Modern ideas about composition in literature. What is composition and why is it needed?

Composition is the construction of a work of art. The effect that the text produces on the reader depends on the composition, since the doctrine of composition says: it is important not only to be able to tell entertaining stories, but also to present them competently.

Literary theory gives different definitions of composition, one of them is this: composition is the construction of a work of art, the arrangement of its parts in a certain sequence.

Composition is internal organization text. Composition is about how the elements of the text are arranged, reflecting different stages of development of the action. The composition depends on the content of the work and the author’s goals.

Stages of action development (composition elements):

Composition elements– reflect the stages of development of the conflict in the work:

Prologue – introductory text that opens the work, preceding the main story. As a rule, thematically related to the subsequent action. It is often the “gateway” of a work, that is, it helps to penetrate the meaning of the subsequent narrative.

Exposition– the background of the events underlying the work of art. As a rule, the exposition provides characteristics of the main characters, their arrangement before the start of the action, before the plot. The exposition explains to the reader why the hero behaves this way. Exposure can be direct or delayed. Direct exposure is located at the very beginning of the work: an example is the novel “The Three Musketeers” by Dumas, which begins with the history of the D’Artagnan family and characteristics young Gascon. Delayed exposure placed in the middle (in I.A. Goncharov’s novel “Oblomov,” the story of Ilya Ilyich is told in “Oblomov’s Dream,” that is, almost in the middle of the work) or even at the end of the text (a textbook example “ Dead Souls» Gogol: information about Chichikov’s life before arriving in the provincial city is given in last chapter first volume). The delayed exposure gives the work a mysterious quality.

The beginning of the action is an event that becomes the beginning of an action. The beginning either reveals an existing contradiction, or creates, “knots” conflicts. The plot of “Eugene Onegin” is the death of the protagonist’s uncle, which forces him to go to the village and take over his inheritance. In the story about Harry Potter, the plot is an invitation letter from Hogwart, which the hero receives and thanks to which he learns that he is a wizard.

Main action, development of actions - events committed by the characters after the beginning and preceding the climax.

Climax(from the Latin culmen - peak) - the highest point of tension in the development of action. This is the highest point of the conflict, when the contradiction reaches its greatest limit and is expressed in a particularly acute form. The climax in "The Three Musketeers" is the scene of the death of Constance Bonacieux, in "Eugene Onegin" - the scene of Onegin and Tatiana's explanation, in the first story about "Harry Potter" - the scene of the fight over Voldemort. The more conflicts there are in a work, the more difficult it is to reduce all the actions to just one climax, so there may be several climaxes. The climax is the most acute manifestation of the conflict and at the same time it prepares the denouement of the action, so it can sometimes be a prelude. In such works it can be difficult to separate the climax from the denouement.

Denouement- the outcome of the conflict. This is the final moment in creation artistic conflict. The denouement is always directly related to the action and, as it were, puts the final semantic point in the narrative. The denouement can resolve the conflict: for example, in “The Three Musketeers” it is the execution of Milady. The final outcome in Harry Potter is the final victory over Voldemort. However, the denouement may not eliminate the contradiction; for example, in “Eugene Onegin” and “Woe from Wit” the heroes remain in difficult situations.

Epilogue (from Greekepilogos - afterword)- always concludes, closes the work. The epilogue tells about the further fate of the heroes. For example, Dostoevsky in the epilogue of Crime and Punishment talks about how Raskolnikov changed in hard labor. And in the epilogue of War and Peace, Tolstoy talks about the lives of all the main characters of the novel, as well as how their characters and behavior have changed.

Lyrical digression– the author’s deviation from the plot, the author’s lyrical insertions that have little or nothing to do with the theme of the work. A lyrical digression, on the one hand, slows down the development of the action, on the other hand, it allows the writer to openly express his subjective opinion on various issues that are directly or indirectly related to the central theme. Such, for example, are the famous lyrical

Types of composition

TRADITIONAL CLASSIFICATION:

Direct (linear, sequential)– the events in the work are depicted in chronological order. “Woe from Wit” by A.S. Griboedov, “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy.

Ring – the beginning and end of the work echo each other, often completely coinciding. In “Eugene Onegin”: Onegin rejects Tatiana, and at the end of the novel, Tatiana rejects Onegin.

Mirror - a combination of repetition and contrast techniques, as a result of which the initial and final images are repeated exactly the opposite. One of the first scenes of L. Tolstoy’s “Anna Karenina” depicts the death of a man under the wheels of a train. This is how one commits suicide main character novel.

A story within a story - The main story is told by one of the characters in the work. M. Gorky’s story “The Old Woman Izergil” is constructed according to this scheme.

CLASSIFICATION OF A. BESINA(based on the monograph “Principles and Techniques of Analysis of a Literary Work”):

Linear – the events in the work are depicted in chronological order.

Mirror – the initial and final images and actions are repeated exactly the opposite way, opposing each other.

Ring – the beginning and ending of the work echo each other and have a number of similar images, motifs, and events.

Retrospection – During the narration, the author makes “digressions into the past.” V. Nabokov’s story “Mashenka” is built on this technique: the hero, having learned that his former lover is coming to the city where he now lives, looks forward to meeting her and remembers their epistolary novel while reading their correspondence.

Default – the reader learns about the event that happened earlier than the others at the end of the work. So, in “The Snowstorm” by A.S. Pushkin, the reader learns about what happened to the heroine during her flight from home only during the denouement.

Free – mixed actions. In such a work one can find elements of a mirror composition, techniques of omission, retrospection and many other compositional techniques aimed at retaining the reader’s attention and enhancing artistic expressiveness.

Composition (Latin Compositio - composition, combination, creation, construction) is the plan of a work, the relationship of its parts, the relationship of images, paintings, episodes. A work of fiction should have as many characters, episodes, scenes as necessary to reveal the content. A. Chekhov advised young writers to write in such a way that the reader, without the author’s explanation, could understand what was happening from the conversations, actions, and actions of the characters.

An essential quality of a composition is accessibility. A work of art should not contain unnecessary pictures, scenes, or episodes. L. Tolstoy compared a work of art to a living organism. “In a real work of art - poetry, drama, painting, song, symphony - you cannot take one verse, one bar out of its place and put it on another without violating the meaning of this work, just as it is impossible not to disturb the life of an organic being if you take it out one organ from its place and insert into another "." According to K. Fedin, composition is “the logic of the development of the theme. When reading a work of art, we must feel where, at what time the hero lives, where the center of events is, which of them.” the most important and which ones are less important.

A prerequisite for composition is perfection. L. Tolstoy wrote that the main thing in art is not to say anything superfluous. A writer must depict the world using as few words as possible. No wonder A. Chekhov called brevity the sister of talent. The talent of a writer is found in the mastery of the composition of a work of art.

