Culture of archaic Greece. Archaic era. The formation of the polis world

The Rhaic period is not separated from the Homeric period by a sharp chronological boundary: its beginning is determined approximately by the 8th century, the end by the beginning of the 5th century, sometimes by the end of the 1st quarter of the 5th century. The historical background of the period was the Great Greek colonization, which expanded the boundaries of the world known to the Greeks. In the archaic era, lyric poetry arose and flourished (Sappho 29, Alcaeus, Alcman, Ibycus, Anacreon and many others), epic poetry continued to develop, a special genre of historiography was born (logographer Hecataeus of Miletus), the first playwrights appeared (Thespis, etc.), the formation of the system of dramatic theatrical performance itself.

A characteristic feature of Greek archaic culture and the entire Greek civilization as a whole becomes agonistic thirty . Competitiveness permeates all areas of Greek activity: from sports, music, theater, poetry competitions to competition in the field of art, which has an undoubted impact on the ever-accelerating development and change in all branches of knowledge and experience among the Greeks 31 . In the archaic period, philosophy was born - Pythagoras was the first to call himself a philosopher 32. The greatest philosophers

, but rather in the ancient sense, sages, were representatives of the Milesian (Ionian) school, Thales, Heraclitus, etc. At the same time, the concept of a philosophical school arose, transmitting and developing the tradition from its founder: the very development of philosophical schools gradually becomes one of the connecting Greek thought was the core until the end of ancient civilization itself. For Greek art, this is an era of discovery: innovations in architecture, sculpture and painting determined the appearance of Greek culture as a whole. Never again has Greece known so many art schools, paths, richness, diversity and originality of searches. In the 7th-6th centuries. a type of Greek temple is emerging with a cella surrounded on all sides by a colonnade, with a pediment with a sculptural group dominating the front portico,

In Greek ceramics, stylistically very diverse, in the 8th century. The so-called Orientalizing (Eastern) manner, which is influenced by a strong Middle Eastern influence, is widespread. In the 7th century. Athenian black-figure vase painting acquires a dominant position, and when the Athenian ceramists (Andocides) move into the middle. 6th century BC e. to the red-figure technique, this step is decisive for all Greek territories.

IN

Greek classics

The political background of the flourishing of culture and art in the classical era, a kind of analogue of it, was the flourishing of the democratic city-states of Greece (for example, Athens during the reign of Pericles 33).

In the 5th century Greece survived the worst wars in its history and came under the rule of a stronger and politically unified Macedonia.

who first depicted pain and suffering on

human face

e. The famous theater buildings of Greece are created - the Theater of Dionysus in Athens and the Theater in Epidaurus.

L

Thucydides

- author of the history of the Peloponnesian War. In the field of philosophy 5–4 centuries. BC e. - the time of its true and great flourishing, the expansion of the activities of philosophical schools (Socrates 34, Plato 35 - founder of the Academy, Aristotle 36 - founder of the Lyceum 37 and the Peripatetic school, etc.). The archaic period in the history of Greece is usually called the 8th – 6th centuries. BC e. According to some researchers, this is the time of the most intensive development of ancient society. Indeed, over the course of three centuries, many important discoveries were made that determined the nature of the technical basis of ancient society, those socio-economic and political phenomena developed that gave ancient society a certain specificity in comparison with other slave-owning societies: classical slavery; monetary circulation and market system; the main form of political organization is the polis; the concept of popular sovereignty and democratic form of government. At the same time, the main ethical norms and principles of morality, aesthetic ideals were developed that influenced the ancient world throughout its history until the emergence of Christianity. Finally, during this period the main phenomena arose

In order to more clearly imagine the dynamics of the development of society in the archaic period, we present the following comparison. Around 800 BC e. The Greeks lived in a limited territory of the south of the Balkan Peninsula, the islands of the Aegean Sea and the western coast of Asia Minor. Around 500 BC e. they already occupy the shores of the Mediterranean from Spain to the Levant and from Africa to the Crimea. Around 800 BC e. Greece is essentially a village world, a world of self-sufficient small communities, by 500 BC. e. Greece is already a mass of small towns with local markets, monetary relations powerfully invade the economy, trade relations cover the entire Mediterranean, the objects of exchange are not only luxury goods, but also everyday goods. Around 800 BC e. Greek society is a simple, primitive social structure with a predominance of the peasantry, an aristocracy not much different from it, and with an insignificant number of slaves. Around 500 BC e. Greece has already experienced an era of great social change, the slave of the classical type becomes one of the main elements social structure, along with the peasantry, there are other socio-professional groups; Various forms of political organization are known: monarchy, tyranny, oligarchy, aristocratic and democratic republics. In 800 BC. e. There are still practically no churches, theaters, or stadiums in Greece. In 500 BC. e. Greece is a country with many beautiful public buildings, the ruins of which still amaze us. Lyric poetry, tragedy, comedy, and natural philosophy emerge and develop.

