Greek colonization VIII-VI centuries. BC e. The causes and nature of the Great Greek Colonization: a brief historiographical background

The archaic era was marked by such an important event in the history of Hellas as Great Greek Colonization, when the Greeks founded many cities and settlements on the coasts of the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Thus, Greek civilization spread to large areas of southern Europe.

The development of the colonization process was determined by economic and political prerequisites. The economic prerequisites include, first of all, the acute “land famine” that arose as a result of population growth, when the small size of the farm and low harvests could not ensure a normal existence for all citizens of the state. As a result, part of the population was forced to look for a means of subsistence in a foreign land. An important incentive for the colonization of nearby territories by Greek city-states was the desire to gain access to sources of raw materials that were not available in their homeland and to secure the most important trade routes for Greece. That is why the Greeks founded not only apoikia- full-fledged colonies that immediately became independent states, but also trade trading posts, which were only places where merchants stayed with their goods. As for the political reasons for colonization, the fierce struggle for power in the policies played an important role archaic era. Often, a group that was defeated in this struggle had only one thing to do - leave hometown and move to a new place.

It is not by chance that economically and politically developed policies that had a large population but a small chorus became the centers for establishing colonies (metropolises). Among such policies are Corinth, Megara, Chalkis, Eretria, etc. For example, Miletus, according to some sources, founded more than 70 colonies. It would seem that the exception to the general rule was the region of Achaia, a backward agricultural region in the northern Peloponnese. However, it should be taken into account that in Achaia, with its rocky soils, the “land hunger” was felt especially acutely.

An incomparably smaller role in the Great Greek colonization was played by those policies whose choir was more extensive, and the pace of economic and political development– more slowed down (or artificially restrained). Thus, practically no colonies were founded during the archaic era by Athens, Sparta, the states of Boeotia and Thessaly.

Colonization proceeded in two main directions - western and northeastern, where the first colonies were established back in the 8th century. BC. In the west, the Greeks were especially attracted to the fertile lands of the Apennine Peninsula and the island of Sicily. Already in the first half of the 8th century. BC. immigrants from Chalkida founded a small settlement on the island of Pitecussa off the western coast of Italy; soon the colonists moved to the mainland, and a Greek polis arose there Kumas. A century passed - and the southern coast of the Italian “boot” and the entire coast of Sicily were literally dotted with new Hellenic cities. People from Euboea, Corinth, Megara, Achaea and others took an active part in the colonization of the region. Greek city-states. Sometimes several policies carried out a joint colonization expedition. But there were cases of completely different relationships - enmity, struggles for territories, which led to wars and the pushing of the weakest to less convenient lands.

Ultimately, Southern Italy and Sicily were so intensively developed by the Greeks that already in ancient historiography this entire area received the name Magna Graecia. The largest and most significant policies in the region were Syracuse, founded approx. 734 BC. Corinthians. Syracuse was so prosperous economically and political center, which can be considered the most famous Greek colony. Of other cities of Magna Graecia, mention should be made: in Sicily - Gelu(a colony of the city of Lindh on Rhodes), on the southern coast of Italy - Sybaris, Croton(founded by people from Achaia), Tarentum(almost the only colony of Sparta, derived as a result of the internal political struggle in this polis), Regius(Colony of Chalkida).

A special role in the colonization of the far west of the Mediterranean by the Greeks was played by Phocaea, a polis in Asia Minor Ionia, the homeland of many excellent sailors. About 600g. BC. The Phocians founded a colony on the southern coast of what is now France Massilia(modern Marseille), which became a rich and prosperous city. The Phocians created a number of their own settlements on the Mediterranean coast of Spain.

The northeastern direction of Greek colonization attracted residents of the policies of Balkan Greece due to the presence of minerals (deposits of gold and silver in the Northern Aegean), the fertility of the lands (primarily the Black Sea region), and the possibility of establishing profitable trade relations. In this direction, the Greeks mastered the Thracian coast of the Aegean Sea, including the Chalkidiki peninsula (on this peninsula the network of Greek settlements was especially dense), and then the zone of the Black Sea straits, where Megara showed great activity. In the VI century. BC. the Megarians founded a colony on the opposite banks of the Bosporus Strait (an extremely strategically important area) Chalcedon And Byzantium(future Constantinople, modern Istanbul).

The logical conclusion of the movement of the Greeks to the northeast was the development of the Black Sea coast, which they called the Pont Euxine (i.e., the Hospitable Sea). The first attempts to colonize the Black Sea coast date back to the 8th century. BC. But only from the 7th century. BC, when the Greeks managed to firmly gain a foothold in the Black Sea straits, and also get used to the navigational specifics of the Black Sea basin (virtual absence of islands, long distances and depths, different climatic conditions), this sea became truly “hospitable” for them. Miletus took a particularly active part in the colonization of the Pontic shores, founding most of his colonies in this region.

