the USSR of the Baltic republics and part of Romania, or by the creation of a socialist bloc in Eastern Europe, or by relations with distant Cuba and close Finland.

Then the presidents missed their chance one by one:
- Gorbachev (after the fall of the Berlin Wall);
- Yeltsin (after completion of privatization);
- Medvedev (after meeting with Jobs).

The current head of state started small but important, marking the upcoming Olympiad with the mysterious words sochi zoich (or hioz upside down), but was not understood by his compatriots.

As a result, we are forced to spend millions of rubles on infographics in cities, duplicating all the names in Latin letters. And who counted the number of man-hours spent on switching the language in keyboards across the country?

However, enough words. What follows is a new alphabet for Russia, integrated into the sparkling Western world. Apparently, this is the least painful path for a country in which Chinese characters or Arabic calligraphy are about to triumph.

A couple of excerpts for practice:

1. Ne lepo li ny bjashet-, bratie,
nachjati starymi slovesy
trudnyh- povestij o p-lku Igoreve,
Igorja Svjat-slavlicha?
Nachati zhe sja t-j pesni
po bylinam- sego vremeni,
a ne po zamyshleniju Bojanju!
Bojan-bo veschij,
asche komu xotyashe pesn" tvoriti,
to rastekashetsja mysliju po drevu,
serym v-lkom po zemli,
shizym orlom- pod- oblaky.

2. Ja pomnju chudnoe mgnoven "e:
Peredo mnoj javilas" ty,
How mimoletnoe viden "e,
How genij chistoj krasoty.

I heart b "etsja v upoen" e,
I dlja nego voznikli vnov"
I bozhestvo, i vdohnoven "e,
I zhizn", i slezy, i ljubov".

The last stanza should also be given in another tradition, where the soft sign is replaced by a doubled consonant, "vy" by "w", and "ё" is retained where possible.

I heart bёtsja v upoenne,
I dlja nego voznikli vnow
I bozhestvo, i vdohnovenne,
I zhiznn, i slezy, i ljubow.

Anyway, as an unbiased reader can see, it turns out clumsily. It can be seen that the Russian language is such that the text, even being written in the most foreign letters, retains its wild Eurasian originality, contradictory essence and unwillingness to integrate into world culture and civilization. What can we say about its carriers?