The rapid rise prepared by previous development and the spread of iron tools had multiple consequences for society. The increase in labor productivity in agriculture and crafts led to an increase in surplus product. Everything was released from the agricultural sector larger number people, which ensured the rapid growth of the craft. The separation of the agricultural and handicraft sectors of the economy led to regular exchange between them, the emergence of a market and a universal equivalent - minted coins. The new kind wealth - money - begins to compete with the old - land ownership, disintegrating traditional relations.

As a result, there is a rapid decomposition of primitive communal relations and the formation of new forms of socio-economic and political organization of society. This process proceeds differently in different parts of Hellas, but everywhere it entails the maturation of social conflicts between the emerging aristocracy and the ordinary population, primarily communal peasants, and then other strata.

Modern researchers usually date the formation of the Greek aristocracy to the 8th century. BC e. The aristocracy of that time was a limited group of people characterized by a special way of life and value system that was obligatory for its members. It occupied a predominant position in the sphere of public life, especially in the administration of justice, and played a leading role in war, since only noble warriors had heavy weapons, and therefore the battles were essentially duels of aristocrats. The aristocracy sought to completely bring ordinary members of society under its control, to turn them into an exploited mass. According to modern researchers, the attack of the aristocracy on ordinary fellow citizens began in the 8th century BC. e. Little is known about the details of this process, but its main results can be judged by the example of Athens, where the increased influence of the aristocracy led to the creation of a clearly defined class structure, a gradual reduction in the layer of the free peasantry and an increase in the number of dependents.

Closely related to this situation is such a phenomenon of enormous historical significance as the “great Greek colonization.” Since the middle of the 8th century BC. e. Greeks were forced to leave their homeland and move to other countries.

Over three centuries, they created many colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Colonization developed in three main directions: western (Sicily, Southern Italy, Southern France and then the eastern coast of Spain), northern (Thracian coast of the Aegean Sea, the area of ​​straits leading from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea, and its coast) and southeastern (the coast of North Africa and the Levant country).

Modern researchers believe that its main stimulus was the lack of land. Greece suffered from both absolute agrarian overpopulation (increase in population due to general economic growth) and relative (lack of land among the poorest peasants due to the concentration of land ownership in the hands of the nobility). Among the causes of colonization also include the political struggle, which usually reflected the main social contradiction of the era - the struggle for land, as a result of which those defeated in civil war were often forced to leave their homeland and move overseas. There were also trade motives - the desire of the Greeks to bring trade routes under their control.

The pioneers of Greek colonization were the cities of Chalkida and Eretria located on the island of Euboea - in the 8th century BC. e., apparently, the most advanced cities of Greece, the most important centers of metallurgical production. Later, Corinth, Megara, and the cities of Asia Minor, especially Miletus, were included in the colonization.

Colonization had a huge impact on the development of ancient Greek society, especially in economic sphere The inability to establish the necessary branches of craft in a new place led to the fact that very soon the colonies established the closest economic ties with the old centers of the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor. From here, both the colonies and the local population neighboring them began to receive products of Greek crafts especially artistic, as well as some types of agricultural products (the best varieties of wines, olive oil and etc.). In return, the colonies supplied grain and other food products, as well as raw materials (timber, metal, etc.) to Greece. As a result, Greek craft received an impetus for further development, and Agriculture began to acquire a commodity character. Thus, colonization muffled social conflicts in Greece, bringing the mass of the landless population beyond its borders and at the same time contributing to changes in the social and economic structure of Greek society.

The attack of the aristocracy on the rights of the demos reached its apogee in the 7th century BC. e., causing counter-resistance. In Greek society, a special social stratum of people appeared who acquired, most often through craft and trade, significant wealth, led an aristocratic lifestyle, but did not have the hereditary privileges of the nobility “Money is held in universal esteem. Wealth has mixed the breeds,” - The poet Theognis of Megara notes bitterly. This new layer greedily strived for control, thereby becoming an ally of the Peasants in the fight against the nobility. The first successes in this struggle were most often associated with the establishment of written laws that limited the arbitrariness of the aristocracy.

Resistance to the growing dominance of the nobility was facilitated by at least three circumstances. Around 675 - 600. BC e. thanks to technical progress a kind of revolution is taking place in military affairs. Heavy armor becomes available to ordinary citizens, and the aristocracy is deprived of its advantage in the military sphere. Due to the scarcity of the country’s natural resources, the Greek aristocracy could not catch up with the aristocracy of the East. Due to its peculiarities historical development in Iron Age Greece there were no such economic institutions (similar to the temple farms of the East), on the basis of which the peasantry could be exploited. Even the peasants who were dependent on the aristocrats were not economically connected with the latter’s farms. All this predetermined the fragility of the dominance of the nobility in society. Finally, the force that prevented the strengthening of the positions of the aristocrats was their ethics. It had an “agonal” (competitive) character: each aristocrat, in accordance with the ethical standards inherent in this stratum, strived to be the first everywhere - on the battlefield, in sports competitions, in politics. This system of values was created by the nobility earlier and transferred to the new historical period, when to ensure dominance she needed the unity of all forces. However, the aristocracy was unable to achieve this.