There are two types of composition - event-plot and non-story, non-story or descriptive. The event type of composition is characteristic of most epic and dramatic works. The composition of epic and dramatic works has hourly space and cause-and-effect forms. The event type of composition can have three forms: chronological, retrospective and free (montage).

V. Lesik notes that the essence of the chronological form of an event composition “lies in the fact that events... go one after another in chronological order - the way they happened in life. There may be temporary distances between individual actions or pictures, but there is no violation natural sequence in time: what happened earlier in life, and in the work, is presented earlier, and not after subsequent events. Therefore, there is no arbitrary movement of events, no violation of the direct movement of time."

The peculiarity of a retrospective composition is that the writer does not adhere to a chronological sequence. The author can talk about the motives, reasons for events, actions after they have been carried out. The sequence in the presentation of events may be interrupted by the memories of the characters.

The essence of the free (montage) form of event composition is associated with violations of cause-and-effect and spatial relationships between events. The connection between episodes is often associative-emotional rather than logical-semantic in nature. The montage composition is typical of 20th century literature. This type of composition was used in Yu. Japanese's novel "Riders". Here the storylines are connected at the associative level.

A variation of the event type of composition is event-narrative. Its essence lies in the fact that the same event is told by the author, narrator, storyteller, and characters. The event-narrative form of the composition is characteristic of lyrical-epic works.

The descriptive type of composition is characteristic of lyrical works. “The basis for the construction of a lyrical work,” notes V. Lesik, “is not the system or development of events..., but the organization of lyrical components - emotions and impressions, the sequence of presentation of thoughts, the order of transition from one impression to another, from one sensory image to another "." Lyrical works describe the impressions, feelings, experiences of the lyrical hero.

Yu. Kuznetsov in the “Literary Encyclopedia” distinguishes plot-closed and open composition. The plot is closed, characteristic of folklore, works of ancient and classic literature (threefold repetitions, happy endings in fairy tales, alternation of choir performances and episodes in ancient Greek tragedy). “The plot is open composition,” notes Yu. Kuznetsov, “devoid of a clear outline, proportions, flexible, taking into account the genre-style opposition that arises in specific historical conditions literary process. In particular, in sentimentalism (composition Sternivska) and in romanticism, when open works became the negation of closed ones, classicistic...".

What does the composition depend on, what factors determine its features? The originality of the composition is primarily due to the design of the work of art. Panas Mirny, having familiarized himself with the life story of the robber Gnidka, set himself the goal of explaining what caused the protest against the landowners. First, he wrote a story called “Chipka,” in which he showed the conditions for the formation of the hero’s character. Subsequently, the writer expanded the concept of the work, demanding a complex composition, and this is how the novel “Do oxen roar when the manger is full?” appeared.

Features of the composition are determined literary direction Classicists demanded three unities from dramatic works (unity of place, time and action). Events in a dramatic work were supposed to take place over the course of a day, grouped around one hero. The Romantics portrayed exceptional characters in exceptional circumstances. Nature was often shown during natural disasters (storms, floods, thunderstorms); they often occurred in India, Africa, the Caucasus, and the East.

The composition of a work is determined by its genus, type and genre; lyrical works are based on the development of thoughts and feelings. Lyrical works are small in size, their composition is arbitrary, most often associative. In a lyrical work, the following stages of development of feeling can be distinguished:

a) the initial moment (observation, impressions, thoughts or state that became the impetus for the development of feelings);

b) development of feelings;

c) climax (the highest tension in the development of feelings);

In the poem by V. Simonenko “Swans of Motherhood”:

a) the starting point is to sing a lullaby to your son;

b) development of feelings - the mother dreams about the fate of her son, how he will grow up, go on a journey, meet friends, his wife;

c) climax - mother’s opinion about possible death son in a foreign land;

d) summary - You don’t choose your homeland; what makes a person is love for their native land.

Russian literary critic V. Zhirmunsky identifies seven types of composition of lyrical works: anaphoristic, amoebaic, epiphoristic, refrain, ring, spiral, junction (epanastrophe, epanadiplosis), pointe.

Anaphoristic composition is typical for works that use anaphora.

You have renounced your native language. You

Your land will stop giving birth,

Green branch in a pocket on a willow tree,

It fades at your touch.

You have renounced your native language. Zaros

Your path disappeared into a nameless potion...

You don't have tears at funerals,

You don't have a song at your wedding.

(D. Pavlychko)

V. Zhirmunsky considers anaphora an indispensable component of amoebaic composition, but in many works it is absent. Characterizing this type of composition, I. Kachurovsky notes that its essence is not in anaphora, “but in the identity of the syntactic structure, replica or counter-replica of two interlocutors, or in a certain pattern of roll call of two choirs." " I. Kachurovsky finds an illustration of the amoebaic composition in the work of the German romantic Ludwig Uland:

Have you seen the tall castle,

A castle over the sea shire?

The clouds float quietly

Pink and gold above it.

Into the mirror-like, peaceful waters

He would like to bow down

And rise into the evening clouds

Into their radiant ruby.

I saw a tall castle

Castle over the sea world.

Hail the deep fog

And a month stood over him.

(Translation by Michael Orestes)

The amoebaine composition is most common in the tenzons and pastorals of the troubadours.

Epiphoristic composition is characteristic of poems with epiphoristic endings.

Breaks, kinks and fractures...

They broke our spine in circles.

Understand, my brother, finally:

Before heart attacks

We had them - don’t touch them!

Heart attacks of souls... heart attacks of souls!

There were ulcers, like infections,

There were images to the point of disgust -

This is disgusting, my brother.

So leave it, go and don’t touch it.

We all have a crazy mind:

Heart attacks of souls... heart attacks of souls!

In this bed, in this bed

In this scream to the ceiling,

Oh, don't touch us, my brother,

Don't touch paralytics!

We all have a crazy mind:

Heart attacks of souls... heart attacks of souls!

(Yu. Shkrobinets)

A refrain composition consists of the repetition of a group of words or lines.

How quickly everything in life goes by.

And happiness will only flicker with its wing -

And he's no longer here...

How quickly everything in life goes by,

Is this our fault? -

It's all the metronome's fault.

How quickly everything in life goes by...

And happiness will only flicker with its wing.

(Lyudmila Rzhegak)

I. Kachurovsky considers the term “ring” to be unfortunate. “Where better,” he notes, “is a cyclic composition. The scientific name of this remedy is anadiplosis composition. Moreover, in cases where anadiplosis is limited to any one stanza, this refers not to composition, but to stylistics.” Anadiplosis as a compositional means can be complete or partial, when part of a stanza is repeated, when the same words are in a changed order, when some of them are replaced by synonyms. The following options are also possible: not the first stanza is repeated, but the second, or the poet gives the first stanza as the final one.

Evening sun, thank you for the day!

Evening sun, thank you for being tired.

