Types of fine arts. Decorative and applied arts. Decorative and applied arts Decorative and applied arts decoration

DECORATIVE AND APPLIED ARTS, a type of art, the creation of products that combine artistic and utilitarian functions. Works of decorative and applied art are related to the everyday needs of people and form an integral part of the human environment. The basis and source of decorative and applied art is folk art. The sphere of decorative and applied arts includes products of traditional arts and crafts, art industry and professional author's art. The term “applied art” arose in the 18th century in England and was applied mainly to the creation of household products (painting dishes, fabrics, finishing weapons). In the 20th century, Russian art history adopted the term “decorative and applied art” as a designation for the section of decorative arts, which also includes theatrical and decorative art and design.

A specific feature of works of decorative and applied art is the inextricable connection between the utilitarian and the artistic, the unity of usefulness and beauty, function and decoration. Utilitarianism allows us to classify works of decorative and applied art according to their practical purpose (tools, furniture, dishes, etc.); the function of an object clearly determines its design. The quality that gives an object of decorative and applied art the status of a work of art is decorativeness. It is realized not only in decorating an object with any particular details (decor), but also in its general compositional and plastic structure. The decor has its own emotional expressiveness, rhythm, proportions; he is able to change shape. The decor can be sculptural-relief, pictorial-painted, graphic-carved (see also Engraving); he uses both ornament (including decorative inscriptions - hieroglyphs, calligraphy, Slavic script, etc., revealing the meaning of the images), and various visual elements and motifs ("world tree", birds and animals, plants, etc.) in accordance with a certain decorative and stylistic system (see also Bucranius, Griffin, Rose, Sphinx). In the plate system of decorative and applied art, there is the possibility of using the so-called pure form as the antithesis of any decor: it can manifest itself in the intrinsic beauty of the material, revealing its structural, plastic, color qualities, harmony of proportions, grace of silhouette and contours.

Vessel. Painted ceramics. 3rd millennium BC. Yangshao (China). Museum of Decorative and Applied Arts (Vienna).

Another fundamental feature of decorative and applied art is syntheticism, which implies the combination of various types of creativity (painting, graphics, sculpture) and different materials in one work. Synthetic in its internal nature, a work of decorative and applied art is often involved in a synthesis of arts, in an ensemble of artistic objects, and may depend on architecture (furniture, decorative sculpture, panels, tapestry, carpet, etc.). As a result of this dependence, decorative and applied art in all eras sensitively and clearly followed changes in styles and changes in fashion.

In decorative and applied arts, the image of a thing is determined by the connection between its aesthetic form and functional purpose. On the one hand, there is the concept of the utilitarian and non-representational nature of decorative and applied art as “making things”: a purely practical task does not imply the creation of a full-fledged image (for example, the goal of pottery or basket weaving is not the image of things, but the creation of the thing itself). However, other examples (anthropomorphic ceramics, etc.), which carry a mimetic principle, allow us to speak about imagery as the primary task of creativity in the decorative and applied arts, manifested primarily in associations and analogies (the shape of an object may resemble a flower bud, a drop, a figure of a person or animal, sea ​​wave and so on.). The dualism of aesthetic and functional tasks determines the figurative specificity of decorative and applied art (limitation of the specificity of images, the tendency to abandon chiaroscuro and perspective, the use of local colors, flatness of images and silhouettes).

Decorative and applied art as a type of artistic activity is associated with the manual labor of a master, which has become an independent branch of production. Further social division of labor leads to the replacement of handicraft production with machine production (manufactures, factories, factories); functional design and decoration become the work of different specialists. This is how the art industry arises, where methods of “applied art” find their place - decorating products with painting, carving, inlay, embossing, etc.

The question of the relationship between manual and machine labor in the production of objects of decorative and applied art was especially acute in the 2nd half of the 19th century, in the context of the problem of “depersonalization” (in the words of W. Morris) of the production of artistic crafts and theories of limited application popular in this era machines as a prerequisite for the revival of national traditions. Contrasting folk handicrafts and mass production, Morris at the same time suggests ways of their synthesis, allowing to create new type arts and crafts. Design, which became a new type of artistic activity in the field of industrial (mass) production in the mid-19th century, limited decorative and applied arts primarily to the creation of small-run series of handmade products (see also Industrial Arts).

Typology. Each field of arts and crafts has a wide variety of forms; their evolution is directly related to the development of technology, the discovery of new materials, the change in aesthetic ideas and fashion. Works of decorative and applied art vary in functionality, form and material.

One of the oldest types of decorative and applied art is tableware. Its forms varied depending on the material (wooden, metal, clay, porcelain, ceramic, glass, plastic) and purpose (ritual, household, dining, decorative; see also Artistic vessels). Decorative and applied art also includes: religious accessories (banners, frames, lamps - in Christianity; Muslim vessels for ablution, prayer rugs “namazlyk”, etc.; Jewish seven-branched menorahs; Buddhist lotus thrones and temple incense burners); interior items (furniture, lighting fixtures, vases, mirrors, writing instruments, boxes, fans, snuff boxes, tiles, etc.); household craft utensils (spinning wheels, rollers, ruffles, rubles, spindles, etc.); glyptic works; Jewelry Art; means of transportation (carts, chariots, carriages, sleighs, etc.); weapon; textiles (see also Batik, Embroidery, Lace, Printed fabric, Weaving; textiles also include carpets, tapestries, tapestries, kilims, felts, etc.); clothes; partly - small plastic (primarily a toy).

The materials used in decorative and applied arts products are just as diverse. The oldest are stone, wood, and bone. Hardwoods were used for the construction of homes, for the manufacture of furniture, household products [pine, oak, walnut (in Renaissance art), Karelian birch (in the era of Russian classicism and Empire style), maple (especially in the Art Nouveau era), mahogany, pear] ; soft varieties (for example, linden) - for making dishes and spoons. Since the 17th century, imported exotic types of wood began to be used in Europe.

Clay processing techniques such as freehand modeling and molding were decisive in the creation of clay products in the initial stages. In the 3rd millennium BC, a potter's wheel appeared, allowing the production of thin-walled dishes.

Ceramics (fired clay) includes terracotta (plain and lacquered), majolica, semi-faience, earthenware, opaque, porcelain, bisque, the so-called stone mass. The main methods of decorating ceramics are molding, polishing, polishing, color painting, engraving, glazing, etc.

Fabrics have been widely used since the Neolithic era. Outstanding examples of decorative and applied art are ancient Egyptian multi-color linen fabrics, Coptic ones using the batik printing technique; Chinese silk fabrics, Indian muslins, Venetian damask.

Masters of decorative and applied arts often used precious, semi-precious and colored ornamental stones: diamonds, rubies, emeralds, sapphires, jade, lapis lazuli and carnelian, malachite, jasper, etc. (amber also belongs to ornamental materials). Among the various types of processing, cabochons (rounded stones) dominated for a long time, then faceted stones appeared. There are complex techniques - the so-called Florentine mosaic (images made of marble and semi-precious stones), Russian mosaic (pasting the round surface of vases with plates of colored stones), etc.

Casket with a depiction of a crucifix and angels. Wood, silver, enamel. 1st quarter of the 13th century. Limoges (France). Hermitage (St. Petersburg).

Among the metals there are precious (gold, silver, platinum), non-ferrous (copper, tin), alloys (bronze, electric, pewter), as well as steel, cast iron and aluminum. Along with noble metals in almost all ancient civilizations they processed copper, bronze, and later iron. Gold and silver were initially the main metals in decorative and applied arts, and their shortage was compensated for by various techniques (electroplating and gilding; from the mid-19th century - electroplating). The main metal processing techniques are niello, granulation, embossing, shotting, artistic casting, artistic forging, basma (a type of jewelry technique that imitates embossing), embossing.

A special technique and at the same time material is enamel, the oldest examples of which are found in China. Enamel, as a rule, was used as a component of complex works of decorative and applied art (for example, the technique of covering engraved images on metal with multi-colored transparent enamel or decorative painting with enamel paints).

Setting of the so-called Gospel from Lorsch. Ivory. 9th century Aachen. Victoria and Albert Museum (London).

Glass, according to its technological parameters, is divided into transparent and opaque, colorless and colored, etc. There are also different original forms from hand-cut glass, blown glass (“winged” Venetian glasses), from cut English crystal, from pressed glass (appeared in 1820 in the USA), colored laminated or milk glass, filigree, engraved, carved, ground or tint glass. Glass processing techniques include inter-glass gilding, painting, millefiori, artistic etching, and iridescence.

The birthplace of artistic varnishes is the Ancient East. In Europe they have been known since the 16th century; in the 17th century, Dutch craftsmen began to paint wooden boxes with gilded ornaments on a black background. Later, the production of painted varnishes arose in many countries. Products made from papier-mâché coated with varnish appeared in Europe in the 18th century, and they reached their peak of popularity in the 19th century, especially in England, Germany and Russia. In the 20th century, Russia became the main center of lacquer art (Fedoskino, Palekh, Kholui and Mstera).

Using turtle shell and Ivory began from ancient times; then their use was revived in European art in the Middle Ages and, especially, at the end of the 18th century (English and French snuff boxes and teapots, Kholmogory bone carving). Mother of pearl came into fashion in the 1st half of the 19th century for decorating papier-mâché and varnish products, and finishing cutlery.

Historical sketch. The first artistically processed objects appeared in the Paleolithic era. During the Neolithic period, ceramic products became widespread. Various cultures create vases with masterly graphic artistic designs, expressive sacred-mythological plots, painted ceramics with ornamental and other motifs (for example, Chinese vessels of the Neolithic era, 5-3rd millennium BC; ceramics from Susa, 4th millennium BC; Trypillian ceramics, late 3rd millennium BC).

Ancient eastern civilizations in the development of decorative and applied arts they reached the same high level as in the field of architecture and sculpture (artistic processing of stone, metal, wood, jewelry, ivory carving, etc.). Jewelers of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia mastered various subtle techniques for processing precious metals. Ancient Eastern art produced unsurpassed examples of polychrome glazed ceramics; in Egypt, earthenware products (silica-based) were produced - architectural details, sculpture, necklaces, bowls and goblets. The Egyptians (along with the Phoenicians) also made objects from glass (around the 3rd millennium BC); The heyday of glass workshops, as well as other crafts, occurred in the New Kingdom (various forms of vessels made of blue or polychrome glass, etc.). Egyptian furniture was made from local ebony (black) wood and imported species (cedar, cypress), decorated with inserts of blue and black faience, covered with gold leaf and inlaid with ivory and painting (some of its forms later greatly influenced the European Empire style). In many regions of China, thin-walled vessels (bowls, vases, jugs and goblets) were discovered, distinguished by their stylistic originality, variety of shapes and bizarre zoomorphic images. India has a highly developed urban civilization Bronze Age left expressive household items, painted pottery, and textiles discovered during excavations in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. In Western Iran, in Luristan, a culture represented by the Luristan bronzes developed.

The originality of decorative and applied art of the Aegean world (see Aegean culture) influenced the art of other countries (Egypt of the New Kingdom, the Middle East) - jewelry, chased cups and bowls, rhytons. The leading type of artistic craft is ceramics (polychrome with stylized patterns, plant motifs, with images of sea animals and fish). Among the highest achievements in the history of decorative and applied art is ancient Greek ceramics - first of all, red- and black-figure vessels coated with varnish, where the form is organically connected with the plot painting and ornament, has clear tectonics, a rich rhythm of lines and proportions (see Vase painting). Ceramics and jewelry made in Greece were exported to many countries around the world, resulting in a wide expansion of Greek artistic traditions. In the decorative and applied arts of the nomadic tribes of Asia and Europe, the Thracians, Celts, and some Finno-Ugric tribes, different forms of animal style developed; in the middle of the 1st millennium AD, its peculiar form appeared among the Germans; the traditions of the animal style were preserved in medieval art.