Exacerbation of social conflicts in the 7th – 6th centuries. BC e. led to the birth of tyranny in many Greek cities, that is, the sole power of the ruler.

At that time, the concept of “tyranny” did not yet have the negative connotation inherent in it today. The tyrants pursued an active foreign policy, created powerful armed forces, decorated and improved their cities. However, the early tyranny as a regime could not last long. The historical doom of tyranny was explained by its internal contradictions. The overthrow of the rule of the nobility and the struggle against it were impossible without the support of the masses. The peasantry, who benefited from this policy, initially supported the tyrants, but when the threat posed by the aristocracy waned, they gradually came to realize the uselessness of the tyrannical regime.

Tyranny was not a stage characteristic of the life of all policies. It was most typical for those cities that, back in the archaic era, became large trade and craft centers. The process of formation of the classical polis due to the relative abundance of sources is best known to us from the example of Athens.

The history of Athens in the archaic era is the history of the formation of a democratic polis. The monopoly on political power in the period under review belonged to the nobility here - the eupatrides, who gradually turned ordinary citizens into a dependent mass. This process already in the 7th century led to outbreaks of social conflicts.

Fundamental changes occur at the beginning of the 6th century. BC uh, and they are connected with Solon’s reforms. The most important of them was the so-called sisakhfiya (“shaking off the burden”). As a result of this reform, the peasants, who, due to debts, had essentially become sharecroppers of their own land, restored their status as owners. At the same time, it was forbidden to enslave Athenians for debts. Great value had reforms that undermined the political dominance of the nobility. From now on, the scope of political rights depended not on nobility, but on the size of property (all citizens of the policy were divided into four property categories). In accordance with this division, the military organization Athens. A new governing body was created - the council (bule), and the importance of the people's assembly increased.

Solon's reforms, despite their radicality, did not solve all the problems. The aggravation of social struggle in Athens led in 560 BC. e. to the establishment of the tyranny of Pisistratus and his sons, which lasted here intermittently until 510 BC. e. Peisistratus pursued an active foreign policy, strengthening the position of Athens on maritime trade routes. Crafts flourished in the city, trade developed, and large-scale construction was carried out. Athens was turning into one of the largest economic centers of Hellas. Under the successors of Pisistratus, this regime fell, which again caused an exacerbation of social contradictions. Soon after 509 BC. e. conducted under the leadership of Cleisthenes New episode reforms that finally established the democratic system. The most important of them was the reform of electoral law: from now on, all citizens, regardless of their property status, had equal political rights. The system of territorial division was changed, destroying the influence of aristocrats in the localities.

Sparta offers a different development option. Having captured Lakonica and enslaved the local population, the Dorians already in the 9th century. BC e. created a state in Sparta. Born very early as a result of conquest, it retained many primitive features in its structure. Subsequently, the Spartans, during two wars, sought to conquer Messenia, a region in the western Peloponnese. The internal social conflict between the nobility and ordinary citizens, which had already been brewing before, erupted in Sparta during the Second Messenian War. In its main features it resembled the conflicts that existed in other parts of Greece around the same time. The long struggle between ordinary Spartiates and the aristocracy led to the restructuring of Spartan society. A system was created, which in later times was called Lykurgov, after the name of the legislator who allegedly established it. Of course, tradition simplifies the picture, because this system was not created immediately, but developed gradually. Having overcome the internal crisis, Sparta was able to conquer Messenia and became the most powerful state in the Peloponnese and, perhaps, in all of Greece.

All the land in Laconia and Messenia was divided into equal plots - claires, which each Spartiate received for temporary possession; after his death, the land was returned to the state. Other measures also served the desire for complete equality of the Spartiates: a harsh education system aimed at forming an ideal warrior, the strictest regulation of all aspects of the lives of citizens - the Spartiates lived as if they were in a military camp, a ban on farming, crafts and trade, and the use of gold and silver; limiting contacts with the outside world. Was reformed and political system. Along with the kings, who performed the functions of military leaders, judges and priests, the council of elders (gerusia) and the people's assembly (apella), a new governing body appeared - the college of five ephors (overseers). The ephorate was the highest control body, ensuring that no one deviated a single step from the principles of the Spartan system, which became the object of pride of the Spartans, who believed that they had achieved the ideal of equality.

In historiography, there is traditionally a view of Sparta as a militarized, militaristic state, and some authoritative experts even call it a “police” state. There is a reason for this definition. The basis on which the “community of equals” was based, i.e. a collective of equal and full-fledged Spartiates, completely unoccupied with productive labor, was the exploited mass of the enslaved population of Laconia and Messenia - the helots. Scientists have been arguing for many years about how to determine the position of this segment of the population. Many tend to consider helots as state slaves. The helots owned plots of land, tools, and had economic independence, but they were obliged to transfer a certain share of the harvest to their masters, the Spartiates, ensuring their existence. According to modern researchers, this share was approximately 1/6-1/7 of the harvest. Deprived of all political rights, the helots belonged entirely to the state, which disposed not only of their property, but also of their lives. The slightest protest on the part of the helots was severely punished.