Of the colonies of the Southern Black Sea region, the most significant were Sinope And Heraclea Pontica, Eastern – Dioscuriad And Fasis, Western - Istria And Odessa Perhaps the largest number of settlements among the Hellenic colonists was in the Northern Black Sea region. At the end of the 7th century. BC. The Milesians settled on the small island of Berezan near the mouth of the Dnieper. They then made a "jump to the mainland", founding a city Olvia. In the 6th century. BC. many Greek settlements (the overwhelming majority were Milesian colonies) occupied the shores of the Cimmerian Bosporus (the ancient name of the Kerch Strait). The largest center of ancient civilization in this region was Panticapaeum(located on the site of modern Kerch). Smaller cities and towns arose nearby: Nymphaeum, Myrmekium, Theodosius, Phanagoria, Hermonassa etc. Over time, these cities created an association (of a religious, and possibly military-political nature), headed by Panticapaeum. In the classical era, from this union of policies, the largest state in the Northern Black Sea region was formed - the Bosporus Kingdom.

The great Greek colonization, for obvious reasons, almost did not spread to the east and south. In the Eastern Mediterranean, developed states have long existed (Phoenician cities, Egypt), which were by no means interested in the appearance of “foreign” settlements on their lands. The matter did not go further than the formation of Greek trading posts on the territory of these kingdoms. In particular, in Egypt, in the Nile Delta, in the 7th century. BC. a colony arose Naucratis, but this is not a traditional Greek city. Naucratis was founded by several policies and was inhabited mainly by merchants, while being subject to the authority of the pharaoh. In other words, it was more of a large trading post than a colony in the proper sense of the word. Only in one area on the African coast, which later received the name Cyrenaica (the territory of modern Libya), from the 7th century. BC. colonies began to appear, the largest of which was Cyrene, quickly became a thriving city.

Sicily. Temple of Concord in Akragant (5th century BC). Photo

All Greek policies treated the removal of colonies very responsibly. Before setting off, the colonists sought to scout out the location of the proposed settlement, find out about the availability of fertile land, take care of convenient harbors, and, if possible, determine the degree of friendliness local residents. Very often, city authorities turned for advice to the oracle of Apollo in Delphi, whose priests became real experts in such matters. Then lists of those wishing to go to the colony were compiled, and the head of the expedition was appointed - oikist(on arrival at the place he usually became the head of the new city). Finally, taking with them the sacred fire from their native altars, the future colonists set off on their ships.

Having arrived at the place, the settlers first of all began to arrange the Greek polis they had founded: they erected defensive walls, temples of the gods and public buildings, and divided the surrounding territory among themselves into claires ( land). From the moment of its founding, each colony was a completely independent polis. As a rule, all colonies maintained close ties with the metropolis - economic, religious, and sometimes political (for example, Corinth sent its representatives to the colonies it founded).

One of the most important problems that the colonists always faced was the system of relationships with the local tribal world. After all, almost each of the newly founded Greek cities found itself surrounded by settlements of people who had previously lived on this territory, who were, as a rule, at a lower level of development (in Sicily these were the Siculi, in the Northern Black Sea region - the Scythians, etc.). Relations with the aborigines could develop in different ways. Unclouded friendly contacts based on mutually beneficial economic cooperation were established relatively rarely. More often than not, the surrounding tribes became hostile, leading either to frequent wars that exhausted both sides, or to a state of armed neutrality that forced the colonists to live in constant vigilance. It happened that one of the sides managed to gain the upper hand in the fight. If the colonists won, the local residents became politically and economically dependent on the Greeks. Founded in the middle of the 6th century. BC. Heraclea Pontic Greeks from Megara immediately entered into a stubborn struggle for land with the local population - the Mariandins. The victory was won by the more united and better armed Greek colonists. The land of the Mariandins was turned into the property of the Heraclean polis, and the local residents themselves were enslaved, although they received some guarantees: the founders of Heraclea undertook not to sell them abroad. Such was the fate of the Killyrian tribes in Syracuse.

But the Greek colony could also become dependent on the local ruler. So, in the 5th century. BC. Olbia was under the protectorate of the Scythian kings.

It is difficult to overestimate the consequences of the Great Greek colonization, which began in the archaic era and continued, although not on the same scale, in the classical era. During colonization, the Greeks settled and developed vast territories. The Greeks approached the choice of a location for a colony very rationally, taking into account all possible positive and negative factors, so in most cases new settlements quickly became prosperous cities. Maintaining active ties with the “old” Greek lands, the colonies themselves began to influence the development of their metropolises.

The colonies were typical policies, and therefore life in them fell under the same laws of social development as the policies of Balkan Greece. In particular, they were faced with the same economic, social and political problems: “land hunger”, the struggle of various groups for power, etc. It is not surprising that many of the colonies eventually become metropolises themselves, founding their own colonies. So, Gela founded in Sicily Akragant – a city that soon was no longer inferior to it in size and importance. Several colonies were established by Heraclea Pontica, of which the most famous was the one that arose in the second half of the 6th century. BC. Chersonese Tauride(on the territory of modern Sevastopol).