The Etruscans, being under strong Greek influence, were able to create an equally distinctive culture with their bucchero ceramics, painted terracotta, and jewelry. Their craving for demonstrative luxury embodied in objects of decorative and applied art was passed on to their successors - the ancient Romans. They borrowed relief ceramics and fabric decoration from the Etruscans, and forms and ornaments from the Greeks. In Roman decor there is a lot of excessive, devoid of Greek taste: lush garlands, bucranias, griffins, winged cupids. During the imperial era, vases made of semiprecious stones (agate, sardonyx, porphyry) became fashionable. The highest achievement of Roman decorative and applied art was the invention of glass blowing techniques (1st century BC), the production of transparent, mosaic, engraved, two-layer, imitating cameo, and gilded glass. Among the metal products are silver vessels (for example, a treasure from Hildesheim), bronze lamps (found during excavations in the city of Pompeii).

The stability of traditions distinguishes the Far Eastern and Indian cultures as a whole, where they were preserved in the medieval era characteristic species and arts and crafts forms (ceramics and varnishes in Japan, wood, metal and textiles in India, batik in Indonesia). China is characterized by stable images and traditions of stone-cutting, pottery and jewelry, a variety of materials: silk, paper, bronze, jade, ceramics (primarily the invention of porcelain), etc.

In ancient (pre-Columbian) America there were several civilizations (Olmecs, Totonacs, Mayans, Aztecs, Zapotecs, Incas, Chimu, Mochica, etc.) that had a high material culture. The main crafts were pottery, artistic stone processing, including semi-precious rocks, using the original technique of turquoise mosaic on wood, textiles, and jewelry. Ceramics are among the best achievements of ancient American art, unlike others that did not know the potter's wheel (Zapotec funeral urns, Toltec vases, Mixtec polychrome vases, vessels with engraved Mayan ornaments, etc.).

A characteristic feature of the medieval art of the countries of the Middle East, North Africa (Maghreb) and regions of Europe inhabited by Arabs is a craving for color, for valuable decoration, geometric patterns (with plant motifs stylized to the point of abstraction, see Arabesque); The fine tradition was also preserved in the decorative and applied arts of Iran. The main types of decorative and applied arts in Muslim countries were ceramics, weaving, and the production of weapons and luxury goods. Ceramics (mainly ornamental, covered with luster or polychrome painting on a white and colored background) were produced in Iraq (Samarra), Iran (Susa, Ray), medieval Egypt (Fustat), Syria (Raqqa), Central Asia (Samarkand, Bukhara). Hispano-Moorish ceramics (Valencia faience) had a great influence on European decorative arts of the 15th and 16th centuries. Blue-and-white Chinese porcelain influenced the ceramics of the Golden Horde, Iran, etc. In the 16th century, Turkish polychrome faience from Iznik flourished. Muslim culture also left many examples of artistic glass, metal (decorated with engraving, chasing, enamel), and weapons. The Islamic world has traditionally used carpets rather than furniture; they were produced in many countries (in the Caucasus, India, Egypt, Turkey, Morocco, Spain, Central Asia); The leading place in carpet weaving belongs to Iran. In Egypt they produced multi-colored woolen trellis fabrics, linen fabrics, and printed material; in Syria, in Spain during the Cordoba Caliphate and Arab masters in Sicily - silk, brocade; in Turkey (in Bursa) - velvet; in Iran (in Baghdad) - silk draperies; in Damascus - so-called damask fabrics.

Byzantium became the heir to many artistic crafts of antiquity: glassmaking, mosaic art, bone carving, etc., and also masterfully mastered new ones - the technique of cloisonne enamel, etc. Here, religious objects and (under the influence of Eastern cultures) luxury goods became widespread; Accordingly, the style of Byzantine decorative and applied art was refined, decorative and lush at the same time. The influence of this culture extended to the states of Europe (including Ancient Rus'), also Transcaucasia and the Middle East (in Russia, reminiscences of this influence persisted until the Russian-Byzantine style of the 19th century).

In Europe, new forms of decorative and applied art developed during the Carolingian Renaissance under the influence of Byzantium and the countries of the Arab world. In the culture of the Romanesque era, monasteries and city guild corporations played an important role: stone and wood carving, the manufacture of metal products, forged doors and household utensils were practiced. In Italy, where the traditions of late antiquity continued to be preserved, bone and stone carving, the art of mosaics and glyptics, and jewelry developed; In all these areas, masters have achieved the highest perfection. Gothic inherited many of the crafts characteristic of that era; peculiarities gothic style clearly manifested in products made of ivory and silver, in enamels, tapestries and furniture [including wedding chests (in Italy - cassone, decorated with carvings and paintings)].

IN Ancient Rus' special achievements belonged to jewelry, wood and stone carving. Typical types of Russian furniture were caskets, tower tables, cabinets, chests, and tables. The authors of pictorial compositions in the form of a “grass pattern” were icon painters, “banner-bearers”; they also painted chests, tables, boards for gingerbread cakes, chess, gilded rattles, etc.; decorative “carving” of the 17th century was called “Fryazhsky herbs”. Utensils, dishes, tiles, religious objects were produced in the workshops of Kyiv, Novgorod, Ryazan, Moscow (Patriarchal workshops, the Silver Chamber, from the 2nd half of the 17th century - the Armory Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin), Yaroslavl, Kostroma, also in Kirillo-Belozersky, Spaso -Prilutsky, Sergiev Posad monasteries. From the 2nd half of the 17th century, the rapid development of folk crafts began in Russian decorative and applied arts (tile production, wood carving and painting, lace making and weaving, silversmithing and pottery).

During the Renaissance, artistic craft acquired a fundamentally authorial and predominantly secular character. New types of decorative and applied art are appearing, genres and techniques forgotten since ancient times are being revived. The most significant changes occur in the production of furniture (cabinets with a folding front board, a chest-bench with a back and armrests, etc.); The decoration uses a classic order and a characteristic ornament - grotesques. Silk weaving of Genoa, Florence and Milan, Venetian glass, Italian majolica, glyptics, jewelry art (B. Cellini), artistic metalworking [“lobed style” in Dutch and German silver (the Yamnitzer family)], enamels, glass and French flourished. ceramics (produced by Saint-Porcher; master B. Palissy).

Decorative and applied art of the Baroque era is characterized by a special pomp and dynamics of compositions, an organic connection between all elements and details (dishes and furniture), preference is given to voluminous, large forms. In the production of furniture (cabinets, cabinets, chests of drawers, sideboards, etc.) polished wood, gilded bronze fittings and Florentine mosaics, inlay (applied bronze, marquetry using ebony, metal, mother-of-pearl, tortoiseshell, etc.) were used. - in the products of the workshop of A. Sh. Bulya). The tapestry manufactories of Europe were influenced by Flemish carpet art (Brussels manufactories); Genoa and Venice were famous for woolen fabrics and printed velvet. Delft faience arose in imitation of Chinese. In France, the production of soft porcelain, faience (Rouen, Moustiers) and ceramics (Nevers), textiles (manufactories in Lyon), the production of mirrors, and tapestries are developing.

In the Rococo era (18th century), fragile and sophisticated asymmetrical lines predominated in the shapes and decorations of objects. In England they produce silver dishes (P. Lameri), candelabra, etc. In Germany, lush rocaille forms are found among metal products (I. M. Dinglinger). New forms of furniture are emerging - bureaus (desk-bureau, bureau-plate and bureau-cylinder), various types of tables, a soft upholstered bergere chair with a closed back, a dressing table made of 2 parts; Painted panels, marquetry, and inlay are used for decoration. New types of fabrics (moire and chenille) appear. In England, T. Chippendale made furniture in the Rococo style (chairs, tables and bookcases), using Gothic and Chinoiserie motifs. At the beginning of the 18th century, the first European porcelain manufactory was opened in Meissen (Saxony) (sculptor I. Kändler). The Chinoiserie style penetrates both European porcelain (Meissen, Chantilly, Chelsea, Derby, etc.), and Russian (Imperial Porcelain Factory near St. Petersburg), as well as textiles, glass and furniture ((French lacquers of the Martin brothers). In the 1670s, lead glass with a new composition (the so-called English crystal) appeared in England; the technique for its production spread widely in the Czech Republic, Germany, and France.

The decorative and applied arts of the Classical era of the 2nd half of the 18th century, and later the Empire style, were influenced by archaeological excavations in the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii (see Pompeian style). The style created by the Adam brothers (England), which affirmed the unity of external decor and interior decoration, breathed new life into decorative and applied art, in particular into furniture (works by J. Hepwhite, T. Sheraton, T. Hope, brothers Jacob, J. A . Risiner), plastic jewelry (French gilded bronze by P. F. Tomir), artistic silver (cups and dishes by P. Storr), carpets and fabrics, jewelry. Simplicity and clarity are distinguished by glass decanters from the Cork Glass Company, Baccarat vases, and crystal cascade chandeliers. In porcelain, by the end of the 18th century, Meissen gave way to the status of the main European porcelain manufacturer to French Sèvres porcelain; outstanding examples began to be created at factories in Vienna, St. Petersburg and Berlin. In England, J. Wedgwood's Etruria factory appeared, producing ceramics in imitation of antique cameos and vases. In Russia, many major architects were involved in the creation of works of decorative and applied art (A. N. Voronikhin and K. I. Rossi designed furniture and vases, M. F. Kazakov and N. A. Lvov - chandeliers).

During the Biedermeier era, works of decorative and applied art reflected the desire for comfortable life, which led to the appearance of comfortable, simple furniture with round, unsophisticated shapes made from local types of wood (walnut, cherry, birch), elegant glass cut jugs and glasses with elegant paintings (works by A. Kotgasser and others). The period of eclecticism (mid-19th century) manifested itself in the stylistic diversity of used historical styles, also in unifying approaches and artistic techniques. The inspiration for Neo-Rococo was the decoration of 18th century art; in Russia it appeared in the porcelain products of the A.G. Popov factory with its polychrome floral painting on a colored background. The revival of Gothic (neo-Gothic) was determined by the desire of artists to introduce a romantically sublime style into decorative and applied art and only indirectly reproduced truly Gothic motifs; elements of ornament were borrowed rather than forms of Gothic art (Bohemian glass by D. Beeman, works in porcelain and glass for the palace of Nicholas I “Cottage” in Peterhof). The Victorian style in England was reflected in the creation of heavy furniture and the wide distribution of its “small forms” (bookcases, umbrella holders, gaming tables, etc.). Unglazed porcelain imitating marble has become popular again. New types and techniques have appeared in glass (primarily Bohemian) - multi-layer colored “flash” glass, opaque cameo glass and black (hyalite) glass, imitating lithialyl gemstones. Since the mid-1840s, a new direction appeared in France at the glass factories of Baccarat, Saint-Louis and Clichy, and later in England, Bohemia and the USA (the creation of millefiere paperweights, etc.). The fusion of elements of various styles determined the development of furniture and the emergence of new industrial technologies and materials: forms made of laminated and bent wood (M. Thonet), papier-mâché, carved wood and cast iron.

The protest against eclecticism, initiated in Great Britain by the Arts and Crafts Society, contributed to the formation of the Art Nouveau style at the end of the 19th century; it blurred the boundaries between the decorative, applied and fine arts and took different forms in many countries. Art Nouveau decor is most often likened to ornamental motifs of natural forms; curved lines, wavy contours, asymmetrical designs were widely used (furniture by V. Horta, L. Majorelle, E. Guimard, artistic multi-layer colored glass with floral and landscape motifs by E. Galle, O. Daum, L. Tiffany, jewelry by R. Lalique ). The artists of the Vienna Secession, like the Scot C. R. Mackintosh, on the contrary, used symmetry and restrained rectilinear forms. The works of J. Hofmann, often performed together with G. Klimt (furniture, glass, metal, jewelry), are distinguished by elegance and sophistication. In European porcelain production, the leading place was occupied by works with underglaze painting from the Copenhagen Royal Manufactory. In Russian Art Nouveau, in its national-romantic branch, the neo-Russian style manifested itself - especially in the activities of the Abramtsevo art circle (works by V. M. Vasnetsov, M. A. Vrubel, E. D. Polenova), the Talashkino workshop of Princess M. K. Tenisheva, workshops of the Stroganov School.