In the Spartan polis there was another social group - the perieki (“living around”), descendants of the Dorians who were not included in the citizens of Sparta. They lived in communities, had internal self-government under the supervision of Spartan officials, and were engaged in agriculture, crafts and trade. The Perieki were obliged to field military contingents. Similar social conditions and a system close to the Spartan system are known in Crete, Argos, Thessaly and other areas.

Like all other areas of life, Greek culture in the archaic era experienced rapid changes. During these centuries, the development of ethnic identity took place; the Greeks gradually began to recognize themselves as a single people, different from other peoples, whom they began to call barbarians. Ethnic self-awareness was also reflected in some social institutions. According to Greek tradition, starting from 776 BC. e. The Olympic Games began to be held, to which only Greeks were allowed.

In the archaic era, the main features of the ethics of ancient Greek society took shape. Her distinctive feature there was a combination of the emerging sense of collectivism and the agonistic (competitive) principle. The formation of the polis as a special type of community, which replaced the loose associations of the “heroic” era, gave rise to a new, polis morality - collectivist at its core, since the existence of an individual outside the framework of the polis was impossible . The development of this morality was also facilitated by the military organization of the polis (phalanx formation). The highest valor of a citizen consisted in the defense of his polis: “It is sweet to lose life, among the valiant warriors who fell, a brave man in battle is glad of his homeland” - these words of the Spartan poet Tyrtaeus expressed it perfectly mentality of the new era, characterizing the system of values ​​​​prevailing then. However, the new morality retained the principles of morality of Homer's time with its leading principle of competition. The nature of the political reforms in the policies determined the preservation of this morality, since it was not the aristocracy that was deprived of its rights, but ordinary citizenship was raised in terms of the scope of political rights to the level of the aristocracy. Because of this, the traditional ethics of the aristocracy spread among the masses, although in a modified form: the most important principle is who will best serve the polis.

Religion also experienced a certain transformation. The formation of a single Greek world, with all its local features, entailed the creation of a pantheon common to all Greeks. Evidence of this is Hesiod’s poem “Theogony”. The cosmogonic ideas of the Greeks were not fundamentally different from the ideas of many other peoples.

The Greek worldview is characterized not only by polytheism, but also by the idea of ​​the universal animation of nature. Each a natural phenomenon, each river, mountain, grove had its own deity. From the Greek point of view, there was no insurmountable line between the world of people and the world of gods; heroes acted as an intermediary link between them. Heroes such as Hercules joined the world of the gods for their exploits. The gods of the Greeks themselves were anthropomorphic, they experienced human passions and could suffer like people.

The Archaic era is the time of the formation of architecture. The primacy of public, primarily sacred, architecture is indisputable. The dwellings of that time were simple and primitive, all the forces of society were directed towards monumental buildings, primarily temples. Among them, the temples of the gods - the patrons of the community - took precedence. The emerging sense of unity of the civil collective was expressed in the creation of such temples, which were considered the habitat of the gods. Early temples repeated the structure of the megaron of the 2nd millennium BC. e. A new type of temple was born in Sparta, the oldest city in Hellas. A characteristic feature of Greek architecture is the use of orders, i.e. a special construction system that emphasizes the architectonics of the building, gives expressiveness to the load-bearing and non-supporting elements of the structure, revealing their function. An order building usually has a stepped base; a number of load-bearing vertical supports were placed on it - columns that supported the supporting parts - an entablature that reflected the structure of the beam floor and roof. Initially, temples were built on acropolises - fortified hills, ancient centers of settlements. Later, due to the general democratization of society, changes occurred in the location of temples. They are now erected in the lower city, most often on the agora - the main square, which was the center of social and business life of the polis. The temple as an institution contributed to the development of various types of art. Early on, the custom of bringing gifts to the temple was established; part of the booty captured from enemies, weapons, offerings on the occasion of deliverance from danger, etc. were donated to him. A significant portion of these gifts were works of art. An important role was played by temples that gained panhellenic popularity, especially the temple of Apollo at Delphi. The rivalry of first noble families, and then policies, contributed to the fact that the best works of art were concentrated here, and the territory of the sanctuary became something like a museum.

In the archaic era, monumental sculpture arose - a form of art previously unknown to Greece. Ancient sculptures were images roughly carved from wood, often inlaid ivory and covered with sheets of bronze. Improvements in stone processing techniques not only affected architecture, but also led to the emergence of stone sculpture, and in metal processing techniques - to the casting of bronze sculptures. In the 7th – 6th centuries. BC e. two types dominate in sculpture: a naked male figure and a draped female figure. The birth of the statue type of the male nude figure is associated with the main trends in the development of society. The statue depicts a fine and valiant citizen, a winner in sports competitions, who glorified hometown. Tombstone statues and images of deities began to be made using the same type. The appearance of relief is mainly associated with the custom of placing tombstones. Later, reliefs in the form of complex multi-figure compositions became an indispensable part of the temple entablature. Statues and reliefs were usually painted.