Ruins of Chersonese Tauride. Photo

The process of the Great Greek colonization is due to several groups of reasons. The first of these is the emergence of relative overpopulation in a number of regions of Greece. By the beginning of the Archaic era in Greece, a sharp demographic explosion and a significant increase in population were obvious. However, against the backdrop of poor development of productive forces, the intensification of agricultural production in those conditions was impossible. Namely, this could help feed the increased population. Therefore, some of the residents could no longer feed themselves in their homeland, since there was no longer any new land available for cultivation in Greece. Hence the search for such lands in foreign lands and the resettlement of the excess population to new territories.
Another group of reasons for the Great Greek colonization are reasons of a social nature. Impoverished community members-peasants, if they did not want to fall into debt bondage to their rich and noble relatives, were forced to leave plots of land mortgaged for debts. That's why the only way out for them there could only be departure to a foreign land. For the cities of archaic Greece, which over time became major economic centers, and in which trade became one of the leading sectors of the economy, an important reason for colonization was the desire of the traders of these cities to gain a foothold on the routes to foreign countries. Only in colonies closely linked to their mother countries by economic, political, social and cultural ties did traders feel protected.
The socio-economic struggle in the metropolises is another reason for the Great Greek Colonization. IN archaic period, during the formation of Greek city-states and the emergence of tyrannical regimes in many of them, the political struggle between various groups of the population and the repressive policies of the tyrants reached alarming severity. Therefore, the defeated group was faced with a choice - either inevitable death or flight to the colonies, forced emigration.
As the cities of Greece grew as centers of handicraft production, the need to expand the raw material base for the production of handicraft products began to be strongly felt. These raw materials came to Greece from outside, and in this process the colonies also began to play a decisive role over time. Grafsky V.G. General history of law and state. - M., 2000 - p. 43
Finally, one more circumstance should be noted. In archaic times, in many socio-economically developed areas of Greece, debt slavery of fellow citizens was legally prohibited. The search begins for new sources of replenishment of slaves already on the barbarian periphery, where Greek colonies appeared. Colonists often became organizers of new slave markets, being intermediaries between “wholesalers”, slave traders and representatives of the ruling “elite” of barbarian societies, exchanging or selling their fellow tribesmen to foreign lands. Well, just don’t write everything, cut it down ok!!....

Answer

Common Causes of Colonization

In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. Greek colonization is developing widely. The emergence of settlements of Greek colonists in the Mediterranean countries played a significant role in historical life the Greeks themselves and in the life of the tribes and peoples with whom, as a result of colonization, the Greeks came into direct and lasting contact.

The main reasons for colonization are rooted in the general course historical development Greek society. The dominance of the tribal aristocracy, the concentration of land holdings in its hands, the process of landlessness and enslavement of the free poor forced the latter to emigrate.

For those who were defeated in the internal struggle that proceeded with varying success, there was often no choice but to leave their homeland forever and found a new settlement. In a number of cases, democratic elements found themselves in this situation: the poor, small and medium-sized landowners, artisans, whose labor was beginning to be supplanted by the labor of slaves, and even the rich - opponents of the established government. Defeated aristocrats also left their homeland, often with their followers and relatives. Subsequently, with the development of colonization and the expansion of maritime trade, the initiative in creating new settlements was often taken by the most enterprising representatives of the trade and craft circles of the urban population, and often by the slaveholding state itself.)

Characterizing the reasons for this emigration, Marx wrote: “In the ancient states, in Greece and Rome, forced emigration, which took the form of the periodic establishment of colonies, constituted a permanent link in the social chain... The insufficient development of the productive forces made citizens dependent on a certain quantitative ratio, which could not be violated. Therefore, the only way out of the situation was forced emigration.”

The main difference between the early Greek colonies and the Phoenician colonies was that the Greek colonies initially had all the features of agricultural settlements that had trade relations only with their metropolis, while the Phoenician colonies were most often trading posts. Agricultural settlements were, for example, colonies founded in the 8th century. BC e. the Euboean city of Chalkida on a peninsula in the northern part of the Aegean Sea, which later received the name Chalkidiki, or the city of Byzantium, founded by immigrants from the Dorian Megara on the Thracian coast of the Bosporus - the strait that connected the Propontis (Sea of ​​Marmara) with the Black Sea. Greek settlements, which arose around the same time on the coasts of southern Italy and Sicily, famous for their fertility, were also agricultural in nature.

Weapons and other metal products, fabrics, artistic dishes, olive oil, wine - all these are Greek colonists, according to at least At first, they received it from their metropolises. In turn, the colonies exported their surplus agricultural products to the metropolis. Colonies from agricultural ones gradually became agricultural and trading colonies. Subsequently, the inhabitants of the colonies began to consume only part of the imported goods, while they resold the other part to neighboring tribes or exchanged them for food and raw materials, simultaneously increasing exports to the metropolis. Over time, the colonies also developed their own handicraft production. Expanding the borders of the Hellenic world and strengthening the ties of the Greeks with other tribes and peoples, colonization thus accelerated the growth of commodity production in both the metropolises and the colonies and significantly influenced the development of maritime trade. The size of the territories belonging to the colonies, with some exceptions, was usually small. As a rule, they were adjacent to the sea coast or were in close proximity to it. According to the figurative expression of the philosopher Plato (5th century BC), Greek cities scattered along the shores of the seas from the Caucasus to Gibraltar resembled frogs settled around a pond.