The forests are silent, enlightened

Eden and cornflower in golden rye.

For your dawn, and for my zenith,

and for my burnt zeniths.

Because tomorrow wants greens,

For what oddzvenity managed to do yesterday.

Heaven in the sky, for children's laughter.

For what I can and for what I must,

Evening sun, thank you all,

who did not defile the soul in any way.

For the fact that tomorrow awaits its inspiration.

That somewhere in the world blood has not yet been shed.

Evening sun, thank you for the day,

For this need, words are like prayers.

(P. Kostenko)

The spiral composition creates either a “chain” stanza (terzina), or stropho-genres (rondo, rondel, triolet), i.e. acquires stanza-creative and genre characteristics.

I. Kachurovsky considers the name of the seventh type of composition indecent. A more acceptable name, in his opinion, is epanastrophe, epanadiplosis. A work where the repetition of rhyme when two adjacent stanzas collide has a compositional character is E. Pluzhnik’s poem “Kanev”. Each twelve-Shova stanza of the poem consists of three quatrains with rhymes that move from quatrain to quatrain, the last verse of each of these twelve verses rhymes with the first poem as follows:

And the time and fatness will begin in their homes

Electricity: and the newspaper rustled

Where once the prophet and poet

The great spirit behind the darkness has dried up

And will be reborn in millions of masses,

And not only from the portrait,

The competition of immortals is a symbol and sign,

Apostle of truth, peasant Taras.

And since my dozen phrases

In the boring collection of an anchorite,

As the times to come show off,

On the shores lies indifferent Lethe...

And the days will become like the lines of a sonnet,

Perfect...

The essence of the pointe composition is that the poet leaves the interesting and essential part of the work for last. It could be unexpected turn thoughts or conclusion from the entire previous text. The means of pointe composition is used in the sonnet, the last poem of which should be the quintessence of the work.

Exploring lyrical and lyrical-epic works, I. Kachurovsky found three more types of composition: simplocial, gradational and main.

I. Kachurovsky calls a composition in the form of a simplocal simplocial.

Tomorrow on earth

Other people walking

Other people love -

Kind, affectionate and evil.

(V. Simonenko)

Gradational composition with such types as descending climax, growing climax, broken climax is quite common in poetry.

The gradation composition was used by V. Misik in the poem “Modernity”.

Yes, perhaps, even during Boyan’s time

It's spring time

And the rains fell on the youth,

And the clouds moved in from Tarashche,

And the hawks flew over the horizon,

And the cymbals echoed loudly,

And in Prolis the cymbals are blue

We peered into the heavenly strange clarity.

Everything is as it was then. Where is it, modernity?

It is in the main thing: in you.

The main composition is typical for wreaths of sonnets and folk poetry. IN epic works tells about the lives of people over a period of time. In novels and stories, events and characters are revealed in detail and comprehensively.

Such works may contain several storylines. Small works (stories, novellas) have few plot lines, characters little, situations and circumstances are depicted succinctly.

Dramatic works are written in the form of dialogue, they are based on action, they are small in size, because most of them are intended to be staged. In dramatic works there are stage directions that perform a service function - they give an idea of ​​the location of the action, the characters, advice to the artists, but are not included in the artistic fabric of the work.

The composition of a work of art also depends on the characteristics of the artist’s talent. Panas Mirny used complex plots and digressions of a historical nature. In the works of I. Nechuy-Levitsky, events develop in chronological order, the writer draws detailed portraits of heroes and nature. Let's remember "Kaidashev's family". In the works of I.S. Turgenev, events develop slowly, Dostoevsky uses unexpected plot moves and accumulates tragic episodes.

The composition of the works is influenced by folklore traditions. The fables of Aesop, Phaedrus, Lafontaine, Krylov, Glebov “The Wolf and the Lamb” are based on the same folklore story, and after the plot - morality. In Aesop's fable it goes like this: “The fable proves that even a just defense has no power for those who undertake to do injustice.” Phaedrus ends the fable with the words: “This tale was written about people who seek to destroy the innocent by deception.” The fable “The Wolf and the Lamb” by L. Glebov begins, on the contrary, with a moral:

It has been going on in the world for a long time,

The lower he bends before the highest,

And more than a smaller party and even beats

1. The concept of the composition of a literary work.

2. Compositional techniques.

3. Elements of composition and their role in revealing the ideological and artistic content of the work.

Bibliography

1) Borev Yu.B. Aesthetics. Theory of literature: encyclopedic dictionary of terms. – M., 2003.

2) Introduction to literary criticism: textbook / ed. L.M. Krupchanov. – M., 2003.

3) Esin A.B. Principles and techniques of analyzing a literary work. – 4th ed. – M., 2002.

4) Literary encyclopedic dictionary / ed. V.M. Kozhevnikova, P.A. Nikolaev. – M., 1987.

5) Literary encyclopedia of terms and concepts / ed. A.N. Nikolyukina. – M., 2003.

6) Dictionary of literary terms / ed.-comp. L.I. Timofeev, S.V. Turaev. – M., 1973.

7) Timofeev L.I.. Fundamentals of literary theory. – M., 1976.

A work of art is a complex whole, a series of images, a chain of their actions, events that happen to them. The writer must organize all these individual elements of the story into a coherent and organized whole that is fascinating to the reader. This one the organization of a work, proportionality and consistency, the relationship of all its parts and elements in literary criticism is usually called composition.

A.I. Revyakin gives the following definition of composition: “ Composition (from lat. compositio – addition, composition, compono – to put together, compose) – construction of a work of art, a certain system of means of revealing, organizing images, their connections and relationships characterizing the life process shown in the work ».

Thus, the composition includes the arrangement of characters in the work, and the order of reporting the course of events, and a change in narrative techniques, and the correlation of the details of the depicted, and portrait and landscape sketches, and a message about the place and time of the events taking place, and the division of the work into parts and so on. In other words, composition is nothing more than the structure of a work of art.

Whatever work we take, it has a certain composition - it is organized on the basis of the complexities of the real life situation that is reflected in it, and the understanding of life connections, causes and consequences, which is inherent in this writer and determines his compositional principles. The composition of a work is determined primarily by the real laws of the reality depicted in the work, the ideological and aesthetic tasks set by the author, as well as the artistic method, genre features, the worldview of the writer, his in a creative manner.

Many literary scholars, speaking about the composition of a work, distinguish its two main forms: event (plot) and non-event (non-plot). The eventful form of composition is characteristic to a greater extent for epic and dramatic works, the non-eventful - for lyrical works.

Since the main unit of literary and artistic reflection of life is character, the composition of a work of art can be comprehended and studied precisely in connection with the characters depicted in it.

How a writer builds this or that character, how he relates it to others, in what sequence he arranges the events in the work, what causes and consequences he brings to the fore in the life he depicts, how, in connection with this, he organizes the work externally - all this in general represents the composition of a work, determined by the creative principles of the writer.