Greek monumental painting is much less known than vase painting. The example of the latter best illustrates the main trends in the development of art: the emergence of realistic principles, the interaction of local art and influences coming from the East. In the 7th - early 6th centuries. BC e. Corinthian and Rhodian vases with colorful paintings of the so-called carpet style predominated. They usually depicted floral patterns and various animals and fantastic creatures arranged in a row. In the VI century. BC e. The black-figure style dominates in vase painting: figures painted with black varnish stood out sharply against the reddish background of clay. Paintings on black-figure vases were often multi-figure compositions on mythological subjects: various episodes from the life of the Olympian gods; the labors of Hercules and the Trojan War were popular. Stories related to everyday life people: the battle of hoplites, athletic competitions, feast scenes, round dance of girls, etc.

Since individual images were executed in the form of black silhouettes against a clay background, they give the impression of being flat. Vases made in different cities, they have only their own characteristic features. The black-figure style reached a special peak in Athens. Attic black-figure vases were distinguished by their graceful forms, high manufacturing techniques, and variety of subjects. Some vase painters signed their paintings, and thanks to this we know, for example, the name of Clytius, who painted a magnificent wine vessel (crater): the painting consists of several belts on which multi-figure compositions are presented. Another magnificent example of painting is the Exekia kylix. The vase painter occupied the entire round surface of the wine bowl with one scene: the god Dionysus reclines on a ship sailing under a white sail, grape vines curl around the mast, and heavy grapes hang down. Seven dolphins are diving around, into which, according to myth, Dionysus turned the Tyrrhenian pirates.

The greatest achievement of Greek culture of the archaic era was the creation of alphabetic writing. By transforming the Phoenician syllabary system, the Greeks created a simple way of recording information. In order to learn to write and count, years of hard work were no longer needed; there was a “democratization” of the education system, which made it possible to gradually make almost all free residents of Greece literate. Thus, knowledge was “secularized,” which became one of the reasons for the absence of the priestly class in Greece and contributed to the increase in the spiritual potential of society as a whole.

The archaic era is associated with a phenomenon of exceptional importance for European culture- the emergence of philosophy. Philosophy is a fundamentally new approach to understanding the world, sharply different from the one that dominated in the Near East and Greece more early period. The transition from religious and mythological ideas about the world to its philosophical understanding meant a qualitative leap in the intellectual development of mankind. Setting and formulating problems, relying on the human mind as a means of knowledge, focusing on searching for the causes of everything that happens in the world itself, and not outside it - this is what significantly distinguishes the philosophical approach to the world from religious and mythological views. In modern scientific literature, there are two main views on the emergence of philosophy. According to one, the birth of philosophy is a derivative of the development of science; the quantitative accumulation of positive knowledge resulted in a qualitative leap. According to another explanation, early Greek philosophy was practically no different, except for the method of expression, from the stage-wise earlier mythological system of knowledge of the world. However, in recent years, a view has been expressed that seems to be the most correct: philosophy was born from the social experience of a citizen of the early polis. The polis and the relations of citizens in it are the model by analogy with which Greek philosophers saw the world. This conclusion is confirmed by the fact that the emergence of philosophy in its earliest form - natural philosophy (i.e., philosophy addressed primarily to the knowledge of the most general laws of the world) - occurs in the most advanced policies of Asia Minor. It is with them that the activities of the first philosophers are connected - Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes. Natural philosophical teachings about the primary elements made it possible to build big picture world and explain it without resorting to the help of the gods. The emerging philosophy was spontaneously materialistic, the main thing in the work of its first representatives was the search for the material fundamental principles of all things.

The founder of Ionian natural philosophy, Thales, considered water, which is in continuous movement, to be such a fundamental principle. Its transformations created and create all things, which in turn turn back into water. Thales imagined the earth as a flat disk floating on the surface of primordial water. Thales was also considered the founder of mathematics, astronomy and a number of other specific sciences. Comparing records of successive solar eclipses, he predicted an eclipse of the sun in 597 (or 585) BC. e. and explained it by the fact that the Moon obscured the Sun. According to Anaximander, the fundamental principle of everything is apeiron, indefinite, eternal and limitless matter, in constant motion. Anaximander gave the first formulation of the law of conservation of energy and created the first geometric model of the Universe.

The materialism and dialectics of the Ionian natural philosophers were opposed by the Pythagoreans - followers of the teachings of Pythagoras, who created a religious and mystical community in Southern Italy. The Pythagoreans considered mathematics to be the basis, believing that it was not quality, but quantity, not substance, but form that determined the essence of everything. Gradually they began to identify things with numbers, depriving them of material content. The abstract number, transformed into an absolute, was thought of by them as the basis of the immaterial essence of the world.