In the cities that founded big number colonies, as, for example, in Miletus, which, according to legend, formed more than 60 colonies, the colonization problem became so heavy weight, which became the focus of state attention. In such cities, special officials began to be elected - the so-called oikists, whose duties were the establishment of new settlements. Often, not only citizens of a given policy were evicted to the colony, but also residents of other cities. In such cases, the city creating the colony acquired a kind of significance collection point for everyone who wants to move to a new place. In the context of a general upswing in economic life that characterized the period under review, many newly founded settlements quickly turned into cities as large as their metropolises. For example, Syracuse in Sicily, founded by the Corinthians, was soon in no way inferior to its metropolis, Corinth, in terms of the number of inhabitants and wealth.

The Greek colonies were as independent city states as their metropolises. The connection between the colony and the metropolis, as a rule, took the form of friendly or allied relations, but these were relations between two independent states, between which conflicts arose, sometimes leading to armed clashes.

Main directions of Greek colonization

Greek colonization VIII-VI centuries. BC e. developed simultaneously in several directions, largely determined by the connections that existed between the Greeks and other peoples and tribes of that time. As colonization progressed, new connections emerged and strengthened. Relations between Greek colonists and local tribes, who had not yet outlived primitive communal relations, acquired great importance at this time. Such are the relationships of the Greeks with the Thracian tribes on the Balkan Peninsula, with the local tribes of Southern Italy and Sicily, with the Celts and Iberians, who in ancient times inhabited the modern territories of France and Spain, with the Scythians, places and other Lemens on the coasts of the Black and Azov seas. The Greeks established peaceful relations with many of the local tribes on the basis of trade exchanges, which brought enormous benefits to the colonies, but there were also frequent cases of military clashes.

Advancement of Greek colonists in westward began with the creation of a number of colonies on the coasts of the Ionian and southern Adriatic Sea - Epirus, Illyria, on the nearby islands - Kerkyra, Lefkas and others, as well as southern Italy. In the VIII-VII centuries. BC e. Part of the colonization of Southern Italy included people from a number of cities and regions of Greece. For example, many residents of the western region of the Peloponnese-Messenia moved here after the conquest of their homeland by Sparta, settling in the city of Regia, shortly before founded by the Chalcidians on the shores of the Strait of Messina. Residents of Sparta itself also moved to Southern Italy, founding the colony of Tarentum on the shores of the bay of the same name. The inhabitants of Achaia founded Sybaris and Croton on the same coast, which soon became flourishing cities famous for their wealth. The Chalcidians already mentioned above, together with immigrants from the Asia Minor city of Kima, founded on west coast Italy city of Kimu (Kuma). In turn, the Cumae founded a number of other colonies nearby, including Naples (“ New town"). According to legend, the Chalcidians founded Naxos in 735, the first Greek colony in Icilia, which in turn founded Catana and Leontina. Almost simultaneously with the Chalcidians, Corinth created the colony of Syracuse on the eastern coast of Sicily, which later became the largest of all Greek cities located to the west of Greece. During the second half of the 8th and 7th centuries. Many other colonies arose on the coasts of Sicily and southern Italy, founded by residents of various Greek cities. The colonization of these coasts took on such a wide scale that already in the 6th century. behind them, and especially in the area around Tarentum, the name “Magna Graecia” was established.

Many of the colonies in Magna Graecia took possession of significant areas of fertile land, making the local people dependent on them. indigenous people. This often caused military clashes between the Greeks and local tribes (for example, with the Messapian and Bruttian tribes in Southern Italy, with the Siculi and Sicani tribes in Sicily). Due to territorial expansion, trade rivalry and the struggle for political dominance, military clashes often occurred between the colonies themselves. Thus, in Sipilia, Syracuse fought several times with its own colony of Camarina, etc. Clashes between the policies were often intertwined with the acute social struggle taking place within them between various political groups, since the same social processes that took place in the indigenous Greek cities , developed in the colonies; and here, among the population, the aristocracy that emigrated from the metropolis and emerged again stood out, striving to stay in power, and here a process of property stratification took place.

The Greeks penetrate further west. Immigrants from Phocaea founded the colony of Massalia (now Marseille, Southern France) at the mouth of the Rhone River. Subsequently, Massalia brought a number of colonies even further to the west, right up to the coast of the Iberian Peninsula.

On the basis of territorial expansion, clashes between the Greeks and the Etruscans and Carthaginians occurred. Thus, the Carthaginians, with the help of the Etruscans, ousted the Phocian Greeks from the island of Corsica, who were trying to establish their own colony here. The Carthaginians retained a significant part of Sicily, did not allow the organization of Greek colonies in southern Spain and in the western part of the North African coast, and firmly held the island of Sardinia.