The main requirements for the composition of a highly artistic work are vital and artistic motivation and strict subordination of all elements of the work to the theme and idea.

IN modern literary criticism There is a tradition of highlighting such compositional techniques as repeat, reinforce And installation . About compositional technique repeat they speak mainly when the first and final lines of poetry echo, giving the work compositional harmony, creating a ring composition. A classic example of the use of a ring composition is the poems by A. Blok “Night, street, lantern, pharmacy...”, S. Yesenin “Shagane, you are mine, Shagane...” and others.

Reception gain used in cases where simple repetition is not enough to create an artistic effect. For example, the description is based on the principle of amplification interior decoration Sobakevich's house in " Dead souls» N.V. Gogol. There are all sorts of new part reinforces the previous one: “everything was solid, clumsy to the highest degree and had some strange resemblance to the owner of the house; in the corner of the living room stood a pot-bellied walnut bureau with four absurd legs, a perfect bear. The table, armchairs, chairs - everything was of the heaviest and most restless quality - in a word, every object, every chair seemed to say: “And I, too, Sobakevich!” or “and I also look very much like Sobakevich!”

Reception installation characterized by the fact that two images located side by side in the work give rise to a certain new meaning. For example, in A. Chekhov’s story “Ionych” the description “ art salon"is accompanied by a mention of the smell of fried onions and the clanking of knives. These details create the atmosphere of vulgarity that the author tried to convey to the reader. In some works (M. Bulgakov “The Master and Margarita”, Ch. Aitmatov “The Scaffold”, etc.) montage becomes the compositional principle of organizing the entire work.

Along with the concept of compositional technique in literary criticism, we are talking about elements of composition . Following V.V. Kozhinov and other scientists, we highlight the following elements compositions: anticipation, default, chronological rearrangements, artistic framing, antithesis, landscape, portrait, interior, dialogue, monologue, lyrical digressions, introductory episodes.

Preliminary- notification in advance about something is an artistic technique when a writer precedes the depiction of future events with episodes. An example of foreshadowing is an episode from the novel by A.S. Pushkin’s “Eugene Onegin”, when Tatyana has a dream that Onegin kills Lensky (chapter 5, stanza 21):

The argument is louder, louder; suddenly Evgeniy

He grabs a long knife and instantly

Lensky is defeated; scary shadows

Condensed; unbearable scream

There was a sound... The hut shook...

And Tanya woke up in horror...

An example of foreshadowing in Mordovian literature can be found in N. Erkay’s poem “Moro Ratordo” (the scene of the discovery by the main character of human bones in the hollow of a century-old oak tree, presented at the beginning of the work).

Artistic framing– creation of paintings and scenes that are close in essence to the phenomena and characters depicted. “Hadji Murat” L.N. Tolstoy begins with a landscape sketch. The author talks about how he, having collected a large bouquet of different colors, decided to decorate it with blooming crimson burrs, popularly called “Tatar”. However, when he picked it with great difficulty, it turned out that the burdock, due to its coarseness and clumsiness, did not suit the delicate flowers of the bouquet. Next, the author shows a freshly plowed field in which not a single plant was visible, except for one bush: “The “Tatar” bush consisted of three shoots. One was torn off, and the rest of the branch stuck out like a severed hand. The other two had a flower on each. These flowers were once red, but now they were black. One stem was broken, and half of it, with a dirty flower at the end, hung down; the other, although smeared with black earth mud, still stuck out upward. It was clear that the entire bush had been run over by a wheel and only then stood up and therefore stood sideways, but still stood. It was as if they had torn out a piece of his body, turned out his insides, torn off his arm, and gouged out his eye. But he still stands and does not surrender to the man who destroyed all his brothers around him. “What energy! - I thought. “Man has conquered everything, destroyed millions of herbs, but this one still doesn’t give up.” And I remembered one long ago Caucasian history, part of which I saw, part of which I heard from eyewitnesses, and part of which I imagined. This story, the way it developed in my memory and imagination, is what it is...”

An example of artistic framing from Mordovian literature is an excerpt from the prologue of the novel in verse by A.D. Kutorkin “Apple tree by the high road”:

Yalateke son viysenze Kirds telelen lamo yakshamot, Eis orshnevemat, lyakshamot, Nachko shkasto trowel livez. But the tsidyards feel - ez sive, Staka davol marto spores, Lamo Viy rashtas shadow koryas.

Umarinas kass ush pokshsto, Zyardo sonze weike boxto Ker vatkakshnost petkel petne, Taradtkak sintrestst chirketne, Pravtst shovel kodaz lokshotne, But eziz mue makshotne Te chuvtont. Sleepy, safe.

Bogatyren shumbra body Nulan pack istya neavkshny, Koda selms yala kayavkshny Te umarinant komelse Se tarkas, kosto petkelse Kener panx umok lutavkshnos.

Pars tundos chuvtonten savkshnos.

Erva tarads kodaz-kodavst, Mazy umart novolst modas...

The Apple Tree by the high road nods its head in both directions.- such an element of composition when the writer in his work talks about events, breaking the chronological sequence. A classic example of this type of composition is the novel by M.Yu. Lermontov "Hero of Our Time".

Quite often, writers in their works include heroes’ memories of days gone by. This technique also serves as an example of chronological rearrangements. In A. Doronin’s novel “Bayagan Suleyt” (“Shadows of Bells”), which tells about the life of Patriarch Nikon, there are several such episodes:

“... Vladykanten lettyavs, mayste have fun, go away dy code sleep pongs tezen, vasolo enkson usiyatnes. Te ulnes 1625 yen tundostont, zardo sonze, velny popont, ve chiste kirga ormado kulost kavto cerkanzo. Te rizksten Olda nise ez tsidardo, tus nun. Dy songak arses-teis pryanzo naravtomo. Kochkize Solovkan monastery, kona set etnesteyak Rusen keles pek sodaviksel. Ansyak code tey patchcodems? Syrgas Nizhny Novgorod. Kems, tosto mui Arkhangelskoent marto syulmavoz lomanti dy Rav leigant sirgi martost od ki langov.” (“Vladyka remembered how it all began and how he got here, to these remote places. This happened in the spring of 1625, when he, rural priest, on the same day, two of his sons died from a sore throat. His wife Olda could not stand it from such grief and became a nun. He, too, on reflection, decided to become a monk. I chose the Solovetsky Monastery, which was already very famous in Rus' in those days. But how to get there? I went to Nizhny Novgorod. I hoped that there he would find people who were connected with Arkhangelsk, and along the Volga River along with them would follow a new path.”).

Antithesis– a contradiction, a sharply expressed opposition of concepts or phenomena. N.A. Nekrasov’s poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'” contains the following lines:

You are also poor, you are also abundant,

You are both powerful and you are powerless,

Mother Rus'.