At the beginning of the archaic era, the dominant genre of literature was the epic, inherited from the previous era. The recording of Homer's poems, carried out in Athens under Pisistratus, marked the end of the “epic” period. The epic, as a reflection of the experience of the entire society in the new conditions, had to give way to other types of literature. In this era filled with turbulent social conflicts, lyrical genres, reflecting the experiences of the individual. Citizenship distinguishes the poetry of Tyrtaeus, who inspired the Spartans in their struggle for the possession of Messenia. In his elegies, Tyrtaeus praised military virtues and set out standards of conduct for warriors. And in later times they were sung during campaigns; they were also popular outside of Sparta as a hymn to the patriotism of the city. The work of Theognis, an aristocratic poet who realized the death of the aristocratic system and suffered from it, is permeated with hatred of the lower classes and a thirst for revenge:

Firmly trample the empty-hearted people with your heel, mercilessly
If you stab me with a sharp stick, crush me with a heavy yoke!

One of the first lyric poets, Archilochus, lived a life full of hardships and suffering. The son of an aristocrat and a slave, Archilochus, driven by poverty, went from his native Paros with the colonists to Thasos, fought with the Thracians, served as a mercenary, visited “beautiful and happy” Italy, but found happiness nowhere:

My bread is kneaded in a sharp spear.
And in the spear is wine from under Ismar. I drink, leaning on a spear.

The work of another great lyricist, Alcaeus, reflected the turbulent political life of that time. Along with political motives, his poems also contain table songs, they contain the joy of life and the sadness of love, reflections on the inevitability of death and calls for friends to enjoy life:

The rains are raging. Great cold
Carries from the sky. The rivers are all bound...
Let's drive away winter. Blazing bright
Let's light the fire. Give me sweets generously
Pour some wine. Then under the cheek
Give me a soft pillow.

“Sappho is violet-haired, pure, with a gentle smile!” - the poet addresses his great contemporary Sappho.

At the center of Sappho's work was a woman suffering from love and tormented by the pangs of jealousy, or a mother tenderly loving her children. Sappho’s poetry is dominated by sad motifs, which gives it a peculiar charm:

Fortunately, it seems to me equal to God
The man who is so close
Sitting in front of you, your sounding gentle
Listens to the voice
And a lovely laugh. I have at the same time
My heart would immediately stop beating.

Anacreon called his work poetry of beauty, love and fun. He did not think about politics, wars, civil strife:

My dear is not the one who, while feasting, speaks at his full cup
It only talks about litigation and a regrettable war,
Dear to me, who, Muses and Cypris, combining good gifts,
He makes it his rule to be more cheerful at the feast.

Anacreon's poems, marked by undeniable talent and enchanting in their form, had a huge influence on European, including Russian, poetry.

The end of the archaic era marks the birth of artistic prose, represented by the works of logographers who collected local legends, genealogies of noble families, and stories about the founding of policies. At the same time, theatrical art appeared, the roots of which lie in the folk rituals of agricultural cults.

The archaic period in Greek history is special place. At this time, the foundations of culture and the development of society were laid, which were continuously improved over the next centuries. Greece of the archaic period is the improvement of crafts and shipbuilding, the emergence of real money and the widespread use of iron. There is debate about the time frame of the Archaic period. It is customary to consider it within the 8-5 centuries BC.

Culture and crafts

During the archaic period, the culture of Greece was renewed. The center of the new value system was human personality, new literary genres appeared. The epic was replaced by lyrical poetry, which described joy, grief and feelings. Philosophy originated as a science as a result of the attempts of Greek thinkers to understand what place man has in this world.

In Greece of those times painting developed, and best example- ceramics that has preserved amazingly beautiful painting. During the Archaic era, the main types of ancient Greek vases developed widely: hydria for carrying water, voluminous craters for mixing wine with water, oval amphorae with two handles and a narrow neck, in which grain, oil, wine and honey were stored. The shape of the vessels fully corresponded to their purpose, and the painting acquired flexible lines. Scenes and plant motifs were increasingly depicted on ceramics.

The development of painting on vases is especially noticeable during the late archaic period, when the black-figure style became widespread, and the plotless ornament completely lost its significance. The technique of execution gradually becomes more complex - it requires greater skill from the artist.

Greek sculpture and architecture

Architecture developed rapidly during the archaic period. More attention was paid to the decoration of temples and public buildings. Temples were built in the most prominent places, since they were the center of not only spiritual, but also political activity. It was at this time that an order system was created, which predetermined the development of Greek architecture. During the Archaic period, two orders emerged: Ionic and Doric. The latter is characteristic of the Greek colonies in Southern Italy and the Peloponnese, and its origin is associated with the cities of Ionia.

Temples of the Archaic era are decorated with sculptures of mythological heroes and gods. In them the Greeks embodied their ideas of physical perfection. The so-called archaic smile was used as a means of expressiveness - limited facial expressions, a playful and not entirely natural smile. Therefore, the sculptures began to resemble a living person. Artists of that period sought to spiritualize the image and fill it with content. Realism was enhanced by bright colors - the archaic sculptures that have reached us have preserved only traces of paint.