Two significant Greek colonies arose on the southeastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea - Naucratis in Egypt, on one of the branches of the Nile delta, and Cyrene on the coast of Libya, west of Egypt. The peculiarity of the structure of Naucratis was that the land for the creation of this colony was allocated by the Egyptian king and it limited the territory in Egypt where the Greeks could settle and trade, paying a tax to Egypt. Therefore, the population of Naucratis consisted of immigrants from various Greek cities. These settlers, within the framework of a common policy for all of them, continued to maintain their special autonomous administration. Naucratis developed a fairly significant handicraft industry, the products of which, in many ways imitating those of ancient Egypt, were widely exported, including to Western Asia. The second colony on the African coast of the Mediterranean Sea, Cyrene, was founded in the middle of the 7th century. mainly Dorian poleis. Subsequently, several other settlements grew around Cyrene. The political unification of these settlements led by Cyrene (the so-called “pentapolis”) covered the entire region - Cyrenaica. Cyrenaica was famous for its exceptional fertility. According to one inscription in the 4th century. BC e., Cyrene during three years exported over 800 thousand medimn of grain to various cities of Greece (medimn = 52, 53l). The main export items were: wheat, olive oil, dates, etc.

The coasts of the Hellespont (Dardanelles), Propontis (Sea of ​​Marmara) and the southern coast of Pontus (Black Sea) have also been around since the 8th century. began to be settled mainly by immigrants from the Greek cities of Asia Minor. The Greek colonies of Cyzicus on the shores of the Sea of ​​Marmara, Sinope and Trebizond on the southern shore of the Black Sea arose already in the middle of the 8th century. Invisibly, in the second half of the 7th century. Istria was founded on the western coast of Pontus; at the end of the same century, Apollonia appeared south of Istria and after it several other colonies of the Western Black Sea region. They served as strongholds for the further advance of the Greeks to the north.

In the colonization of the Northern Black Sea region the main role belonged to the Ionian cities of the Asia Minor coast and primarily to Miletus. In the VII-VI centuries. he founded Olbia on the right bank of the Bug-Dnieper estuary and a number of colonies on both banks of the Kerch Strait - the ancient “Cimmerian Bosporus”. The largest of them were Panticapaeum (modern Kerch) and Feodosia on the eastern coast of Crimea, Phanagoria and Hermonassa on the coast of the Taman Peninsula. The only Dorian colony on the North Black Sea coast was Chersonesus, founded in the 5th century. 3 km from present-day Sevastopol by settlers from Heraclea Pontic (now the city of Eregli in Asia Minor).

From their very foundation, the Northern Black Sea colonies came into close contact with local Scythian and Meotian tribes (the latter lived on the Taman Peninsula and the Kuban region). The colonists had military clashes with some of the tribes, while peaceful relations were established with others based on barter trade. For the further development of the Northern Black Sea colonies, along with agriculture and handicraft production, trade began to acquire importance. Many Greek cities began to feel the need for the import of bread and other agricultural products relatively early. In this regard, the Northern Black Sea colonies as permanent suppliers of these products, and later work force(slaves) began to play a very prominent role in the economic life of Greece. The development of trading activities of the Northern Black Sea colonies significantly affected their relationships with local tribes. Handicrafts, wine and olive oil imported from Greece, as well as products made by Greek craftsmen in the colonies themselves, were exchanged for agricultural products; the local tribal nobility, who owned large herds and fertile lands. However, wider sections of the population were also drawn into trade relations with the Greeks, some of whom, according to Herodotus, sowed grain with the expectation of selling it. Numerous Greek artifacts discovered during excavations of settlements and burial mounds clearly show the intensity of these connections.

Trade with the Greeks both in the Northern Black Sea region and in other areas of Greek colonization contributed to the further decomposition of the primitive communal system among local tribes. The strong impact is also becoming increasingly noticeable Greek culture to the upper strata of the surrounding tribes. On the other hand, the rapprochement of Greek settlers with the local population left its mark on the entire course of socio-economic and political history colonies and the nature of their culture. The interpenetration of the cultures of the Greeks and local residents and the entry of some local elements into the population of the colonies are to a greater or lesser extent characteristic of all areas covered by Greek colonization, although the relationship between the colonists and the local population took different forms.

Colonization also played a significant role in the historical development of the indigenous territory of Greece. The growth of craft production and trade, accelerated by colonization, strengthened the craft and trade strata of the demos in the metropolis, which fought against the clan aristocracy. Thus, the colonization of the VIII-VI centuries. was one of the important factors in the process of the final elimination of the remnants of the tribal system and the complete victory of the slave-owning mode of production in Greece.

Class struggle in the colonies

Little is known about the internal events of the socio-political life of the Greek colonies in the first period of their existence. Some data is available about the situation in the policies of Magna Graecia (Sipilia and Southern Italy). Already in the VII-VI centuries. There was a fierce class struggle here. Information about social movements of the 7th century. in the city-states of Magna Graecia it is said that here, even earlier than in the metropolis, large sections of the Greek population came out with a demand for a record of the laws in force. We have received news of the legislation of Zaleucus (about 650) from Locris Italia and Charondus (about 6th century) from Catana in Sicily. As far as can be judged from fragmentary data, these laws reflected the relations that developed in agricultural communities. For example, the laws of Zalewok prohibited any intermediary trade, and the farmer could sell his products only directly to the consumer. Written contracts were also prohibited; transactions had to be concluded orally in front of witnesses.