An excerpt from D. Nadkin’s poem “Chachoma Ele” entitled “Iznyamo or kuloma” (“Victory or Death”) is also built on the antithesis:

Scenery– a description of nature in a literary work that performs various functions. Landscape sketches have been included in fiction for a long time: we find them in works of ancient and medieval literature. Already in Homer's poems there are small landscape paintings that serve as the background of the action, for example, mentions of the coming night, the rising of the sun: “Then darkness descended on the earth,” “The young Eos with purple fingers stood up.” In the work of the Roman poet Lucretius “On the Nature of Things,” nature is also personified and acts both as a character and as a background to the action:

The winds, goddess, run before you; with your approach

The clouds are leaving the heavens, the earth is a lush master

Laying out a floral carpet, smiling sea ​​waves,

And the azure sky shines with spilled light....

In the 18th century, in the literature of sentimentalism, landscapes began to perform a psychological function and were perceived as a means of artistic development. inner life human (Goethe's "Suffering" young Werther", Karamzin "Poor Liza").

For romantics, nature is usually restless, corresponds to the violent passions of the heroes and acts as a symbol (Lermontov’s “Sail”, etc.).

IN realistic literature landscapes also occupy a significant place and perform a variety of functions; they are perceived as the background of the action, and as the subject of the image, and as a character, and as a means of artistic development inner world heroes. As an example, let us give an excerpt from N. Erkai’s story “Alyoshka”: “Lees and not appearing, sleep kopachaz lovson kondyamo tumso. Maryavi lismastrasto miracle chudikerksent sholnemazo. Sleep, good for the tseks, praise the greasy kizen valskent. Kaldastont kayseti skalten stakasto leksemast dy porksen poremast. Leent chireva lugant langa dew ashti after all bygex. Loman still a jamb aras... Koshtos tusto, vanks dy ekshe. Lexyat eisenze, kodayak and peshkedyat.

Lomantne, narmuntne, mik tikshetneyak, vese nature, udyt sery shozhdyne menelent alo. Mik teshtneyak palst avol pek valdo tolso, syngak chatmonit, ezt mesha udytsyatnene" (The river is not visible, it is shrouded in thick fog. You can hear the murmur of a stream flowing from a spring. It, like a nightingale, glorifies the beauty of the summer morning. From the fence you can hear the sighs of cows chewing chewing gum. There is morning dew in the meadow along the river. There are still no people to be seen... The air is thick, clean and cool.

People, birds, grass, all nature sleeps under a light sky. Even the stars do not burn brightly and do not disturb those sleeping.”

Portrait– description of the appearance and appearance of the characters. Pre-realistic literature is characterized by idealizing descriptions of the appearance of heroes, outwardly bright and spectacular, with an abundance of figurative and expressive means of language. This is how Nizami Ganjavi describes the appearance of his beloved in one of the ghazals:

Only this maiden from Khotan can compare with the moon,

Her charms captivated a hundred Yusufs from Hanan.

The eyebrows are arched, the gaze of the eyes is like the sun,

The color of her ruddy cheeks is brighter than Aden rubies.

Proudly decorating the blooming garden with a scarlet rose,

She eclipsed the cypress with her regal tall figure....

Similar portraits occur in romantic literature. In realistic literature, a portrait has become widespread, performing a psychological function, helping to reveal spiritual world characters (M. Lermontov “Hero of Our Time”, L. Tolstoy “War and Peace”, A. Chekhov “Lady with a Dog”...).

Quite often, it is through a portrait that one can reveal the author’s attitude towards his hero. Let's give an example from S. Platonov's story “Kit-yant” (“Roads-Roads”): “Vera orshazel kizen shozhda platinese, kona stazel ​​serenze koryas dy sedeyak mazylgavts vide kileen kondiamo elganya rungonzo. Vasen varshtamsto sonze chamazo neyavi avol ush oats baked mazyytnede. Istyat chamast vese od teiterkatnen, kinen a umok topodst kemgavksovo et dykie se tundostont vasentseks tsvetyazevs kuraksh alo lily of the valley tsetsinex. But buti sede kuvat veran chamas, son alamon-alamon liakstomi, teevi lovtanyaks dy valdomgady, prok zoryava chilisema enksos, zyardo vir ekshste or paksya chiren tombalde appeared chint syrezhditsa kirkseze, dy sedeyak pek maneigady, nalksezevi vese valdosonzo, zardo misoldomadont panjovit peenze. But sekhte remember sonze gray selmenze, konat langozot vanomsto vasnya nejavit stalen kondyamoks, maile alamon-alamon yala senshkadyt, tustomgadyt dy mik chopolgadyt, teevit potmaxtomox. Vanovtonzo koryas ovse a charkodevi ezhozo dy meleze - paro aunt arsi or beryan. But varshtavksozo zardoyak a stuvtovi" (“Vera was dressed in a light summer dress, tailored to her height and emphasizing her slender figure. At first glance, her face cannot be considered very beautiful. Most young girls who have recently turned eighteen have such faces , and they bloomed for the first time, like forest lilies of the valley. But if you look closely at Vera’s face, it gradually changes, pales and brightens, like the morning dawn, when the first rays of sun appear from behind the forest or from the side of the field, and becomes even more beautiful when you smile. Most of all, you remember her gray eyes, which at first glance seem steely, then gradually darken and become bottomless. From her gaze it is impossible to understand her mood and thoughts - whether she wishes you well or not."

After reading this passage, the reader feels that the author’s sympathies are on the side of the heroine.

Interior- an image of a closed space, a person’s habitat, which he organizes in his own image, in other words, is a description of the environment in which the heroes live and act.

The description of the interior or the material world has been included in Russian literature since the time of A. Pushkin (“Eugene Onegin” - description of the hero’s office). The interior usually serves additional means characteristics of the characters in the work. However, in some works it becomes the dominant artistic means, for example, in “The Tale of How Ivan Ivanovich Quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich” by N.V. Gogol: " Wonderful person Ivan Ivanovich! He loves melons very much. This is his favorite food. As soon as he has dined and goes out under the canopy in his shirt, he now orders Gapka to bring two melons. And he will cut it himself, collect the seeds in a special piece of paper and start eating. Then he orders Gapka to bring an inkwell and, with his own hand, makes an inscription over a piece of paper with seeds: “This melon was eaten on such and such a date.” If there was any guest, then “so-and-so took part.”

The late judge of Mirgorod always admired Ivan Ivanovich’s house. Yes, the house is very nice. I like that there are canopies and canopies attached to it on all sides, so that if you look at it from a distance, you can see only the roofs, planted one on top of the other, which is very similar to a plate filled with pancakes, or even better, like sponges growing on tree. However, the roofs are all covered with an outline; a willow, an oak and two apple trees leaned on them with their spreading branches. Small windows with carved, whitewashed shutters flicker between the trees and even run out onto the street.” From the above passage it is clear that with the help of the interior, the material world, in Gogolian style, the Mirgorod landowners are sarcastically ridiculed.