Economy and Society

Changes in all areas were driven by economic growth. The use of iron made it possible to develop viticulture and increase the amount of olive production. As a result, surpluses began to be exported outside Greece, and profits stimulated agriculture. Connections between the policies were strengthened, and economic transformations significantly changed Greece. The natural result is the appearance of money, and the amount of land is no longer an indicator of wealth. In all Greek city-states, the number of artisans, traders, workshop owners increased, peasants sold their products at public meetings - the cities of Greece began to form a culturally, politically and economically complete society.

The pace of the economy grew rapidly, and stratification in society grew just as rapidly. Appeared in Greek city-states social groups and classes. Somewhere such processes proceeded more intensely, somewhere more slowly - for example, in areas where higher value had agriculture. The very first class to emerge was the class of traders and artisans. This layer gave rise to “tyranny” - coming to power using force. But among the tyrants there were many who strongly supported the development of trade, crafts, and shipbuilding. And only then real despots appeared, and the phenomenon acquired a negative connotation.

A special stage of the archaic period is the Great Greek colonization. The poor, unable to accept stratification, sought better life in the new Greek colonies. This state of affairs was beneficial for the rulers: it made it easier to extend influence to new lands. The most widespread colonization was in the southern direction: eastern Spain, Sicily, part of Italy, Corsica and Sardinia. In the south-eastern direction they settled North Africa and Phenicia, and in the northeast - the shores of the Black and Marmara seas. An event that subsequently influenced the course of history was the founding of Byzantium, the ancestor city of the great Constantinople. But its development and growth belong to other, subsequent eras.

Disputes still continue about the time frame of this period, but most historians agree that it is possible to consider it within the framework of the 8th to 5th centuries BC and consider the conquest of Greece by the Persians to be the end. This period is interesting because at this time the foundations were laid in many areas of development of society, spiritual and material culture, which were continued and improved over the following centuries.

Features of the Archaic Period

Changes in ancient Greek society were prepared by the previous development of productive forces. Labor productivity increased due to the widespread use of iron, which made it possible to obtain excess product. From agricultural production there is a separation of artisans - producers of tools and products of everyday demand. Under these conditions, the formation of a market begins, and the emergence of the equivalent of exchange - money - is the result of an increase in trade relations. The earth, as a symbol of wealth, is losing its position.

The system of communal relations is being decomposed. The emergence of an aristocracy encounters resistance from the working population, and inevitable conflicts arise. Aristocracy, like special group people, began to occupy a dominant position in society thanks to the acquired wealth, sought to subjugate other members of society, occupying command posts in public life, especially in justice and in the formation of the army. The formation of the class structure of society is evidenced by the fact that the layer of free farmers began to shrink, and the number of citizens who became dependent, due to various circumstances, increased.

During this period, such a phenomenon as the outflow of part of the free population from the country falls - the great Greek colonization - the development of new territories and trade routes. Colonization spurred social - economic development mainland Greece. Commodity exchange took on even greater scope. Merchants, who got rich by delivering goods to the colonies and back, sought to “take a place in the sun” and supplant the aristocracy in governance and politics. Social conflicts in society led to the emergence of tyranny - the sole power of the ruler, but it was not destined to last long without support from the bulk of the population. The result was the creation of the Greek polis, essentially a city-state.

History tells us about two types of polis - Athens, as an example of a democratic polis, where public life was accompanied by reforms carried out by the rulers in power (Solon, Pisistratus) and Sparta, as an example of a militarized society subject to uniform rules.

Culture and art of the archaic period

Our understanding of Ancient Greece is often shaped by the art of the Archaic period. Indeed, much that has come down to us since that time was created during this period. Greek culture and art experienced a rapid rise, which is reflected in different areas life.

The disintegration of primitive communal relations increased the consciousness of the Greeks as a single people. They began to call everyone else barbarians. Only Greeks could participate in the Olympic Games, which began to be held during this period.

Polis – new form the existence of the community - gave impetus to the formation of collectivist morality. Outside the policy, the life of an individual was practically impossible. The valor of a citizen was assessed by his contribution to protecting the interests of his polis, subject to the principle of competition. The ordinary citizen had the opportunity to rise in his political rights to the level of the aristocracy.

The religious ideas of the Greeks also underwent changes. A pantheon of deities was formed that they worshiped. The animation of nature was manifested in the fact that each natural phenomenon was identified with its god. The fragmentation of the polis was also reflected in religion, because each polis considered one of the gods as its patron.

Temple architecture adequately represents this period, since the construction of temples was given more attention than other buildings. At first, an elevated place was chosen as the site for the construction of the temple, but later they began to be built in the centers of policies. We can still admire the surviving remains of the architecture of that time today. The great veneration of temples contributed to the fact that works of art were given here as offerings, and he became their custodian.

We can judge the sculpture of Ancient Greece by the statues that thoroughly convey in all subtleties the image of the human figure, both male and female. Almost all deities took human form (Apollo, Athena, Artemis, etc.)