The modern history of decorative and applied arts begins not only with the revival of handicrafts (W. Morris and others), but also with the appearance at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries throughout Europe and the USA of a new type creative activity- design and its further active development in the 1920s (Bauhaus, Vkhutemas). Art Deco design became the basis of almost all home interiors, cultivating discreet luxury and comfort (geometric shapes, stylized and simplified ornamentation, exotic veneered furniture with rectilinear shapes, functional tableware and flower vases).

Russian art after 1917 developed on a new ideological and aesthetic basis.

Artists tried to use art to convey the spirit of the era (the so-called propaganda porcelain), to create a comprehensive rational environment for broad sections of the population. Since the late 1950s, in Soviet decorative and applied arts, along with the active development of the art industry (Leningrad porcelain factories, Verbilok, Dulevo porcelain factory, Konakovo faience factory, Leningrad glass factory, Gusev crystal factory, etc.) and folk crafts (Gzhel ceramics , Zhostovo painting, Skopino ceramics, Dymkovo toys, etc.; see Artistic crafts) author’s art has also reached a high level.

The development of decorative and applied arts in the 20th century was determined by the coexistence and interpenetration of traditional and avant-garde principles. The subtle expressive capabilities of new materials, imitation and creative citation have acquired great importance. In the era of postmodernism, a special attitude arises towards the decorative artifact as an autonomous entity, which is demonstratively “not interested” in serving a person and is alienated from him. As a result, this led to a “crisis of self-identification” in the decorative and applied arts, caused by the emergence of competition from related types of art (primarily design). However, this crisis paradoxically opens up new prospects for decorative and applied art in terms of expanding and revising its own figurative specificity, mastering new genres and materials (ceramoplastics, fiberglass, textile plastics, mini-tapestry, mosaics in wooden frames, etc.).

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T. L. Astrakhantseva.

decorative arts, a type of plastic arts, the works of which, along with architecture, artistically shape the material environment surrounding a person and introduce an aesthetic, ideological and figurative beginning into it.

Includes various arts that serve to decorate works of architecture and landscape art (monumental and decorative art), create artistic objects for public and private life (decorative and applied arts), artistically design festivals, spectacles, expositions, etc. (design art).

Arts and crafts

(from Latin decoro - I decorate) - section visual arts, covering creation of artistic products, having a utilitarian and artistic purpose. A collective term that conventionally unites two broad types of arts: decorative and applied. Unlike works of fine art, intended for aesthetic pleasure and belonging to pure art, numerous manifestations decorative applied creativity can have practical use in everyday life.

Works of decorative and applied art form part of the objective environment surrounding a person and aesthetically enrich it.

Works of decorative and applied art meet several requirements: have aesthetic quality; designed for artistic effect; serve for . Such products are: clothing, dress and decorative fabrics, carpets, furniture, art glass, porcelain, earthenware, jewelry and other artistic products. In the scientific literature, since the second half of the 19th century, a classification of branches of decorative and applied art has been established according to material (metal, ceramics, textiles, wood), according to the technique of processing the material (carving, painting, printed material, casting, embossing, intarsia, etc.) and according to the functional characteristics of the use of the item (furniture, dishes, toys). This classification is due to the important role of the design and technological principles in arts and crafts and its direct connection with production.

Having emerged in ancient times, decorative and applied art became one of the most important areas of folk art. Its history is connected with artistic craft, the artistic industry, with the activities of professional artists and folk craftsmen, and, since the beginning of the 20th century, with artistic construction and design.

History of the development of decorative arts

Arts and crafts existed already at an early stage of the development of human society and for many centuries was the most important, and for a number of tribes and nationalities, the main area of ​​artistic creativity. The most ancient works arts and crafts characterized by exceptional content of images, attention to the aesthetics of the material, to rational construction. In traditional folk art, this trend has persisted until the present day.

Man has long sought to decorate his home and everything he encountered in everyday life. When making any thing, the folk craftsman thought not only about its practical purpose, but also about its beauty. From the simplest materials - wood, metal, stone, clay - he created true works of art that conveyed the master’s poetic understanding of the world around him.

Native nature has always been reflected in folk art. Herbs and flowers, familiar to everyone from childhood, images of birds and animals, sky and sun, earth and water, transformed by the artist’s imagination, were transformed into a bright, expressive ornament in the product.

Over time, interest in the wealth of material and... Products that serve the purpose of representation are singled out (objects for religious rituals or court ceremonies, for decorating the houses of the nobility), in which, in order to increase their emotional sound, the everyday expediency of constructing the form is often sacrificed.

Modern products of decorative and applied art are created taking into account both folk traditions and today's fashion trends. Until now, the most popular objects of this art, shrouded in the haze of ancient traditions, are products made of steel and bronze, handmade carpets and decorated with traditional patterns - in eastern countries; ceramics, items made from sea shells - in the south; ritual masks - in Africa; amber products - in the Baltic region; porcelain, cloisonne enamel, fabrics painted with flowers, fruits, fantastic animals - in China and Japan, Korea.

Stylization in arts and crafts

Decorative and applied art has its own language and its own laws. Expressing the idea of ​​beauty with its own specific means, it never strives to blindly copy the world, but conveys only the most characteristic and expressive. The artist creatively reworks forms found in nature, taking into account a specific material, its decorative advantages and technological processing features.

The language of decorative and applied art is distinguished by stylization or, on the contrary, extraordinary precision of forms; identifying and playing with the texture and plastic properties of the material; the use of ornaments, including both motifs of traditional images and avant-garde forms. The compositional construction of decor in objects of decorative and applied art is always based on the harmony of parts and the whole.

Known since ancient times. As a method of artistic creativity, it reached a high level in Assyrian-Babylonian, Persian, ancient Egyptian and ancient Greek ornaments, in which, along with geometric lines and patterns, objects of flora and fauna, both real and fictitious, were often used, stylized with high artistry and taste, and even figures of people. Nowadays, ornamental compositions with elements of stylization are widely used in wall paintings, mosaics, stucco, carved, chased and forged jewelry and products, embroidery, and fabric colors.

Creative stylization in the fine arts is necessarily individual in nature, implying the author's vision and artistic processing of phenomena and objects surrounding reality and, as a result, displaying them with elements of novelty.

Along with creative stylization, there is imitative stylization, which presupposes the presence of a ready-made role model and consists in imitation of the style of a particular era, known artistic movements, styles and techniques of creativity of a particular people, styles famous masters. However, despite the existing model, imitative stylization should not have the nature of direct copying. When imitating a particular style, the creator of a stylized work must strive to introduce his own individuality into it, for example, with a chosen plot, a new vision of color, or a general compositional solution. It is the degree of this artistic novelty that will, as a rule, largely determine the value of a stylized work.

When creating products of decorative and applied art, the most fruitful method is creative stylization. A more successful name for this important artistic method could be not stylization, but interpretation, which more accurately conveys the essence and peculiarity of this creative process: the artist looks at an object from the surrounding life, interprets it and emotionally conveys it as he feels it, senses it. In other words, he seems to re-create this natural object, but in the form of an artistic symbol. In this interpretation, it is best to follow the creative principle of the triad: “Cognize, evaluate and improve.”

A decorative composition is a composition that has a high degree of expressiveness and modified, stylized or abstract elements that, giving it a decorative appearance, enhance its sensory perception. Thus, main goal decorative composition is to achieve maximum expressiveness and emotionality with a partial or complete (in non-objective compositions) rejection of authenticity, which becomes unnecessary or even disturbing.

Basic common features that arise in the process of stylization of objects and elements of a decorative composition are the simplicity of forms, their generality and symbolism, eccentricity, geometricity, colorfulness, sensuality.

Decorative stylization is characterized by generality and symbolism of the depicted objects and forms. This artistic method implies a conscious rejection of the complete authenticity of the image and its detailed detailing. The stylization method requires separating from the image everything superfluous, secondary, interfering with clear visual perception in order to expose the essence of the depicted objects, display the most important thing in them, draw the viewer’s attention to the previously hidden beauty and evoke in him the corresponding vivid emotions.

With the development of interior design, the need arose to create works of decorative and applied art that, without stylization, would not meet modern aesthetic requirements.

Decorative and applied varieties of arts and crafts

It is necessary to distinguish between decorative and applied varieties of decorative and applied art. Thus, if objects of applied art (furniture, utensils, dishes, jewelry) turn out to be artistically expressive mainly due to the aesthetic perfection of their form (beauty of silhouette, proportions, elegance of lines, masterful processing of material, etc.), then decorative works ( painting of walls and household objects, decorative sculptural reliefs, small figurines, tapestries, embroideries, carpets, carved decorations, etc.) are inherent in pictorial, subject compositions or ornamental decorations.

To ensure that the products are not devoid of aesthetic value, an artist is invited, whose functions do not include the production of the product as a whole, but only its decoration: the artist began to “apply” his art to the finished product. Thus, with the expansion of industrial production, an art industry arises, where the method of applied art finds its place - decorating products with painting, carving, inlay, etc. But the beauty of an object is not only in finishing, although this also requires great skill. The object must be expressive in its entirety - in its design, proportions and details.

In applied art, the form of a product, its architectural design, carries within itself both the utilitarian essence of the object and its aesthetic expressiveness. At the same time, the forms of applied art products are historically changeable: in different eras they are characterized by different motives - luxury, mannerism or, on the contrary, simplicity and naturalness. Modern reality expresses a tendency towards simplicity, conciseness, refusal of excessive detail, towards small size and economy. Artistically designed things not only decorate everyday life, but also play a huge role in the formation of artistic taste.

Many wonderful examples of decorative and applied art can be seen in art, historical, ethnographic and local history museums, as well as in books, albums and on the pages of magazines. Each exhibition folk art- it is always a discovery of the world of beauty and perfection. Products made by old masters and modern artists invariably arouse the admiration of visitors, and some have a desire to follow the example of folk craftsmen.

In order for an object to become a work of art, it must not only be processed “according to the laws of beauty,” but also carry a certain ideological and emotional content. For this purpose, the material is used properly, the most appropriate form of the object is taken into account (its proportions, rhythmic repetitions, tectonic structure), the ratio of scales between the individual parts of the object and the person acquires special importance, and a special method of processing the surface of the object is used - decor. Therefore, creating beautiful things is a significant manifestation of objective activity that carries deep aesthetic expressiveness. The impression made by applied art can often be as strong as that of a painting or sculpture.

Unlike faceless mass-produced products, handmade items are always unique. Masterfully crafted household utensils, furniture, and interior elements are expensive. And if in the old days such things were objects of utilitarian purpose, then in our days they have passed into the category of art. A beautiful thing made by a skilled craftsman will always be valuable.

Influx of artistic forces into applied art

Craft techniques

In Western Europe, the position of the artist began to change in the 16th century. The decline of the urban economy, which covered almost the entire Western Europe, entailed a crisis in artistic life. In Italy, art workshops are losing their former importance. Indeed, what could be the real power of the guild if there were such independent people as Michelangelo or Titian? In some cities, workshops are subordinate state power, in others they are liquidated altogether, and artists find themselves without the usual class support, left to their own devices. Some of them turn into a declassed element, a kind of predecessors of bohemia. Some try to find shelter at courts and become servants of nobles. The desire to achieve court ranks and the title of nobility is widespread.

A consequence of the difficult situation of the fine arts, created in connection with the spread of the Reformation, was an influx of artistic forces in the applied arts: jewelry, silver and carpentry, the manufacture of pottery and pewter, etc. flourished. Often (luxuriously designed watches, navigational instruments, weapons and armor). Characteristic feature In the 16th century, in Northern European countries, masters of fine arts began to be subordinated to applied artists: draftsmen and engravers made special ornamental designs, sculptors made models for decorating furniture, appliances, and dishes. Craft techniques are becoming widespread: replicating sculptural samples, using etching techniques in engraving to speed up the processing of copper boards, etc.