The development of commodity-money relations led to an aggravation of contradictions between large landowners and the trade and craft layers of the population. Just as in the Greek city-states of the Aegean basin, in the western colonies of the Greeks these processes found expression in political upheavals associated with the establishment of tyranny.

Tyranny in the Greek cities of Sicily appeared at the end of the 7th century, but became especially widespread in the second half of the 6th century. According to legend, the first Sicilian tyrant was Panthetius (in Leontini). In the first half of the 6th century. carried out a political coup in Akraganta (Agrigenta) Phalaris. The support of this tyrant was, as tradition says, the artisans and builders he gathered to build the temple of Zeus. At the end of the 6th century. the dominance of the oligarchs in Gela was overthrown by the leader of the democratic strata of the population Cleander, who held power for seven years; His brother Hippocrates ruled for the same amount of time after Cleander, who was active foreign policy: he captured Naxos, Leontini and other cities, successfully fought with the Syracusans, but died in a battle with the Siculi. His successor Gelon (491-478) took possession of Syracuse and became the founder of a fairly large Eastern Sicilian state centered in this city; Syracuse strengthened even more thanks to an alliance with the tyrant of Akragant - Feron.

Democratic revolutions, often associated with the establishment of tyranny, took place in the second half of the 6th century. and in a number of southern Italian cities. In Sybaris, a major trading center of Magna Graecia, a democratic revolution took place, the consequence of which was the establishment of tyranny and a war with the aristocratic Croton, which ended in the complete destruction of Sybaris (509). Soon, however, the aristocracy of Croton was deprived of power as a result popular uprising. A tyrannical form of government was also established in Kim, Tarentum, and Regia. This regime lasted the longest in last city where is the tyrant Anaxilaus for a long time(494-476) held power in his hands. The Kim tyrant Aristodemus at the end of the 6th century. seized power, relying on the lower strata of the urban population. He released convicts from prison and allegedly even freed slaves.

In another area of ​​Greek colonization - in agricultural Cyrene in the 7th and 6th centuries. oligarchic government dominated, headed by the council and the king. But even here in the second half of the 6th century. broad sections of the free achieved reforms that limited the economic and political power of the tsar. However, the democratic restructuring of the state occurred only later, already in the 5th century, and the victory of democracy here was fragile.

What all these movements had in common was the desire to seize power and political rights by the trade and craft sections of the population. The internal struggle intensified even more in connection with the foreign political situation, as the desire of the Greek cities of the Western Mediterranean for dominance on trade routes led to serious conflicts with the Carthaginians, and then with the Etruscans.

One of the results of which was the emergence of numerous centers on the northern shores of the Black Sea, has been a long-term debate. One of the first works to summarize the evidence of ancient authors about the emergence of new settlements and the reasons for colonization was the study of Raoul Rochette. The French historian believed that the main driver for the development of new lands was the inherent irrepressibility of the Greeks, to which were added various local circumstances: political struggle in the city-states, lack of land and famine.

A critical analysis of written sources, archaeological excavations and discoveries of epigraphic monuments led to the emergence of the late 19th century. two concepts, echoes of which exist in our time.

The thesis about colonization as a trade expansion of the Greeks was put forward by one of the largest German historians, Eduard Meyer. According to his point of view, development from the 8th century. BC e. handicraft production and maritime trade forced the Greeks to explore new areas in search of markets. Colonization was also facilitated by the overpopulation characteristic of city-states at that time.

Not trade interests, but lack of land - main reason The great Greek colonization was the opinion of another German historian Julius Beloch. His contemporary Paul Guiraud was also a supporter of the theory of agrarian colonization. He emphasized that the nature of land relations, which was the reason why the Hellenes left their homeland, should be taken into account. The land belonged to the family, and its head could disinherit any of his sons, which led to emigration. Family members excluded from participation in the division of common property became the main core of the settlers.

Among Russian historians late XIX- the beginning of the 20th century, who turned to the history of the colonization movement of the Hellenes, should first of all be named V.V. Latyshev and A.I. Tyumenev. In the work “Research on the history and political system of the city of Olbia” V.V. Latyshev concluded that the Hellenes were brought to the Northern Black Sea region by trade interests. A.I. Tyumenev, like R.Yu. Whipper, whose words are given above, believed that trade colonization (VII century BC), which was influenced by the economic revolution that occurred in the archaic period (VIII-VII centuries BC), followed the agrarian ( VIII century BC). A.I. Tyumenev, putting in first place such a factor as the lack of land fund, also noted the presence of trade interests and social struggle - contradictions between the nobility and the demos that took place in the process of formation of the polis organization.

Participating in the discussion about the initial history of the cities of the Northern Black Sea region was E. von Stern, a member of the Odessa Society of History and Antiquities, who wrote about great importance archaeological finds to clarify the time of the appearance of the Hellenes on the shores of the Black Sea. We have yet to become acquainted with his views in connection with the discussion about the “two Chersonesos”.