Let’s give an example from Mordovian literature, a description of the room in which V. Kolomasov’s character Lavginov lives after divorcing his wife: “And ush tone varshtavlitka, kadamo sonze ney kudos. Arsyan, natoi ton skalon kardos sede vanks. Koshtos sonze kudosont istya kols, mik oymet a targavi. Kiyaksos – raujo fashion. Kov ilya varshta – mazyn kis povodevst shanzhavon kodavkst. And the ears are karvotne! To mourn - mezeyak and maryat, prok meksh vele owl kudonten. Stenasont, koso ney sonze atsaz tarkineze, lazkstne peshkset kendyaldo, potolokont ezga pixit cockroach” (You should see what his house is like now. I think your cow yard is cleaner. The air in the house has become so bad that it’s impossible to breathe. The floor is black earth. Everywhere you look, there are cobwebs hanging everywhere for beauty. And the flies are buzzing - you can’t hear anything, as if a swarm of bees has flown into the house. In the wall, near which his bed is now, the cracks are full of bugs, cockroaches are crawling on the ceiling). This kind of interior helps the reader better understand the lazy character of the depicted hero.

Sometimes the interior also performs a psychological function. This is how L. Tolstoy describes the interior of the prison office where Nekhlyudov came after meeting Katyusha Maslova in court: “The office consisted of two rooms. In the first room, with a large protruding, shabby stove and two dirty windows, there stood in one corner a black measuring stick for measuring the height of prisoners; in the other corner hung - a common feature of all places of torture, as if in mockery of his teaching - a large image of Christ. In this first room there were several guards. In another room, twenty men and women were sitting along the walls in separate groups or pairs and talking quietly. There was a desk by the window.” Such descriptions help to reveal state of mind heroes.

Lyrical digressions– the author’s emotional reflections on the events depicted. There are many lyrical digressions in “Don Juan” by D.G. Byron; “Eugene Onegin” A.S. Pushkin, “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol; in “The Apple Tree by the High Road” by A.D. Kutorkina:

Some kind of lyrical digressions are also found in dramatic works, in particular, in the plays of B. Brecht there are a lot of songs (zongs) that interrupt the depicted action.

Dialogues and monologues- these are meaningful statements, as if emphasizing, demonstrating their “authorship”. Dialogue is invariably associated with mutual, two-way communication, in which the speaker takes into account the immediate reaction of the listener, while activity and passivity pass from one participant in communication to another. Dialogue is characterized by alternation short statements two or more persons. Monologue is the uninterrupted speech of one person. There are monologues "secluded", in the case where the speaker has no direct contact with anyone, and "converted"", designed to actively influence listeners.

Introductory episodes Literary scholars sometimes call them insert stories. These are the tale of Cupid and Psyche in Apuleius’s novel “Metamorphoses” (“The Golden Ass”), the story of Captain Kopeikin in “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol.

In conclusion, it should be noted that any work of art has its own composition, a special structure. Depending on the goals and objectives that he has set for himself, the writer chooses certain elements of the composition. At the same time, all the elements of composition listed above cannot be present even in large epic works. Rarely found in fiction components such as foreshadowing, artistic framing, introductory episodes.

CONTROL QUESTIONS:

1. Which of the above definitions of composition is closer to you and why?

2. What terminology denoting the construction of a work can be used in the process of analyzing a work?

3. What are the main elements of the composition of a literary work?

4. Which elements of the composition are less common than others in Mordovian literature?

Conventionally, two types of composition can be distinguished: simple and complex. In the first case, the role of composition is reduced to combining the substantive elements of the work into a single whole without highlighting particularly important ones. key scenes, subject details, artistic images. In the field of plot, this is a direct chronological sequence of events, one and the use of a traditional compositional scheme: exposition, plot, development of action, climax, denouement. However, this type practically does not occur, but is only a compositional “formula”, which the authors fill with rich content, moving on to a complex composition. The ring one belongs to the complex type. The purpose of this type of composition is to embody a special artistic meaning, using an unusual order and combination of elements, parts of the work, supporting details, symbols, images, and means of expression. In this case, the concept of composition approaches the concept of structure, it becomes the stylistic dominant of the work and determines it artistic originality. The ring composition is based on the principle of framing, the repetition at the end of the work of any elements of its beginning. Depending on the type of repetition at the end of a line, stanza, or work as a whole, the sound, lexical, syntactic, and semantic ring is determined. The sound ring is characterized by the repetition of individual sounds at the end of a poetic line or stanza and is a type of sound writing technique. “Don’t sing, beauty, in front of me...” (A.S. Pushkin) The lexical ring is at the end of a poetic line or stanza. “I will give you a shawl from Khorasan / And I will give you a Shiraz carpet.” (S.A. Yesenin) A syntactic ring is a repetition of a phrase or whole at the end of a poetic stanza. “You are my Shagane, Shagane! / Because I’m from the north, or something, / I’m ready to tell you about the field, / About the wavy rye under the moon. / You are my Shagane, Shagane.” (S.A. Yesenin) The semantic ring is found most often in works and prose, helping to highlight the key artistic image, scenes, “closing” the author and reinforcing the impression of the closed circle of life. For example, in the story by I.A. Bunin's "Mr. from San Francisco" again describes the famous "Atlantis" in the finale? a ship returning to America the body of a hero who died of a heart attack, who once went on a cruise on it. The ring composition not only gives the story completeness and harmony in the proportionality of the parts, but also seems to expand the boundaries of the picture created in the work in accordance with the author's intention. Do not confuse ring with mirror, which is also based on the repetition technique. But the main thing in it is not the principle of framing, but the principle of “reflection”, i.e. the beginning and end of the work in contrast. For example, elements of a mirror composition are found in M. Gorky’s play “At the Depths” (Luke’s parable about the righteous woman and the scene of the Actor’s suicide).

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Composition (from Latin compositio - composition, linking, addition) is a connection different parts into a single whole. In our life this term comes up quite often, so in various fields activity value changes slightly.

Instructions

Reasoning. Reasoning is usually based on the same algorithm. First, the author puts forward a thesis. Then he proves it, expresses an opinion for, against, or both, and at the end draws a conclusion. Reasoning requires a mandatory logical development of thought, always moving from thesis to and from argument to conclusion. Otherwise the reasoning simply doesn't work. This type speeches often used in artistic and journalistic styles speeches.

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The parable has attracted people's attention since ancient times. Small stories, which kept wisdom, were passed on from generation to generation. While maintaining clarity of presentation, the parables invited people to think about in true sense life.