2. Paper plastic art is very similar to sculpture in terms of creativity. But, in paper plastic, all products inside are empty, all products are shells of the depicted object. And in sculpture, either the volume is increased with additional elements, or the excess is removed (cut off).
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/462

3. Corrugated tubes - this is the name of a technique for making products in which tubes of corrugated paper are used to decorate surfaces or to create three-dimensional figures. Corrugated tubes are obtained by winding a strip of paper onto a stick, pencil or knitting needle and then compressing it. The compressed corrugated tube holds its shape well and has many options for design and use.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1492

4. Quilling (from the English quilling - from the word quil “bird feather”) - the art of paper rolling. Originated in medieval Europe, where nuns created medallions by twisting paper strips with gilded edges onto the tip of a bird's feather, creating an imitation of a gold miniature.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/587
http://stranamasterov.ru/node/1364

4. Origami (Japanese: “folded paper”) is the ancient art of folding paper figures. The art of origami has its roots in ancient China, where paper was discovered.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/560
Kinds:
- Kirigami is a type of origami that allows the use of scissors and cutting paper in the process of making the model. This is the main difference between kirigami and other paper folding techniques, which is emphasized in the name: kiru - cut, kami - paper.
Pop-up is a whole direction in art. This technique combines elements of techniques.
- Kirigami and Cutting and allows you to create three-dimensional designs and cards folded into a flat figure.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1723
- Kusudama (literally “medicine ball”) is a paper model that is usually (but not always) formed by sewing together the ends of many identical pyramidal modules (usually stylized flowers folded from a square sheet of paper), so that the body is spherical forms. Alternatively, the individual components can be glued together (for example, the kusudama in the bottom photo is completely glued rather than sewn). Sometimes, as a decoration, a tassel is attached to the bottom.
The art of kusudama comes from an ancient Japanese tradition where kusudama was used for incense and a mixture of dried petals; These may have been the first real bouquets of flowers or herbs. The word itself is a combination of two Japanese words, kusuri (medicine) and tama (ball). Nowadays, kusudama are usually used for decoration or as gifts.
Kusudama is an important part of origami, particularly as a precursor to modular origami. It is often confused with modular origami, which is incorrect, since the elements that make up kusudama are sewn or glued, and not nested inside each other, as modular origami suggests.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/850
- Origami from circles - folding origami from a paper circle. Usually the folded pieces are then glued together into an applique.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1636
- Modular origami - the creation of three-dimensional figures from triangular origami modules - was invented in China. The whole figure is assembled from many identical parts (modules). Each module is folded according to the rules of classic origami from one sheet of paper, and then the modules are connected by inserting them into each other. The friction force that appears in this case prevents the structure from falling apart.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/15

5. Papier-mâché (fr. papier-mâché “chewed paper”) - an easily moldable mass obtained from a mixture of fibrous materials (paper, cardboard) with adhesives, starch, gypsum, etc. Plasters are made from papier-mâché , masks, teaching aids, toys, theatrical props, boxes. In some cases, even furniture.
In Fedoskino, Palekh, Kholui, papier-mâché is used to make the basis for traditional lacquer miniatures.
You can decorate a papier-mâché blank not only with paints, painting it like famous artists, but using decoupage or assemblage.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/561

7. Embossing (another name is “embossing”) - mechanical extrusion that creates images on paper, cardboard, polymer material or plastic, foil, on parchment (the technique is called “parchment”, see below), as well as on leather or birch bark, in which a relief image of a convex or concave stamp is obtained on the material itself, with or without heating, sometimes with the additional use of foil and paint. Embossing is carried out mainly on binding covers, postcards, invitation cards, labels, soft packaging, etc.
This type of work can be determined by many factors: force, texture and thickness of the material, the direction of its cutting, layout and other factors.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1626
Kinds:
- Parchment - parchment paper (thick waxed tracing paper) is processed with an embossing tool and during processing it becomes convex and turns white. This technique produces interesting postcards, this technique can also be used to design a scrappage page.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1705
- Texturing - applying an image using a cliché onto a smooth material, usually metallized paper, in order to imitate foil stamping. Also used to imitate the skin of certain breeds (for example, a cliché with a pattern imitating crocodile skin, etc.)

*Techniques related to weaving:
Man learned weaving much earlier than pottery. At first, he wove a dwelling from long flexible branches (roofs, fences, furniture), all kinds of baskets for various needs (cradles, boxes, carts, scoops, baskets) and shoes. A man learned to braid his hair.
With the development of this type of needlework, more and more different materials for use appeared. It turned out that you can weave from everything you come across: from vines and reeds, from ropes and threads, from leather and birch bark, from wire and beads, from newspapers.... Weaving techniques such as wicker weaving, weaving from birch bark and reeds appeared. , tatting, knotted macrame weaving, bobbin weaving, bead weaving, ganutel, kumihimo cord weaving, chainmail weaving, net weaving, Indian mandala weaving, their imitations (weaving from paper strips and candy wrappers, weaving from newspapers and magazines)...
As it turned out, this type of needlework is still popular, because using it, you can weave many beautiful and useful things, decorating our home with them.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/302

1. Beading, like beads themselves, has a centuries-old history. The ancient Egyptians were the first to learn how to weave beaded threads into necklaces, thread bracelets, and cover women's dresses with beaded nets. But only in the 19th century the real flourishing of bead production began. For a long time, the Venetians carefully guarded the secrets of creating a glass miracle. Masters and craftswomen decorated clothes and shoes, wallets and handbags, cases for fans and eyeglass cases, as well as other elegant things with beads.
With the advent of beads in America, indigenous people began to use them instead of traditional Indian materials. For ritual belt, cradle, headband, basket, hair net, earrings, snuff boxes...
In the Far North, fur coats, high fur boots, hats, reindeer harnesses, leather sunglasses were decorated with bead embroidery...
Our great-grandmothers were very inventive. Among the huge variety of elegant trinkets there are amazing items. Chalk brushes and covers, toothpick cases (!), inkwell, penpick and pencil, collar for your favorite dog, cup holder, lace collars, Easter eggs, chessboards and much, much, much more.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1355

2. Ganutel - exclusive Maltese handicraft. It was in the monasteries of the Mediterranean that this technique of creating beautiful flowers to decorate the altar was still preserved.
The ganuteli uses thin spiral wire and silk threads to wrap the parts, as well as beads, pearls or seed beads. Brilliant flowers turn out graceful and light.
In the 16th century, spiral wire made of gold or silver was called “canutiglia” in Italian, and “canutillo” in Spanish; in Russian, this word was probably transformed into “gimp”.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1170

3. Macrame (from Arabic - braid, fringe, lace or from Turkish - scarf or napkin with fringe) - knot weaving technique.
The technique of this knot weaving has been known since ancient times. According to some sources, macrame came to Europe in the 8th-9th centuries from the East. This technique was known in Ancient Egypt, Assyria, Iran, Peru, China, and Ancient Greece.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/750

4. Weaving lace with bobbins. In Russia, the Vologda, Eletsky, Kirov, Belevsky, Mikhailovsky fisheries are still known.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1687

5. Tatting is a woven knotted lace. It is also called shuttle lace because this lace is woven using a special shuttle.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1728

* Techniques related to painting, various types of painting and image creation:

Drawing is a genre in the visual arts and a corresponding technique that creates a visual image (image) on any surface or object using graphic means, drawing elements (as opposed to pictorial elements), primarily from lines and strokes.
For example: charcoal drawing, pencil drawing, ink and pen drawing...
Painting is a type of fine art associated with the transmission of visual images through the application of paints to a solid or flexible base; creating an image using digital technology; as well as works of art made in such ways.
The most common works of painting are those made on flat or almost flat surfaces, such as canvas stretched on a stretcher, wood, cardboard, paper, treated wall surfaces, etc. Painting also includes images made with paints on decorative and ceremonial vessels , the surfaces of which can have a complex shape.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1218

1. Batik - hand-painted fabric using reserve compounds.
The batik technique is based on the fact that paraffin, rubber glue, as well as some other resins and varnishes, when applied to fabric (silk, cotton, wool, synthetics), do not allow paint to pass through - or, as artists say, “reserve” from coloring individual areas of fabric.
There are several types of batik - hot, cold, knotted, free painting, free painting using saline solution, shibori.
Batik - batik is an Indonesian word. Translated from Indonesian, the word “ba” means cotton fabric, and “-tik” means “dot” or “drop”. Ambatik - to draw, to cover with drops, to hatch.
Batik painting has long been known among the peoples of Indonesia, India, etc. In Europe - since the twentieth century.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/916

2. Stained glass (lat. Vitrum - glass) is one of the types of decorative art. Glass or other transparent material is the main material. The history of stained glass begins in ancient times. Initially, glass was inserted into a window or doorway, then the first mosaic paintings and independent decorative compositions, panels made of colored pieces of glass or painted with special paints on plain glass appeared.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/886

3. Blowing - a technique based on blowing paint through a tube (on a sheet of paper). This ancient technique was traditional for the creators of ancient images (bone tubes were used).
Modern juice straws are no worse in use. They help to blow recognizable, unusual, and sometimes fantastic designs from a small amount of liquid paint on a sheet of paper.

4. Guilloche - a technique of burning an openwork pattern onto fabric manually using burning apparatus was developed and patented by Zinaida Petrovna Kotenkova.
Guilloche requires careful work. It must be made in a single color scheme and correspond to the ornamental style of the given composition.
Napkins, panels with appliqués, bookmarks, handkerchiefs, collars - all this and much more, whatever your imagination suggests, will decorate any home!
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1342

5. Grattage (from the French gratter - scrape, scratch) - scratching technique.
The drawing is highlighted by scratching with a pen or sharp instrument on paper or cardboard covered in ink (to prevent it from spreading, you need to add a little detergent or shampoo, just a few drops).
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/686

6. Mosaic is one of the most ancient arts. This is a way of creating an image from small elements. Assembling a jigsaw puzzle is very important for a child’s mental development.
Can be made from different materials: bottle caps, beads, buttons, plastic chips, wooden cuts of twigs or matches, magnetic pieces, glass, ceramic pieces, small pebbles, shells, thermal mosaic, tetris mosaic, coins, pieces of fabric or paper, grain, cereals, maple seeds, pasta, any natural material (scales of cones, pine needles, watermelon and melon seeds), pencil shavings, bird feathers, etc.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/438

7. Monotype (from the Greek monos - one, single and tupos - imprint) - one of the simplest graphic techniques.
On a smooth glass surface or thick glossy paper (it should not allow water to pass through), a drawing is made using gouache paint or paints. A sheet of paper is placed on top and pressed to the surface. The resulting print is a mirror image.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/663

8. Thread graphics (isothread, thread image, thread design) - a graphic image made in a special way with threads on cardboard or other solid base. Thread graphics are also sometimes called isographics or embroidery on cardboard. You can also use velvet (velvet paper) or thick paper as a base. The threads can be ordinary sewing, wool, floss or others. You can also use colored silk threads.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/452

9. Ornament (lat. ornamentum - decoration) - a pattern based on the repetition and alternation of its constituent elements; intended for decorating various objects (utensils, tools and weapons, textiles, furniture, books, etc.), architectural structures (both externally and in the interior), works of plastic arts (mainly applied), among primitive peoples also the human body itself (coloring, tattoo). Associated with the surface that it decorates and visually organizes, the ornament, as a rule, reveals or accentuates the architectonics of the object on which it is applied. The ornament either operates with abstract forms or stylizes real motifs, often schematizing them beyond recognition.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1222