In the 20th century, Russian historians and their colleagues from other countries repeatedly turned to the history of the Great Greek colonization. Numerous fundamental monographs and individual articles contain data on new settlements, their relationships with the metropolises and their barbarian neighbors. Special conferences testify to the constant interest and attention to the problems of colonization. For example, symposiums in Tskaltubo (Georgia, the first one took place in 1977). The exchange of opinions and analysis of archaeological materials led researchers to the conclusion about the diversity of causes of the colonization process. The works of Russian historians noted that the formation of a new polis and the arrangement of its choir led to the emergence of contact zones; the new situation in the region contributed to changes in socio-economic relations in a barbaric environment. Without stopping to present the views of a large galaxy of researchers and the discussions that exist to date on individual aspects of the colonization process, we summarize the main conclusions.

So, one of the reasons for the development of the colonization movement was the appearance in society of those who were deprived of land; The settlers included those who, for some reason, could not have land in their homeland. An example is the fate of the poet Archilochus (c. 650 BC - ?). Being the illegitimate son of a Parian aristocrat and a slave, he had no rights to a share of the property during the division of his father’s inheritance and became one of the most active participants in the settlement of the island by the Parians. Fasosa. Archilochus wrote about himself: “I have my bread mixed in a sharp spear. And in the spear - I drink wine from under Ismar, leaning on the spear.”

In the new settlements, people from different policies mixed. The great Greek colonization liberated the individual from the control of the clan, contributing to the disintegration of its traditions. Energetic and enterprising people were concentrated in apoikias, who had lost contact with their clan community, relying, like Archilochus, only on themselves.

Another reason for moving to new lands was social contradictions, which accompanied the process of the birth of a new type of statehood - the polis. The struggle between the nobility and ordinary members of the community (demos) led in some cases to the fact that the vanquished were forced to leave their homeland.

The need to obtain raw materials also led to the development of new lands. Many of the new settlements arose where there were iron deposits nearby. Of course, the metropolis that established the colony was also interested in new places of trade.

The fundamental work of V.P. is devoted to the issues of colonization. Yaylenko, which contains an extensive historiographical sketch. The researcher is inclined to believe that “colonization was one of the most significant reasons for the economic revolution in archaic Greece; it significantly influenced the growth of Greek cities. At the same time, it greatly contributed to the socio-political development of Greece, the destruction of tribal foundations, the collapse of the aristocratic system, and the emergence of oligarchic and early democratic policies." This conclusion summarizes the currently existing opinions, if we slightly correct the beginning of the phrase: “The economic revolution in archaic Greece became one of the most significant reasons for colonization...”.

So, the nature and direction of the colonization movement were influenced by several factors: the destruction of ancestral property, political struggle in the policies and trade interests, and the lack of raw materials on the territory of mainland Hellas.

The colonization movement was carried out in the form of apoikia (the founding of a new independent polis) and sending epoiks (expeditions to strengthen the human, and therefore military, resources of an existing settlement). However, there may have been legal differences between the founders of the new settlement and those who arrived later.

Notes

The term “colonization” is traditionally used in works to denote the process of the Hellenes’ development of new lands. At the same time, it is noted that it “does not quite accurately define the essence of the resettlement process that covered Ancient Greece in the VIII-VI centuries. BC e., since it was borrowed from the sphere of phenomena of Roman, and not Greek social life; the Roman or Latin colonia is not identical to the Greek apoikia. ...The term “ΜΕΤΑΝΑΣΤΑΣΙΣ” (resettlement, eviction) is more consistent with the essence of Greek migrations (see: Lapin V.V. Greek colonization of the Northern Black Sea region. Kyiv, 1966. P. 5).

Causes

The process of the Great Greek colonization is due to several groups of reasons. The first of these is the emergence of relative overpopulation in a number of regions of Greece. By the beginning of the Archaic era in Greece, a sharp demographic explosion and a significant increase in population were obvious. However, against the backdrop of poor development of productive forces, the intensification of agricultural production in those conditions was impossible. Namely, this could help feed the increased population. Therefore, some of the residents could no longer feed themselves in their homeland, since there was no longer any new land available for cultivation in Greece. Hence the search for such lands in foreign lands and the resettlement of the excess population to new territories.

Another group of reasons for the Great Greek colonization are reasons of a social nature. Impoverished community members-peasants, if they did not want to fall into debt bondage to their rich and noble relatives, were forced to leave plots of land mortgaged for debts. Therefore, the only way out for them could only be to leave for a foreign land. For the cities of archaic Greece, which over time became major economic centers, and in which trade became one of the leading sectors of the economy, an important reason for colonization was the desire of the traders of these cities to gain a foothold on the routes to foreign countries. Only in colonies closely linked to their mother countries by economic, political, social and cultural ties did traders feel protected.

The socio-economic struggle in the metropolises is another reason for the Great Greek Colonization. In the archaic period, during the formation of Greek city-states and the emergence of tyrannical regimes in many of them, the political struggle between various population groups and the repressive policies of tyrants reached alarming severity. Therefore, the defeated group was faced with a choice - either inevitable death or flight to the colonies, forced emigration.

As the cities of Greece grew as centers of handicraft production, the need to expand the raw material base for the production of handicraft products began to be strongly felt. These raw materials came to Greece from outside, and in this process the colonies also began to play a decisive role over time.