Instructions

The parable in its main features is very similar to. The terms “” and “fable” were used based not so much on genre differences, but on the stylistic significance of these words. A parable is of a higher “level” than a fable, which often has a too ordinary and mundane meaning.

Parables, like fables, were allegorical in nature. They emphasized the moral and religious direction. At the same time, the nature and characters of people were given generalized and schematic features. Parables are literary works for which the name “fable” simply did not fit. In addition, fables had a complete plot, which the parable often lacked.

In Russian, the term “parable” is most commonly used to biblical stories. In the 10th century BC BC, according to the Bible, the king of the Israeli kingdom of Judah, Solomon, gave birth to the parables that are included in the Old Testament. At their core, they are sayings of a moral and religious nature. Later, parables appeared in the form of stories with deep meaning and moral sayings for a clearer understanding of the essence. Such works include the parables included in the Gospel, as well as numerous other works of this genre, written over several centuries.

The parable is interesting cautionary tale. She has one feature that attracts the reader’s attention and characterizes her very accurately. The truth in it never “lies on the surface.” It opens in the desired angle, because... People are all different and at different stages of development. The meaning of the parable is understood not only by the mind, but also by the feelings, by the whole being.

At the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries. The parable more than once adorned the works of writers of that time. Her style features allowed not only to diversify the descriptive literary prose, depiction of the characters of the heroes of the works and plot dynamics, but also to attract the reader’s attention to the moral and ethical content of the works. L. Tolstoy turned to the parable more than once. With its help, Kafka, Marcel, Sartre, Camus expressed their philosophical and moral beliefs. The parable genre still arouses undoubted interest among both readers and modern writers.

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In a phrase, one word is the main word, and the second is dependent. The connection in a phrase is always subordinate. Words are related in meaning and syntactically. Any independent part of speech can be either a main or a dependent word.

Independent parts of speech in Russian are nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals, verbs, gerunds and adverbs. The remaining parts of speech - prepositions, conjunctions, particles - are auxiliary.

From the main word you can ask a question to the dependent: “how to fly? - high"; “What mountain? – high"; “Circle where? - in the sky".

If you change the form of the main word in a phrase, for example, case, gender or number of nouns, this can affect the dependent word.

Three types of syntactic connections in phrases

In total, there are three types of syntactic connections in phrases: agreement, control and adjacency.

When the dependent word changes along with the main word in gender, case and number, we're talking about about approval. The connection is called “coordination” because the parts of speech in it are completely consistent. This is typical for combinations of a noun with an adjective, an ordinal number, a participle, and some: “big house,” “first day,” “laughing man,” “what a century,” and so on. At the same time, it is a noun.

If the dependent word does not agree with the main word according to the above criteria, then we are talking about either control or adjacency.

When the case of the dependent word is determined by the main word, it is control. However, if you change the form of the main word, the dependent word will not change. This type of connection is often found in combinations of verbs and nouns, where the main word is the verb: “stop”, “leave the house”, “break a leg”.

When words are connected only by meaning, and the main word does not in any way affect the form of the dependent word, we are talking about adjacency. This is how adverbs and verbs are often combined with adverbs, while dependent words– adverbs. For example: “speak quietly”, “terribly stupid”.

Syntactic connections in sentences

Typically, when it comes to syntactic relationships, you are dealing with phrases. But sometimes you need to determine the syntactic relationship in . Then you will need to choose between composing (also called a "coordinating connection") or subordinating ("subordinating connection").

In a coordinating connection, sentences are independent of each other. If we put a dot between these, then general meaning it won't change. Such sentences are usually separated by conjunctions “and”, “a”, “but”.

IN subordinating connection It is impossible to split a sentence into two independent ones, since the meaning of the text will suffer. The subordinate clause is preceded by the conjunctions “that”, “what”, “when”, “how”, “where”, “why”, “why”, “how”, “who”, “which”, “which” and others : “When she entered the hall, it had already begun.” But sometimes there is no union: “He didn’t know whether they were telling him the truth or lying.”

The main clause can appear either at the beginning of a complex sentence or at the end of it.

Composition

Composition

COMPOSITION (from the Latin “componere” - to fold, to build) is a term used in art criticism. In music, K. is called the creation of a musical work, hence: composer - author musical works. The concept of composition came into literary criticism from painting and architecture, where it denotes the combination of individual parts of a work into an artistic whole. K. is a branch of literary criticism that studies the construction of a literary work as a whole. Sometimes the term K. is replaced by the term “architectonics”. Each theory of poetry has a corresponding doctrine about K., even if this term is not used.
The dialectical materialist theory of calculus in its developed form does not yet exist. However, the basic provisions of the Marxist science of literature and individual excursions of Marxist literary scholars in the field of studying composition make it possible to outline the correct solution to the problem. K. G. V. Plekhanov wrote: “The form of an object is identical with its appearance only in a certain and, moreover, superficial sense: in the sense of external form . A deeper analysis leads us to an understanding of form as the law of an object, or, better, its structure” (“Letters without an address”).
In its worldview, a social class expresses its understanding of the connections and processes in nature and society. This understanding of connections and processes, becoming the content of a poetic work, determines the principles of arrangement and deployment of material - the law of construction; First of all, one should proceed from the concept of characters and motives and through it move on to the composition of verbal material. Each style expressing the psychoideology of a particular class has its own type K. In different genres of the same style, this type sometimes varies greatly, while at the same time maintaining its basic characteristics.
For more information about K.'s problems, see the articles Style, Poetics, Plot, Versification, Theme, Image.

Literary encyclopedia. - At 11 t.; M.: Publishing House of the Communist Academy, Soviet Encyclopedia, Fiction. Edited by V. M. Fritsche, A. V. Lunacharsky. 1929-1939 .