10. Print.
Kinds:
- Printing with a sponge. Both a sea sponge and a regular one intended for washing dishes are suitable for this.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1094
Wood is usually used as the starting material for stamping using a cliche stamp so that it is convenient to hold in the hand. One side is made flat, because Cardboard is glued onto it, and patterns are glued onto the cardboard. They (patterns) can be made from paper, from rope, from an old eraser, from root vegetables...
- Stamp (stamping). Wood is usually used as the starting material for stamping using a cliche stamp so that it is convenient to hold in the hand. One side is made flat, because Cardboard is glued onto it, and patterns are glued onto the cardboard. They (patterns) can be made from paper, from rope, from an old eraser, from root vegetables, etc.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1068

11. Pointillism (French Pointillisme, literally “pointing”) is a style of writing in painting that uses pure paints that do not mix on the palette, applied in small strokes of a rectangular or round shape, counting on their optical mixing in the viewer’s eye, as opposed to mixing paints on the palette. Optical mixing of three primary colors (red, blue, yellow) and pairs additional colors(red - green, blue - orange, yellow - violet) gives significantly greater brightness than a mechanical mixture of pigments. Mixing of colors to form shades occurs at the stage of perception of the picture by the viewer from a long distance or in a reduced form.
The founder of the style was Georges Seurat.
Another name for pointillism is divisionism (from the Latin divisio - division, crushing).
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/700

12. Drawing with palms. Small children find it difficult to use a paint brush. There is a very exciting activity that will give the child new sensations, develop fine motor skills, and give the opportunity to discover a new and magical world of artistic creativity - this is palm painting. By drawing with their palms, little artists develop their imagination and abstract thinking.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1315

13. Drawing with leaf prints. Having collected various fallen leaves, smear each leaf with gouache from the vein side. The paper on which you are going to make a print can be colored or white. Press the colored side of the sheet onto a sheet of paper and carefully remove it, grasping it by the “tail” (petiole). This process can be repeated over and over again. And now, having completed the details, you already have a butterfly flying over the flower.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/667

14. Painting. One of the most ancient types of folk crafts, which for several centuries have been an integral part of everyday life and the original culture of the people. In Russian folk art there are a large number of varieties of this type of decorative and applied art.
Here are some of them:
- Zhostovo painting is an ancient Russian folk craft that arose at the beginning of the 19th century, in the village of Zhostovo, Mytishchi district, Moscow region. It is one of the most famous types of Russian folk painting. Zhostovo trays are painted by hand. Usually bouquets of flowers are depicted on a black background.
- Gorodets painting is a Russian folk art craft. It has existed since the middle of the 19th century. in the area of ​​Gorodets. Bright, laconic Gorodets painting (genre scenes, figurines of horses, roosters, floral patterns), made in a free stroke with a white and black graphic outline, decorated spinning wheels, furniture, shutters, and doors.
- Khokhloma painting is an ancient Russian folk craft, born in the 17th century in the district of Nizhny Novgorod.
Khokhloma is a decorative painting of wooden utensils and furniture, made in black and red (and also, occasionally, green) on a golden background. When painting, silver tin powder is applied to the wood. After this, the product is coated with a special composition and processed three or four times in the oven, which achieves a unique honey-golden color, giving the light wooden utensils a massive effect. Traditional elements of Khokhloma are red juicy rowan and strawberries, flowers and branches. Birds, fish and animals are often found.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/301

15. Encaustic (from ancient Greek “the art of burning”) is a painting technique in which wax is the binder of paint. Painting is done with melted paints (hence the name). A type of encaustic painting is wax tempera, characterized by its brightness and richness of colors. Many early Christian icons were painted using this technique.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1485

*Techniques related to sewing, embroidery and fabric use:
Sewing is a colloquial form of the verb “to sew”, i.e. something that is sewn or stitched.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1136

2. Patchwork, Quilt, Quilting or Patchwork is a folk arts and crafts art with centuries-old traditions and stylistic features. This is a technique that uses pieces of colorful fabrics or knitted elements in geometric shapes to join together in a blanket, blouse or bag.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1347
Kinds:
- Artichoke is a type of patchwork that got its name because of its resemblance to artichoke fruits. This technique has other names - “teeth”, “corners”, “scales”, “feathers”.
By and large, in this technique it all comes down to folding the cut out parts and sewing them onto the base in a certain sequence. Or, using paper, create (pasting) various panels of a round (or multifaceted) shape on a plane or in volume.
You can sew in two ways: direct the edge of the blanks to the center of the main part, or to its edges. This is if you sew a flat product. For products of a volumetric nature - with the tip towards the narrower part. The folded parts are not necessarily cut in the shape of squares. These can be rectangles or circles. In any case, we encounter the folding of cut-out blanks, therefore, it can be argued that these patchwork techniques belong to the family of patchwork origami, and since they create volume, then, therefore, to the “3d” technique.
Example: http://stranamasterov.ru/node/137446?tid=1419
- Crazy quilt. I recently came across this type. In my opinion, this is a multi-method.
The bottom line is that the product is created from a combination of various techniques: patchwork + embroidery + painting, etc.
Example:

3. Tsumami Kanzashi. The Tsumami technique is based on origami. Only they fold not paper, but squares of natural silk. The word "Tsumami" means "to pinch": the artist takes a piece of folded silk using tweezers or tweezers. The petals of future flowers are then glued onto the base.
The hairpin (kanzashi), decorated with a silk flower, gave its name to a whole new type of decorative and applied art. This technique was used to make decorations for combs and individual sticks, as well as for complex structures made up of various accessories.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1724

* Techniques related to knitting:
What is knitting? This is the process of making products from continuous threads by bending them into loops and connecting the loops to each other using simple tools by hand (a crochet hook, knitting needles).
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/729

1. Knitting on a fork. Interesting way crochet using a special device - a fork curved in the shape of the letter U. The result is light, airy patterns.
2. Crochet (tambour) - the process of manually making fabric or lace from threads using a crochet hook. creating not only dense, relief patterns, but also thin, openwork, reminiscent of lace fabric. Knitting patterns consist of different combinations loops and posts. Correct ratio- the thickness of the hook should be almost twice the thickness of the thread.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/858
3. Simple (European) knitting allows you to combine several types of loops, which creates simple and complex openwork patterns.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1157
4. Tunisian long crochet (both one and several loops can be used at the same time to create a pattern).
5. Jacquard knitting - patterns are knitted on knitting needles from threads of several colors.
6. Loin knitting – imitates loin-guipure embroidery on a special mesh.
7. Guipure crochet (Irish or Brussels lace).

2. Sawing. One type is sawing with a jigsaw. By decorating your home and home with handmade items or children's toys that are convenient for everyday life, you experience joy from the appearance and pleasure from the process of creating them.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1418

3. Carving is a type of decorative and applied art. It is one of the types of artistic woodworking along with sawing and turning.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1113

* Other self-sufficient techniques:
1. Applique (from the Latin “attachment”) is a way of working with colored pieces of various materials: paper, fabric, leather, fur, felt, colored beads, seed beads, woolen threads, embossed metal plates, all kinds of material (velvet, satin, silk), dried leaves... This use of various materials and structures in order to enhance expressive capabilities is very close to another means of representation - collage.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/364
There are also:
- Application from plasticine - plasticineography - a new type of decorative and applied art. It represents the creation of stucco paintings depicting more or less convex, semi-voluminous objects on a horizontal surface. At its core, this is a rarely seen, very expressive type of painting.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1243
- Application from “palms”. Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/612
- Broken applique is one of the types of multifaceted applique techniques. Everything is simple and accessible, like laying out a mosaic. The base is a sheet of cardboard, the material is a sheet of colored paper torn into pieces (several colors), the tool is glue and your hands. Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1346

2. Assemblage (French assemblage) - a visual art technique related to collage, but using three-dimensional parts or entire objects, applicatively arranged on a plane like a picture. Allows for artistic additions with paints, as well as metal, wood, fabric and other structures. Sometimes applied to other works, from photomontage to spatial compositions, since the terminology of the latest visual art is not completely established.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1412

3. Paper tunnel. The original English name for this technique is tunnel book, which can be translated as book or paper tunnel. The essence of the technique can be clearly seen from English name tunnel - tunnel - through hole. The multi-layered nature of the “books” that are put together conveys the feeling of a tunnel well. A three-dimensional postcard appears. By the way, this technique successfully combines different types of techniques, such as scrapbooking, applique, cutting, creating layouts and voluminous books. It is somewhat akin to origami, because... is aimed at folding paper in a certain way.
The first paper tunnel dates back to the mid-18th century. and was the embodiment of theatrical scenes.
Traditionally, paper tunnels are created to commemorate an event or are sold as souvenirs to tourists.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1411

4. Cutting is a very broad term.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/701
They are cut from paper, from foam plastic, from foam rubber, from birch bark, from plastic bottles, from soap, from plywood (though this is already called sawing), from fruits and vegetables, as well as from other various materials. Various tools are used: scissors, breadboard knives, scalpel. They cut out masks, hats, toys, postcards, panels, flowers, figurines and much more.
Kinds:
- Silhouette cutting is a cutting technique in which objects of an asymmetrical structure, with curved contours (fish, birds, animals, etc.), with complex outlines of figures and smooth transitions from one part to another, are cut out by eye. Silhouettes are easily recognizable and expressive; they should be without small details and as if in motion. Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1416
- The cutting is symmetrical. With symmetrical cutting, we repeat the contours of the image, which must fit exactly into the plane of a sheet of paper folded in half, consistently complicating the outline of the figure in order to correctly convey the external features of objects in a stylized form in the appliqués.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/466
- Vytynanka - the art of cutting openwork patterns from colored, white or black paper has existed since paper was invented in China. And this type of cutting became known as jianzhi. This art has spread throughout the world: China, Japan, Vietnam, Mexico, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Ukraine, Lithuania and many other countries.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/563
- Carving (see below).

5. Decoupage (from the French decoupage - noun, “that which is cut out”) is a technique of decoration, applique, decoration using cut out paper motifs. Chinese peasants in the 12th century. They began to decorate furniture in this way. And in addition to cut out pictures from thin colorful paper, they began to cover it with varnish to make it look like a painting! So, along with beautiful furniture, this equipment also came to Europe.
Today, the most popular material for decoupage is three-layer napkins. Hence another name - “napkin technique”. The application can be absolutely limitless - dishes, books, boxes, candles, vessels, musical instruments, flower pots, bottles, furniture, shoes and even clothes! Any surface - leather, wood, metal, ceramics, cardboard, textiles, plaster - must be plain and light, because... the design cut out of the napkin should be clearly visible.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/722

6. Carving (from the English carvу - cut, carve, engrave, cut; carving - carving, carved work, carved ornament, carved figure) in cooking is the simplest form of sculpture or engraving on the surface of products made from vegetables and fruits, such short-lived decorations table.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1339

7. Collage is a creative genre when a work is created from a wide variety of cut out images pasted onto paper, canvas or digitally. Comes from fr. papier collée - glued paper. Very quickly this concept began to be used in an expanded meaning - a mixture of various elements, a bright and expressive message from scraps of other texts, fragments collected on one plane.
The collage can be completed with any other means - ink, watercolor, etc.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/324

8. Constructor (from Latin constructor “builder”) is a multi-valued term. For our profile, this is a set of mating parts. that is, details or elements of some future layout, information about which was collected by the author, analyzed and embodied in a beautiful, artistically executed product.
Designers vary in type of material - metal, wood, plastic and even paper (for example, paper origami modules). When different types of elements are combined, interesting designs for games and fun are created.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/984

9. Modeling - giving shape to a plastic material (plasticine, clay, plastic, salt dough, snowball, sand, etc.) using hands and auxiliary tools. This is one of the basic techniques of sculpture, which is intended for mastering the primary principles of this technique.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/670