Finally, one more circumstance should be noted. In archaic times, in many socio-economically developed areas of Greece, debt slavery of fellow citizens was legally prohibited. The search begins for new sources of replenishment of slaves already on the barbarian periphery, where Greek colonies appeared. Colonists often became organizers of new slave markets, acting as intermediaries between "wholesalers", slave traders and representatives of the ruling "elite" of barbarian societies, exchanging or selling their fellow tribesmen to foreign lands.

The great Greek colonization is not a chaotic movement of Greeks to foreign lands in search of happiness and a better life. It was organized and controlled, and future colonists imagined where they could go, what lands and territories they would occupy, the climatic conditions of these places, etc. For these purposes, the metropolitan authorities organized exploration expeditions, and also appointed a person, the oikist of the colony, responsible for the founding of the new colony and the organization of the departure of the party of settlers. It was he who at first organized the surveying and distribution of agricultural land on new lands, carried out planning and supervised the construction of settlements for the colonists.

In the history of the Great Greek colonization, three directions stand out. The first direction is western. As a result of the movement of Greek settlers to the west, the coast of the Ionian and Adriatic seas northwest of Greece, areas of southern Italy, the island of Sicily, southern Gaul, the eastern coast of Spain and other areas were developed. The second direction of the colonization movement of the Greeks is northeastern, thanks to which the Greeks mastered the northern coast of the Aegean Sea, the areas of the straits, and the shores of the Black Sea. Finally, as a result of the southern and southeastern direction of colonization, Greek colonies were founded on the southern coast of Asia Minor and on the Mediterranean coast northern Africa(Egypt). The first two directions of the Great Greek colonization became the main and leading ones.

Over the course of almost three centuries of the archaic era, the Greeks managed to develop a significant part of the Mediterranean coast, the entire Black Sea region, and part of the Azov region. They managed to settle in the Gibraltar region in the west, and in the northeast they reached the mouth of the Tanais River (modern Don). A Greek colony was founded on Egyptian territory, in Naucratis. Quarters of Greek traders have been discovered in ancient Syrian cities. As a rule, all territories colonized by the Greeks and occupied by colonies were adjacent to the sea coast or located near it. This allowed the great philosopher Plato to figuratively compare the Greek colonies scattered along the shores of the seas from the Caucasus to Gibraltar with frogs scattered around a pond, which should be understood as the Mediterranean and Black Seas.

In the colonization of southern Italy in the VIII - VII centuries. BC. People from many regions of Greece took part. Thus, the inhabitants of Messenia, conquered by Sparta, moved to the city of Regia, founded by the Chalcidians on the shores of the Strait of Messina. The Spartiates themselves soon founded their colony of Tarentum here. Residents of another region, Pelottonnes, founded Sybaris and Croton on the same coast, which soon became flourishing cities. On the east coast of Sicily, the Corinthians founded their colony of Syracuse, which soon became the largest Greek city west of Greece. Interestingly, Greek colonies often founded their own colonies. An example would be the colonists of Naxos, immigrants from Chalkis, who founded the colonies of Naxos near Katana and Leontina. Colonization of southern Italy and Sicily towards the end of the 6th century BC. took on such a stormy character that these areas soon acquired the name “Great Greece”.

Thanks to the Great Greek Colonization, economic, political and social problems. The policy economy reached a new qualitative level, and Greek trade acquired a truly international character. Many Greek colonies became developed economic centers, often far ahead of their metropolises.

What did colonization give Greece? First of all, it caused a massive outflow of the population, leaving their homeland due to lack of land or frequent internal strife. As a result, the number of dissatisfied people among the free population of Greece decreased, and this to some extent relieved social tension.

Colonization opened up enormous opportunities for trade, which accelerated the development of shipbuilding and all the various crafts associated with it. Rich cities quickly grew in the colonies: Chalkis, Corinth, Megara, Miletus, Eretria and many others. Strong trade ties were established between them and the metropolis. What was so poor was supplied from the colonies Balkan Peninsula, - grain, timber, metals and products. In turn, goods for which Greece was famous were brought from the metropolis: handicrafts, wines, olive oil.

The problems facing the colonists required special qualities from a person. Fight with sea ​​elements, the difficulties of developing new, unknown lands - in these situations, the decisive role was played by brave, proactive, capable people who knew their job. Therefore, it is not surprising that in the life of ancient Greek society the cult of personality and the principle of competition between people came to the fore. It is no coincidence that it was in Greece that sports competitions first appeared - the Olympic Games. These were grandiose celebrations in honor of the divine perfection of man, beautiful in soul and body. Statues were erected in honor of the victors, and they were revered as heroes in their hometowns. The ideal of a perfect person, possessing physical strength and nobility, reflected in numerous myths about heroes, demigods, half-humans (myths about Hercules, Prometheus, etc.)

In the second half of the 4th century. BC. thanks to the campaigns (334-324 BC) of Alexander the Great, a gigantic empire arose that covered the Small, Front, partially Middle and Central Asia to the lower reaches of the Indus, as well as Egypt.

So, the special geographical conditions of Greece had a great influence on the course of the historical development of civilization, on the formation of a unique type of personality.