Composition

(from Latin composito - composition, linking), construction of a work of art, organization, structure of the form of the work. The concept of “composition” is close in meaning to the concept of “structure of a work of art,” but the structure of a work means all its elements in their interrelation, including those related to the content (the plot roles of the characters, the correlation of the heroes with each other, author's position, system of motives, depiction of the movement of time, etc.). You can talk about the ideological or motivic structure of a work, but not about the ideological or motivic composition. In lyrical works, the composition includes the sequence lines And stanzas, the principle of rhyming (rhyme composition, stanza), sound repetitions and repetitions of expressions, lines or stanzas, contrasts ( antitheses) between different verses or stanzas. In dramaturgy, the composition of a work consists of a sequence scenes And acts contained in them replicas And monologues characters and author's explanations ( remarks). In narrative genres, composition is a depiction of events ( plot) and extra-plot elements: descriptions of the setting of the action (landscape - descriptions of nature, interior - description of the decoration of the room); descriptions of the characters’ appearance (portrait), their inner world ( internal monologues, improperly direct speech, generalized reproduction of thoughts, etc.), deviations from the plot narrative, which express the author’s thoughts and feelings about what is happening (the so-called author’s digressions).
The plot is typical of dramatic and narrative genres, also has its own composition. Elements of plot composition: exposition (depiction of the situation in which the conflict arises, presentation of characters); the beginning (the origin of the conflict, the starting point of the plot), the development of the action, the climax (the moment of the highest aggravation of the conflict, the plot peak) and the denouement (the exhaustion of the conflict, the “end” of the plot). Some works also have an epilogue (a story about the subsequent fate of the heroes). Certain elements of the plot composition may be repeated. So, in the novel by A.S. Pushkin « Captain's daughter" three climax of the episode(take Belogorsk fortress, Grinev at Pugachev’s headquarters in Berdskaya Sloboda, Masha Mironova’s meeting with Catherine II), and in the comedy N.V. Gogol"The Inspector General" has three endings (a false ending - Khlestakov's engagement to the mayor's daughter, the second ending - the arrival of the postmaster with the news of who Khlestakov really is, the third ending - the arrival of the gendarme with the news of the arrival of the true auditor).
The composition of the work also includes the structure of the narrative: changing narrators, changing narrative points of view.
There are certain repeating types of composition: ring composition (repetition of the initial fragment at the end of the text); concentric composition (plot spiral, repetition of similar events as the action progresses), mirror symmetry (repetition, in which for the first time one character performs a certain action in relation to another, and then he performs the same action in relation to the first character). An example of mirror symmetry is the novel in verse by A. S. Pushkin “Eugene Onegin”: first Tatyana Larina sends a letter to Onegin with a declaration of love, and he rejects her; Then Onegin, having fallen in love with Tatyana, writes to her, but she rejects him.

Literature and language. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Edited by prof. Gorkina A.P. 2006 .

Composition

COMPOSITION. The composition of a work in the broad sense of the word should be understood as a set of techniques used by the author to “arrange” his work, techniques that create the overall design of this latter, the order of its individual parts, transitions between them, etc. The essence of compositional techniques is thus reduced to the creation of some complex unity, a complex whole, and their meaning is determined by the role they play against the background of this whole in the subordination of its parts. Being, therefore, one of the most important moments embodiment of poetic intent, composition of this work is determined by this plan, but it differs from other of these moments by the immediacy of its connection with the general spiritual mood of the poet. Indeed, if, for example, the poet’s metaphors (see this word) reveal the holistic image in which the world confronts him, if the rhythm (see this word) reveals the “natural melodiousness” of the poet’s soul, then it is the nature of the arrangement of metaphors that determines their significance in recreating the image of the whole, and compositional features rhythmic units - their very sound (see “Enjambement” and “Stanza”). A striking proof of the noted fact that well-known compositional techniques are directly determined by the poet’s general spiritual mood can, for example, be Gogol’s frequent lyrical digressions, which undoubtedly reflect his preaching and teaching aspirations or the compositional moves of Victor Hugo, as noted by Emile Fage. Thus, one of Hugo’s favorite moves is the gradual development of mood, or, to put it musical terms, as if a gradual transition from pianissimo to piano, etc. As Fage quite correctly emphasizes, such a move in itself speaks for the fact that Hugo’s genius is a “florid” genius, and such a conclusion is really justified general idea about Hugo (the purely oratorical in the sense of emotionality, the effectiveness of this move is clearly manifested when Hugo omits some member of the gradation and abruptly moves from one level to another). Also interesting from this point of view is another technique of Hugo’s composition noted by Fage - to develop his thought in a way that is widespread in everyday life, namely, to pile up repetitions instead of proofs. Such repetition, leading to an abundance of " common places” and itself being one of the forms of the latter, undoubtedly indicates, as Fage notes, the limitations of Hugo’s “ideas”, and at the same time again confirms the “floridity” (the bias of influence on the will of the reader) of his genius. Already from the examples given, which show that compositional techniques are generally determined by the poet’s general spiritual mood, it simultaneously follows that certain special tasks require certain techniques. Of the main types of composition, along with the named oratorical, we can name narrative, descriptive, explanatory composition (see, for example, “A guide to the English language”, edited by H. C. O. Neill, London, 1915) Of course, individual techniques in each of these species are determined both by the poet’s holistic “I” and by the specificity of a separate plan (see, “Strophe” - about the construction of Pushkin’s “I remember wonderful moment"), but we can outline some general sticky, characteristic of each of the compositional types. Thus, the narrative can develop in one direction and events follow in a natural chronological order, or, conversely, the time sequence may not be observed in the story, and events develop in different directions, arranged according to the degree of increase in action. Also found (in Gogol), for example, compositional technique narrative, consisting of a branch from the general narrative flow of individual streams that do not merge with each other, but flow into the general flow at certain intervals. Among the characteristic techniques of descriptive compositions, one can, for example, indicate the composition of the description based on the principle of a general impression, or the reverse, when one proceeds from a clear fixation of individual particulars. Gogol, for example, often uses a combination of these techniques in his portraits. Having illuminated some image with hyperbolic light (see Hyperbole) in order to sharply outline it as a whole, Gogol then writes out individual particulars, sometimes completely insignificant, but acquiring special significance against the background of the hyperbole, which deepens the usual perspective. As for the fourth of the named types of composition - explanatory, then first of all it is necessary to stipulate the conventions of this term when applied to poetic works. Having a very definite meaning as a method of embodying thoughts in general (this can include, for example, the method of classification, illustration, etc.), an explanatory composition in a work of art can manifest itself in the parallelism of the arrangement of individual moments (see, for example, the parallel arrangement of Ivan’s characteristics Ivanovich and Ivan Nikiforovich in Gogol’s story) or, conversely, in their contrasting opposition (for example, by delaying the action through the description of the characters), etc. If we approach works of art from the point of view of their traditional belonging to epic, lyrical and dramatic, then and here one can detect the specific features of each group, as well as within their smaller divisions (composition of a novel, poem, etc.). In Russian literature, something has been done in this regard only at the very beginning. Lately. See, for example, the collections “Poetics”, books - Zhirmunsky - “Composition of Lyric Poems”, Shklovsky “Tristan Shandy”, “Rozanov”, etc., Eikhenbaum “Young Tolstoy”, etc. It should be said, however, that the approach of the named authors to art only as a set of techniques forces them to move away from the most essential in working on literary text- from establishing the definability of certain techniques by a creative theme. This approach turns these works into a collection of dead materials and raw observations, very valuable, but awaiting their animation (see Reception).

Ya. Zundelovich. Literary Encyclopedia: Dictionary literary terms: In 2 volumes / Edited by N. Brodsky, A. Lavretsky, E. Lunin, V. Lvov-Rogachevsky, M. Rozanov, V. Cheshikhin-Vetrinsky. - M.; L.: Publishing house L. D. Frenkel, 1925