10. A layout is a copy of an object with a change in size (usually reduced), which is made while maintaining proportions. The layout must also convey the main features of the object.
To create this unique work, you can use various materials, it all depends on its functional purpose (exhibition layout, gift, presentation, etc.). This can be paper, cardboard, plywood, wooden blocks, plaster and clay parts, wire.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1397
Type of layout - model - is a working layout that depicts (imitates) any significant features of the original. Moreover, attention is concentrated on certain aspects of the modeled object or, to an equal degree, its detail. The model is created to be used, for example, for visual-model teaching of mathematics, physics, chemistry and other school subjects, for a maritime or aviation club. A variety of materials are used in modeling: balloons, light and plastic mass, wax, clay, gypsum, papier-mâché, salt dough, paper, foam plastic, foam rubber, matches, knitting threads, fabric...
Modeling is the creation of a model that is reliably close to the original.
"Models" are those layouts that are in effect. And models that do not work, i.e. "strand" - usually called a layout.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1353

11. Soap making. Animal and vegetable fats and fat substitutes (synthetic fatty acids, rosin, naphthenic acids, tall oil) can be used as raw materials to obtain the main component of soap.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1631

12. Sculpture (Latin sculptura, from sculpo - I cut, carve) - sculpture, plastic - a type of fine art, the works of which have a three-dimensional form and are made of hard or plastic materials (metal, stone, clay, wood, plaster, ice, snow , sand, foam rubber, soap). Processing methods - modeling, carving, casting, forging, embossing, carving, etc.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1399

13. Weaving - production of fabric and textiles from yarn.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1318

14. Felting (or felting, or felting) – felting wool. There is “wet” and “dry”.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/736

15. Flat embossing is one of the types of decorative and applied art, as a result of knocking out a certain ornamental relief, drawing, inscription or round figured image, sometimes close to engraving, on a plate, a new work of art is created.
Processing of the material is carried out using a rod - a hammer, which stands vertically, the upper end of which is hit with a hammer. By moving the coin, a new shape gradually appears. The material must have a certain plasticity and the ability to change under the influence of force.
Examples: http://stranamasterov.ru/taxonomy/term/1421

In conclusion, it should be noted that the division (combination according to any criterion) of most techniques is conditional (subjective), and many techniques of applied creativity are multi-techniques, i.e. they combine several types of techniques.

Happy creativity everyone!
Your Margarita.

Arts and crafts

Decorative arts section; covers a number of creative industries that are dedicated to the creation of artistic products intended primarily for everyday use. Works of decorative and applied art can be: various utensils, furniture, fabrics, tools, weapons, as well as other products that are not works of art according to their original purpose, but acquire artistic quality thanks to the application of the artist’s labor to them; clothes, all kinds of jewelry. Along with the division of works of decorative and applied art according to their practical purpose in scientific literature from the second half of the 19th century. a classification of branches of decorative and applied art was established by material (metal, ceramics, textiles, wood, etc.) or by technique (carving, painting, embroidery, printed material, casting, embossing, intarsia, etc.). This classification is due to the important role of the constructive and technological principles in decorative and applied arts and its direct connection with production. Solving in the aggregate, like architecture, practical and artistic problems, decorative and applied art simultaneously belongs to the spheres of creation of both material and spiritual values. Works of decorative and applied art are inseparable from the material culture of their contemporary era and are closely related to the corresponding way of life, with one or another of its local ethnic and national characteristics, social group and class differences. Constituting an organic part of the objective environment with which a person comes into daily contact, works of decorative and applied art, with their aesthetic merits, figurative structure, and character, constantly influence a person’s state of mind, his mood, and are an important source of emotions that influence his attitude to the world around him. Aesthetically saturating and transforming the environment surrounding a person, works of decorative and applied art at the same time seem to be absorbed by it, since they are usually perceived in connection with its architectural and spatial design, with other objects included in it or their complexes (service, furniture sets , suit, jewelry set).

The architectonics of an object, determined by its purpose, design capabilities and plastic properties of the material, often plays a fundamental role in the composition of an artistic product. Often in decorative and applied art, the beauty of the material, the proportional relationships of the parts, and the rhythmic structure serve as the only means of embodying the emotional figurative content products (for example, products made of glass or other untinted materials without decoration). Here the special importance for decorative and applied art of purely emotional, non-figurative means of artistic language is clearly demonstrated, the use of which makes decorative and applied art similar to architecture. An emotional and meaningful image is often activated by an association image (comparing the shape of a product with a drop, a flower, a human figure, an animal, its individual elements, with some other product - a bell, a baluster, etc.). Decor, appearing on a product, also significantly affects its figurative structure. Often, it is thanks to its decor that a household item becomes a work of decorative and applied art. Possessing its own emotional expressiveness, its own rhythm and proportions (often contrasting with the form, as, for example, in the products of Khokhloma masters, where modest, simple form the object and the elegant, festive painting of the surface are different in their emotional sound), the decor visually modifies the form and at the same time merges with it in a single artistic image. In the decorative and applied arts, ornaments and elements (separately or in various combinations) of fine art (sculpture, painting, and, less often, graphics) are widely used to create decor. Means of fine arts and ornament serve in decorative and applied arts not only to create decor, but sometimes penetrate into the form of an object (furniture parts in the form of palmettes, volutes, animal paws, heads; vessels in the form of a flower, fruit, bird, animal, figure person). Sometimes an ornament or image becomes the basis for the formation of products (lattice pattern, lace; pattern of weaving fabric, carpet). The need to coordinate the decor with the form, the image with the scale and nature of the product, with its practical and artistic purpose leads to transformation figurative motifs, to the conventionality of interpretation and combination of elements of nature (for example, the use of motifs of a lion's paw, eagle wings and a swan's head in the design of a table leg).

The synthetic nature of decorative and applied art is manifested in the unity of the artistic and utilitarian functions of the product, in the interpenetration of form and decor, fine and tectonic principles. Works of decorative and applied art are designed to be perceived by both sight and touch. Therefore, revealing the beauty of the texture and plastic properties of the material, the skill and variety of techniques for processing it receive special significance in the decorative and applied arts. active funds aesthetic impact.

Having emerged at the earliest stage of the development of human society, decorative and applied art for many centuries was the most important, and for a number of tribes and nationalities, the main area of ​​artistic creativity. The most ancient (belonging to the prehistoric era) works of decorative and applied art, covering the most wide circle ideas about the world and man are characterized by exceptional content of images, attention to the aesthetics of the material and to the aesthetics of materialized labor, to the rational construction of form, emphasized by decor. This trend was maintained in traditional folk art ( cm. also Folk arts and crafts) up to the present day. But with the beginning of the class stratification of society in the stylistic evolution of decorative and applied art, its special branch begins to play a leading role, designed to serve the needs of the ruling social strata and responding to their tastes and ideology. Gradually, interest in the richness of material and decor, in their rarity and sophistication, is becoming increasingly important. Products that serve the purpose of representation are singled out (objects for religious rituals or court ceremonies, for decorating the houses of the nobility), in which, in order to enhance their emotional sound, craftsmen often sacrifice the everyday expediency of constructing the form. However, until the middle of the 19th century. masters of decorative and applied arts maintain the integrity of plastic thinking and a clear understanding of the aesthetic connections between the object and the environment for which it is intended. The formation, evolution and change of artistic styles in the decorative and applied arts proceeded synchronously with their evolution in other forms of art. Tendencies of eclecticism in the artistic culture of the second half of the 19th century. lead to a gradual impoverishment of the aesthetic quality and emotional and figurative content of decorative and applied art. The connection between decor and form is lost, an artistically designed object is replaced by a decorated one. The dominance of bad taste and the depersonalizing effect on the decorative and applied arts of intensively developing mass machine production ( cm. Art industry) artists tried to contrast unique objects made according to their designs in conditions of craft (W. Morris's workshops in Great Britain, Darmstadt Artists' Colony in Germany) or factory (Werkbund) labor, to revive the emotional-imaginative integrity and ideological content of an artistically meaningful environment ( cm. Modern). On new ideological and aesthetic foundations these attempts were developed after the October Revolution of 1917, which opened up prospects for creating an artistically meaningful environment for the work and life of the broadest masses. Her ideas and goals inspired artists who saw art as one of the most effective means of revolutionary agitation (for example, the so-called propaganda porcelain of 1918-25). The task of creating a comprehensive decoration of a worker’s apartment, workers’ dormitories, clubs, canteens, comfortable work clothes, rational equipment for the workplace, designed for mass factory production, opened the way for the creative quest of constructivists in the USSR, functionalists in Germany (with m. Bauhaus) and other countries, which in many ways preceded the emergence of design. Bringing the formal-technological side to the forefront in artistic creativity in the early 1920s. led to its absolutization, the identification of artistic creativity with the production of things, the denial of the role of decor in creating an artistic image of a work of decorative and applied art. The revival of folk crafts in the USSR and the awakening in the 30s. interest in the Russian artistic heritage played a prominent role in the development Soviet masters decorative and applied arts of a number of technological and artistic traditions of the past. However, the approach to works of decorative and applied art with the standards of easel art, the pursuit of splendor of products, which made itself felt especially strongly in the late 40s and early 50s, noticeably slowed down the development of decorative and applied art. Since the mid-50s. in the USSR, along with the search for functional and artistic-expressive forms and decor for everyday household things produced in a factory, artists are busy creating unique works in which the emotionality of the image is combined with a variety of techniques for processing simple materials, with the desire to reveal the full richness of their plastic and decorative capabilities . Such works (as well as elegant, unique works of folk decorative and applied art due to their handicraft) are intended to serve as visual accents in an artistically organized environment, formed mainly by factory-made artistic products that are less individualized in form and objects that are created on the basis of a designer’s design. design.

About individual branches, varieties and types of decorative and applied arts techniques cm. articles Batik, Vase, Fan, Embroidery, Tapestry, Toy, Inlay, Intarsia, Ceramics, Carpet, Forging, Lace, Varnishes, Majolica, Marquetry, Furniture, Printing, Notching, Carving, Decorative painting, Glass, Terracotta, Embossing, , Porcelain, Faience, Filigree, Crystal, Embossing, Niello, Tapestry, Enamels, Jewelry.

Literature: D. Arkin, The Art of Everyday Things, M., 1932; M. S. Kagan, On applied art, Leningrad, 1961; A. V. Saltykov, Selected works, M., 1962; A.K. Chekalov, Fundamentals of understanding decorative and applied art, M., 1962; A. Moran, History of decorative and applied arts from ancient times to the present day, translation from French, M., 1982; Magne L. et H. M., L "art appliqué aux métiers, v. 1-8, P., 1913-28; Geschichte des Kunstgewerbes aller Zeiten und Völker, hrsg. Von H. Th. Bossert, Bd 1-6 , V., 1929-35; Marangoni G., Clementi A., Storia dell'arredamento, v. 1-3, Mil., 1951-52; Fleming J., Honor H., The Penguin dictionary of the decorative arts, L., 1977; Bunte Welt der Antiquitäten, Dresden, 1980; Lucie-Smith E., The story of craft, Ithaca (N.Y.), 1981.

(Source: “Popular Art Encyclopedia.” Edited by V.M. Polevoy; M.: Publishing House “Soviet Encyclopedia”, 1986.)

Creation of artistic products that have a practical purpose (household utensils, dishes, fabrics, toys, jewelry, etc.), as well as artistic processing of utilitarian items (furniture, clothing, weapons, etc.). Masters of decorative and applied arts use a wide variety of materials - metal (bronze, silver, gold, platinum, various alloys), wood, clay, glass, stone, textiles (natural and artificial fabrics), etc. Making products from clay is called ceramics, from precious metals and stones – jewelry art.

In the process of creating artistic works from metal, the techniques of casting, forging, chasing, and engraving are used; textiles are decorated with embroidery or printed material (a paint-coated wooden or copper board is placed on the fabric and hit with a special hammer, obtaining an imprint); wooden objects - carvings, inlays and colorful paintings. Painting of ceramic dishes is called vase painting.

Decorative and applied products should, first of all, be easy to use and beautiful. They create an objective environment around a person, influencing his state of mind and mood. Works of decorative and applied art are designed to be perceived by both sight and touch, therefore, identifying the beauty of texture and plastic properties of the material, and the skill of processing play a crucial role in it. In the form of a vase, a toy, a piece of furniture, and in the system of their decorations, the master strives to reveal the transparency of glass, the plasticity of clay, the warmth of wood and the texture of its surface, the hardness of stone and the natural pattern of its veins. In this case, the shape of the product can be either abstract or reminiscent of a flower, tree, human or animal figure.

Various types of jewelry are widely used in jewelry. ornaments. Often it is the decor that turns an everyday object into a work of art (a Khokhloma bowl of a simple shape, painted with bright patterns in gold; a dress of a modest style, decorated with embroidery or lace). At the same time, it is very important that ornaments and figurative images do not contradict the shape of the product, but reveal it. Thus, in ancient Greek vases, patterned stripes separate the body (central part) from the leg and neck; painting of the body emphasizes its convexity.

Decorative and applied arts have existed since ancient times. Artistic products are closely related to the way of life and customs of a certain era, people or social group (nobles, peasants, etc.). Already primitive craftsmen decorated dishes with carvings and patterns, and made primitive jewelry from animal fangs, shells and stones. These objects embodied the ideas of ancient people about beauty, the structure of the world and the place of man in it. The traditions of ancient art continue to live in folklore and in products folk crafts. In the future, utensils for the performance of sacred rites and luxury items are distinguished, designed to emphasize the wealth and power of their owners. These products used rare, precious materials and rich decoration. Development of industrial production in the 19th century. made it possible to create works of decorative and applied art for the mass consumer. At the same time, the idea, sketch of the painting, form for production, etc. belonged to major masters, and the finished products were replicated by workers of factories and factories ( trellises according to sketches famous masters, products from porcelain factories, etc.). The use of industrial technology marked the beginning of art design.

Decorative and applied arts, section of art; covers a number of creative industries that are dedicated to the creation of artistic products intended primarily for everyday use. His works can be: various utensils, furniture, fabrics, tools, vehicles, as well as clothing and all kinds of decorations. Along with the division of works of decorative and applied art according to their practical purpose in scientific literature from the 2nd half of the 19th century. a classification of industries by material (metal, ceramics, textiles, wood) or by technique (carving, painting, embroidery, printed material, casting, embossing, intarsia, etc.) was established. This classification is due to the important role of the constructive and technological principle in the decorative and applied arts and its direct connection with production. Solving in the aggregate, like architecture, practical and artistic problems, decorative and applied art simultaneously belongs to the spheres of creating both material and spiritual values. Works of this type of art are inseparable from the material culture of their contemporary era and are closely connected with the everyday life that corresponds to it, with one or another of its local ethnic and national characteristics, and social group differences. Constituting an organic part of the objective environment with which a person comes into daily contact, works of decorative and applied art, with their aesthetic merits, figurative structure, and character, constantly influence a person’s state of mind, his mood, and are an important source of emotions that influence his attitude to the world around him.

Aesthetically saturating the environment surrounding a person, works of this genre at the same time seem to be absorbed by it, because are usually perceived in connection with its architectural and spatial design, with other objects included in it or their complexes (service, furniture set, suit, set of jewelry). Therefore, the ideological content of works of decorative and applied art can be understood most fully only with a clear idea (real or mentally recreated) of these relationships between the object and the environment and with man.

The architectonics of an object, determined by its purpose, design capabilities and plastic properties of the material, often plays a fundamental role in the composition of an artistic product. Often in decorative and applied art, the beauty of the material, the proportional relationships of the parts, and the rhythmic structure serve as the only means of embodying the emotional and figurative content of the product (for example, undecorated glass products or other untinted materials). Here the special importance for decorative and applied art of purely emotional, non-figurative means of artistic language, the use of which makes it similar to architecture, is clearly demonstrated. An emotional and meaningful image is often activated by an association image (comparing the shape of a product with a drop, a flower, a human figure, an animal, its individual elements, with some other product - a bell, a baluster, etc.). Decor, appearing on a product, also significantly affects its figurative structure. Often, it is thanks to its decor that a household item becomes a work of art. Possessing its own emotional expressiveness, its own rhythm and proportions (often contrasting in relation to the form, as, for example, in the products of Khokhloma masters, where the modest, simple shape of the bowl and the elegant, festive painting of the surface are different in their emotional sound), the decor visually modifies the shape and at the same time merges with it in a single artistic image.

To create decor, ornaments and elements (separately or in various combinations) of fine art (sculpture, painting, and, less often, graphics) are widely used. Means of fine arts and ornament serve not only to create decor, but sometimes penetrate into the shape of the object (furniture parts in the form of palmettes, volutes, animal paws, heads; vessels in the form of a flower, fruit, figure of a bird, animal, human). Sometimes an ornament or image becomes the basis for the design of a product (lattice pattern, lace; pattern of weaving fabric, carpet). The need to harmonize the decor with the form, the image with the scale and nature of the product, with its practical and artistic purpose leads to the transformation of visual motifs, to the convention of interpretation and comparison of elements of nature (for example, a combination in the design of a table leg of the motifs of a lion's paw, eagle wings and a swan's head ).

The synthetic nature of decorative and applied art is manifested in the unity of the artistic and utilitarian functions of the product, in the interpenetration of form and decor, fine and tectonic principles. His works are designed to be perceived by both sight and touch. Therefore, revealing the beauty of texture and plastic properties of a material, the skill and variety of techniques for processing it receive the significance of particularly active means of aesthetic influence in decorative and applied art.

Painting

Painting, a type of fine art, works of art that are created using paints applied to any hard surface. Like other forms of art, painting performs ideological and cognitive tasks, and also serves as a sphere for creating subject matter. aesthetic values, being one of the highly developed forms of human labor.

Painting reflects and, in the light of certain concepts, evaluates the spiritual content of the era, its social development. Powerfully influencing the feelings and thoughts of viewers, forcing them to experience the reality depicted by the artist, it serves as an effective means of public education. Many works of painting have documentary and information value.

Due to the clarity of the image, the artist’s assessment of life, expressed in his work, acquires particular persuasiveness for the viewer. When creating artistic images, painting uses color and design, expressiveness of strokes, which ensures the flexibility of its language, allows it to reproduce on a plane the colorful richness of the world, the volume of objects, their qualitative originality and material flesh, the depth of the depicted space, with a completeness inaccessible to other types of fine art, light-air environment. Painting not only directly and clearly embodies all visible phenomena of the real world (including nature in its various states), it shows wide paintings people’s lives, but also strives to reveal and interpret the essence of the processes taking place in life and the inner world of a person.

The breadth and completeness of coverage of real reality available to this type of art is also reflected in the abundance of its inherent genres (historical, everyday, battle, animalistic, etc.).

By purpose, by the nature of execution and images, they distinguish: monumental and decorative painting (wall paintings, lampshades, panels), participating in the organization of architectural space, creating an ideologically rich environment for people; easel (paintings), more intimate in nature, usually not associated with any specific place; set design (sketches of theatrical and film sets and costumes); icon painting; miniature (illustrations of manuscripts, portraits, etc.).

According to the nature of the substances that bind the pigment (coloring matter), according to the technological methods of fixing the pigment on the surface, oil painting, painting with water paints on plaster - wet (fresco) and dry (a secco), tempera, glue painting, wax painting, enamel, painting are distinguished ceramic paints (binders - fusible glass, fluxes, glazes - are fixed by firing on ceramics), silicate paints (binder - soluble glass), etc. Mosaic and stained glass are directly associated with it, solving the same problems as monumental painting, visual and decorative tasks. Watercolor, gouache, pastel, and ink are also used to create paintings.

The main expressive means of painting - color - with its expression and ability to evoke various sensory associations, enhances the emotionality of the image, determines the wide visual and decorative possibilities of this type of art. In works it forms an integral system (color). Usually one or another series of interrelated colors and their shades is used (colorful range), although there is also painting in shades of the same color (monochrome). Color composition (the system of arrangement and relationship of color spots) provides a certain color unity of the work, affects the course of its perception by the viewer, being a part of its artistic structure specific to the work. Another expressive means of painting - drawing (line and chiaroscuro) - rhythmically and compositionally, together with color, organizes the image; The line delimits volumes from each other, is often the constructive basis of a pictorial form, and allows one to reproduce the outlines of objects in general or in detail, and to identify their smallest elements.

Architecture

Architecture (Latin architectura, from the Greek architéкtón - builder), architecture, a system of buildings and structures that form the spatial environment for people’s life and activities, as well as the art itself of creating these buildings and structures in accordance with the laws of beauty. Architecture is a necessary part of the means of production and the material means of existence of human society. Her artistic images play a significant role in the spiritual life of society. The functional, constructive and aesthetic qualities of architecture (usefulness, strength, beauty) are interrelated.

Works of architecture are buildings with organized internal space, ensembles of buildings, as well as structures used to decorate open spaces (monuments, terraces, embankments, etc.).

The subject of purposeful organization is the space of a populated area as a whole. The creation of cities, towns and the regulation of the entire settlement system became a special area inseparably connected with architecture - urban planning.

The most important means of solving the practical functions and ideological and artistic problems of architecture is construction equipment. It determines the possibility and economic feasibility of implementing certain spatial systems. The aesthetic properties of architectural works largely depend on the design solution. The building must not only be, but also look durable. Excess material gives the impression of excessive heaviness; visible (apparent) insufficiency of the material is associated with instability, unreliability and causes negative emotions. In the course of the development of construction technology, new principles of architectural composition, corresponding to the properties of new materials and structures, may conflict with traditional aesthetic views. But as the design spreads and is further mastered, the forms it defines not only cease to be perceived as unusual, but also turn in the mass consciousness into a source of emotional and aesthetic impact.

Qualitative changes in construction technology, the creation of new structures and materials have significantly influenced modern architecture. Of particular importance is the replacement of craft construction methods with industrial ones, associated with the general processes of production development, with the need to increase the pace of mass construction and which required the introduction of standardization, unified designs and parts.

The main means of creating an artistic image in architecture are the formation of space and architectonics. When creating a volumetric-spatial composition (including the internal organization of structures), the principles of symmetry or asymmetry, nuances or contrasts when comparing elements, their various rhythmic relationships, etc. are used. Of particular importance in architecture are the proportionality of parts and the whole to each other (system of proportions) and the proportionality of the structure and its individual forms to man (scale). The artistic means of architecture also include texture and color, the diversity of which is achieved by various methods of processing the surface of the building. A holistic artistic and expressive system of forms of works of architecture that meets functional and constructive requirements is called an architectural composition.

Sustainable community characteristic features The artistic form of architecture and its ideological and content program is formed by its style. The most important features of the style are manifested in the system of functional and spatial organization of buildings, in their architectonics, proportions, plasticity, and decor.

Sculpture

Sculpture (Latin sculptura, from sculpo - carve, cut out), sculpture, plastic (Greek plastike, from plasso - sculpt), an art form based on the principle of a three-dimensional, physically three-dimensional image of an object. As a rule, the object of the image in sculpture is a person, less often - animals (animalistic genre), and even less often - nature (landscape) and things (still life). The placement of a figure in space, the transmission of its movement, posture, gesture, light and shadow modeling that enhances the relief of the form, the architectural organization of volume, the visual effect of its mass, weight relations, the choice of proportions, the character of the silhouette specific in each case are the main expressive means of this type of art. A volumetric sculptural form is built in real space according to the laws of harmony, rhythm, balance, interaction with the surrounding architectural or natural environment and on the basis of the anatomical (structural) features of a particular model observed in nature.

There are two main types of sculpture: a round sculpture, which is freely placed in space, and a relief, where the image is located on a plane that forms its background. The works of the first, usually requiring a 360-degree view, include: a statue (a full-length figure), a group (two or more figures that make up a single whole), a figurine (a figure significantly smaller than life-size), a torso (an image of a human torso), a bust (chest image of a person), etc.

According to the content and functions, sculpture is divided into monumental-decorative, easel, and so-called. sculpture of small forms. Although these varieties develop in close interaction, each of them has its own characteristics. Monumental-decorative: sculpture is designed for a specific architectural, spatial or natural environment. It has a pronounced public character, is addressed to the masses of spectators, and is located primarily in public places - on the streets and squares of the city, in parks, on the facades and in the interiors of public buildings. Monumental and decorative sculpture is designed to concretize the architectural image and complement the expressiveness of architectural forms with new shades. The ability of monumental and decorative sculpture to solve large ideological and figurative problems is revealed with particular completeness in works that are called monumental and which usually include city monuments, monuments, and memorial buildings. The majesty of the forms and the durability of the material are combined in them with the elevation of the figurative structure and the breadth of generalization. Easel sculpture, which is not directly related to architecture, is more intimate in nature. Exhibition halls, museums, residential interiors, where it can be viewed up close and in all details, are its usual environment. This determines the features of the plastic language of sculpture, its dimensions, favorite genres (portrait, everyday genre, nude, animalistic genre). Easel sculpture, to a greater extent than monumental and decorative sculpture, is characterized by interest in the inner world of man, subtle psychologism, and narrative. Sculpture of small forms includes a wide range of works intended primarily for residential interiors, and in many ways is closely related to decorative and applied arts.

The purpose and content of a sculptural work determine the nature of its plastic structure, and it, in turn, influences the choice of sculptural material. The technique of sculpture largely depends on the natural features and methods of processing the latter. Soft substances (clay, wax, plasticine, etc.) are used for modeling; in this case, the most commonly used tools are wire rings and stacks. Solid substances (various types of stone, wood, etc.) are processed by chopping (carving) or carving, removing unnecessary parts of the material and gradually releasing the volumetric form hidden in it; To process a stone block, a hammer (mall) and a set of metal tools are used; for wood processing, mainly shaped chisels and drills are used. Substances that can pass from a liquid to a solid state (various metals, gypsum, concrete, plastic, etc.) are used to cast sculptures using specially made molds.

Theater

Theater (from the Greek théatron - a place for spectacle; spectacle), a type of art. Theater is a form of social consciousness; it is inseparable from the life of the people, their national history and culture. The theater usually achieves artistic growth when it, imbued with the advanced ideas of the era, fights for humanistic ideals, deeply and truthfully reveals the complexity of man’s inner world and his aspirations.

The artistic reflection of life, the affirmation of certain ideas, worldviews, and ideologies is accomplished in the theater through dramatic action performed by actors in front of the audience. The struggle of characters, the disclosure of social and psychological conflicts that influence the destinies of people, their relationships lie at the heart of the play and performance. The specifics of the theater require the emotional and spiritual unity of the stage and the audience, the presence of common interests between the creators of the performance and the audience. Theater is important in aesthetic, moral and political education. For this purpose, he has rich means of artistic generalization, expressiveness, and influence on the mass audience.

The basis of theatrical performance is drama. The theater transfers a literary work into the realm of stage action and specific theatrical imagery; The characters and conflicts of the drama are embodied in living faces and actions. The word, speech is the most important means with which drama equips the theater. In the theater, the word is also subject to the laws of dramatic action. In some cases, he turns speech into a means of everyday characterization of the character, in others he reveals complex conflicts of consciousness and psychology of the hero through the verbal fabric of the role. Speech on stage can take the form of a lengthy statement (monologue), proceed as a conversation with a partner (dialogue), be addressed to the viewer, or sound like the hero’s reflection, his “inner monologue,” etc.

Theater is a collective art. A performance is a work that has artistic unity and harmony of all elements. It is created under the direction of the director and in accordance with the director's plan through the joint efforts of actors, set designer, composer, choreographer and many others. The performance is based on the director’s interpretation of the play, its genre and stylistic decision. The action of the play is organized in time (tempo, rhythm, rise and fall of emotional tension) and in space (development of the stage, the principle of its use, mise-en-scène, scenery, movement, etc.).

The main bearer of theatrical action is the actor, whose work embodies the essence of theater: the ability to captivate the audience of the arts. the spectacle of life directly flowing before their eyes, the creative process of its embodiment. The actor's image is created on the basis of the play and its interpretation by the director of the play. But even in the system of a strictly organized performance, the actor remains an independent artist, capable only of himself, using the means available to him, to recreate a living human image on stage, to convey the complexity and richness of human psychology. Working on oneself and on the role during the rehearsal process are, as K. S. Stanislavsky believed, two inextricably linked aspects of an actor’s activity.

Often an actor creates an image on stage that is dissimilar to his own, changing externally and internally in different roles. When embodying the appearance and character of a character, the performer uses means of plastic and rhythmic expressiveness, the art of speech, facial expressions, and gesture. The history of world theater knows actors who possessed the virtuoso skill of external transformation.

In musical theater, the action is embodied by means of musical dramaturgy, which is based on general laws drama - the presence of a clearly expressed central conflict, revealed in the struggle of opposing forces, a certain sequence of stages in the disclosure of dramas. plan. In each of the types of musical and stage art, these general patterns find a specific refraction according to the nature of their means of expression: in opera, the action taking place on stage is expressed by music, that is, by the singing of the characters, as well as by the sound of the orchestra; in ballet, a role similar to singing in opera belongs to dance and pantomime. At the same time, in both cases, music is the main generalizing means that connects all the elements of the drama together. In operetta, which is a type of opera with spoken dialogue, the verse song and dance are of great importance. Expressive means of dramatic, operatic and choreographic arts, pop and everyday music are used in the musical genre.

Music

Music (from the Greek musike, literally - the art of muses), a type of art that reflects reality and influences a person through meaningful and specially organized sound sequences, consisting mainly of tones. Music is a specific type of sound activity of people. It is united with other varieties (speech, instrumental-sound signaling, etc.) by the ability to express thoughts, emotions and volitional processes of a person in an audible form and serve as a means of communication between people and control of their behavior. At the same time, it differs significantly from all other types of human sound activity. While retaining some semblance of the sounds of real life, musical sound is fundamentally different from them in its strict pitch and temporal (rhythmic) organization. These sounds are part of historically established systems, the basis of which are tones. In each piece of music, tones form their own system of vertical connections and horizontal sequences - its form.

In the content of music, the dominant role is played by emotional states and processes (as well as volitional aspirations). Their leading place in musical content is predetermined by the sound (intonation) and temporary nature of music, which allows it, on the one hand, to rely on the centuries-old experience of people externally revealing their emotions and transmitting them to other members of society primarily and mainly through sounds and, on the other - adequately express emotional experience as a movement, a process with all its changes and shades, dynamic increases and decreases, mutual transitions of emotions and their collisions.

Of the various types of emotions, music primarily embodies moods. The emotional aspects of the intellectual and volitional qualities of the individual (and corresponding processes) are also widely represented in the musical content. This allows this type of art to reveal not only the psychological states of people, but also their characters. In the most concrete (but not translated into words), very subtle and “infectious” expression of emotions, music has no equal. It is on this that the widespread definition of it as “the language of the soul” is based (A. N. Serov).

Striving for a broader coverage of the world of philosophical and social ideas, composers often go beyond the so-called pure (instrumental non-program) music, turning to the word as a carrier of specific conceptual content (vocal and program instrumental music, see Program music), as well as To stage action. Thanks to synthesis with words, actions, etc., new types of musical images are formed, which are steadily associated in the public consciousness with concepts and ideas expressed by other components of synthesis, and then pass into “pure” music as carriers of the same concepts and ideas. To express thoughts, composers also use sound symbols (emerged in social practice, tunes or tunes existing in a certain social environment, which have become “musical emblems” of certain concepts) or create their own, new “musical signs” (for example, leitmotifs). As a result, the content of M. includes a huge and continuously enriched range of ideas.

Music has different types of content available: epic, dramatic, lyrical. At the same time, however, due to its non-figurative nature, the lyrics are closest to her.

The material embodiment of the content of music, the way of its existence, is the musical form - that system of musical sounds in which the emotions, thoughts and figurative ideas of the composer are realized. Even taken individually, musical sounds already have primary expressive capabilities. Each of them is capable of causing a physiological sensation of pleasure or displeasure, excitement or calm, tension or release, as well as synaesthetic sensations (heaviness or lightness, heat or cold, darkness or light, etc.) and simple spatial associations.

In each musical work, from the individual elements of its form, in the process of their unification and subordination, a general structure is formed, consisting of several particular structures. The latter include structures: melodic, rhythmic, mode-harmonic, textured, timbre, dynamic, etc. Of particular importance is the thematic structure, the elements of which are musical themes (along with various types and stages of their change and development). In most musical styles, themes are the material carriers of musical images.

Music has its own structure. Thus, in a developed musical culture, creativity is represented by many varieties that can be differentiated according to various characteristics. 1) By type of content: lyrical, epic, dramatic, as well as heroic, tragic, humorous, etc.; in another aspect - serious music and light music. 2) By performing purpose: vocal and instrumental; in another aspect - solo, ensemble, orchestral, choral, mixed (with possible further clarification of compositions: for example, for a symphony orchestra, for chamber orchestra, for jazz, etc.). 3) By synthesis with other types of art and with the word: theatrical music, dance music, program instrumental, melodrama (reading to music), vocal with words. Music outside of synthesis - vocalises (singing without words) and “pure” instrumental (without a program). In turn, the first is divided into entertainment and concert, the second into mass and ritual. Each of the resulting four varieties (genre groups) can be further differentiated.

Film art

Cinematography, a type of art whose works are created by filming real, specially staged or recreated reality events by means of animation.

In the art of cinema, the aesthetic properties of literature, theatrical and visual arts, and music are synthesized on the basis of expressive means that are inherent only to it, the main ones of which are the photographic nature of the image, which allows one to recreate any picture of reality with the utmost reliability, and editing. The mobility of the film camera and the variety of optics used in filming make it possible to imagine vast spaces and large masses of people in the frame ( overall plan), small groups of people in their relationships (medium plan), a human portrait or a separate detail (close-up). Thanks to this, the most significant, aesthetically pleasing elements can be highlighted within the boundaries of the frame. significant parties of the depicted object. The combination of frames in montage serves as an expression of the author’s thoughts, creates continuity in the development of the action, organizes a visual narrative, and allows, by comparing different parts. plans to interpret the action metaphorically shapes the rhythm of the film.

Creating a work of cinematic art is usually a complex creative and manufacturing process, which combines the work of artists from different specialties: film playwright (script author); the director, who determines the interpretation and implementation of the concept and directs the work of the other participants in the production; actors embodying the characters; an operator characterizing the action by means of compositional, light-tonal and color interpretation of frames; an artist who finds visual characteristics of the environment and the costumes of the characters (and in animation, the external characteristics of the characters); composer, etc.

During the development of cinematography, 4 main types of cinematography have been formed: feature (fiction) cinematography, which embodies works of film drama or adapted works of prose, drama, and poetry through the means of performing creativity; documentary cinematography, which is a special type of figurative journalism, based primarily on direct recording of reality on film; animated cinematography, “animating” graphic or puppet characters; popular science cinematography, using the means of these 3 types to promote scientific knowledge.

Feature cinematography has access to the possibilities of epic, lyricism and drama, but in films of a narrative nature there are always features that bring them closer to drama, in particular dramatic conflict. Documentary cinematography has the full breadth of possibilities of journalistic genres of literature and journalism. It combines both works of figurative film journalism and informational films (film reporting). Images of graphic and three-dimensional animation are created by filming stationary successive phases of movement of drawn or puppet characters. She pays special attention to creating films for children. Popular science cinematography introduces viewers to the life of nature and society, scientific discoveries and inventions, and recreates the course of creative searches scientists and artists, clearly demonstrates physical, chemical and biological processes. To solve these problems, she uses both purely didactic and artistic-figurative means, depending on the theme and purpose of the film.

Film genres, which were relatively clearly demarcated in the early stages of cinema development (melodrama, adventure film, comic strip, etc.), are changing and tend to merge, interpenetrate, or even disintegrate. The innovative aspirations of filmmakers determine the combination in one work of features characteristic of prose, drama, and lyrics.