A huge achievement of that time was the appearance of Greek writing, and it became so accessible that it allowed the majority of free citizens to master literacy. A simple way to record information was invented. The emergence of philosophy became a qualitative leap in understanding the world. Knowledge of the surrounding world was not based on religious performance, but on the human mind.

Thanks to the advent of writing and the possibility of recording, some excerpts from the works of Homer, Tyrtaeus, Archilochus, Alcaeus, Anacreon and other representatives of literature have reached our time. At first these were works closely related to myths, later they appeared fiction, records of the genealogy of noble families, stories about policies, records of legends.

Archaic period

Pre-literary period

A form of folklore that has passed into literature

Greek mythology. Myth records a phenomenon, a stage of development. Carries echoes of the communal system. The concept of the “hero’s journey” is spreading

Genres: didactic, heroic, geneological epics, poetry, novels, tragedies, mythographic literature

The fairy tale is of an emphatically incredible nature.

Features of the Greek: almost no samples, except for the plot from Cupid and Psyche. (2nd century BC) in Roman literature. Disregard for the fairy tale.

Elements of a fairy tale: epic, classical comedy (in plots where we're talking about about the hero, cat. Descends to Hades, a place where life follows an ideal principle, sharply different from reality)

Labor and ritual songs

Labor In epics, epigrams, lyrics, comedies.

Ritual in the heroic epic and early Greek lyric poetry.

Riddles, aphorisms, proverbs - a small form of folklore

The fable retains the features of the archaic era. Her heroes were most often animals and birds. Used for allegory, explanation of something, it turned into an element of social struggle between the aristocracy and the masses.

The earliest dates back to the 8th century BC. Hesiod ʼʼThe Fable of the Nightingale and the Hawkʼʼ

5th century BC The appearance of Aesop's collection of Greek fables. Includes about 400 fables from different centuries, 7-4 centuries of writing. Translated in the 1st century AD Phaedrom, became part of Roman culture. Fables of Barbius 2nd century AD Lafentin France (17th century), Krylov (chain of transition of fables from one culture to another)

Chronology. Began with epic poems (heroic epic).

Created on the basis of a mythological plot (does not coincide with the mythological cycle, only an episode) Reflects the oral tradition of the pre-literary period.

The Trojan cycle: the beginning of the quarrel of three goddesses, the end of the return and the fate of the surviving heroes Trojan War

Homer (problems dedicated to the authenticity of Homer’s personality, his time of life and authorship was called the Homeric Question. 2 stages: in Antiquity (Considered a real person, the author of a number of works, the Illiad, Odyssey, Homeric hymns, some Cyclical poems, early epigrams) (Main questions: time life of Homer (2nd half of the 10th century BC or 9th century BC. Or 9-8 centuries BC); place of birth (about 20 cities of Asia Minor (Colophon, Smyrna, Chios, Argos, Athens)), how real are the travels described by Homer), in our time).

The place where the poem was created is Ionia (region of Asia Minor). Basically an Ionian dialect.

Hexameter - the size used to write epic works. Became compulsory, like the Ionian dialect.

They were performed by aeds to the lyre or cithara.

In the 6th century BC. The Aeds were replaced by the Rhapsodists (performers)

Homerids - rhapsodists from the island of Chios, descended from Homer

Distribution of Homeric poems. Balkans, because Greek vase paintings reflected episodes of the Iliad and Odyssey. In the 6th century BC. The emergence of rhapsodist competitions based on the heroic epic. Pesestratus ordered the recording of Homeric poems for the rhapsodist competition in Athens. Athens version.

Playwrights treated Homer like a god.

The emergence of criticism of Homer's works in the 6th century BC. Interpretation of episodes from Homer's poems, from the point of view of the reality of what is happening.

In the 5th century BC. Herodotus and Thucyditus took Homer's texts seriously.

Xenovan of Colophon, a poet and philosopher, was the first to criticize Homer for reducing the image of the gods, for depicting them as people (Plato develops this theme)

The most malicious criticism of Homer in “The Scourge of Homer” Zoilus from Amphipolis (Zail’s criticism)

In the era of Hellenism, it was formed Library of Alexandria. From the 3rd century BC. There is a study of manuscripts of early Greek and Homer, attracting scientists Aristophanes of Byzantium, Aristarchus of Samothrace. The library contains many versions of Homer's manuscript. Named by location.

Systematization of texts, an attempt to remove new fictional characters, elimination of inconsistencies, identification of the earliest version. Arist. Samofr.
Posted on ref.rf
Tried to return the Homeric text original meaning. Soma (body, but then a corpse) Phobos (fear, later flight)

We divided them into songs to make it easier to store. Title in alphabetical order.

Modern translation are based on the version of Aristarchus of Samothrace.

3rd century BC Gelannik and Xenon Horizons (dividers) analyzed the texts and found different interpretations of images and events and said that the Iliad and Odyssey were written by different authors. They were criticized by Aristarchus of Samothrace (he stated that this may be due to different versions or due to changes in Homer's age and views)

Received in the form of scholia (comments on Homer)

The most valuable version is the Venitian 10th century BC.

In modern times, the Homeric question:

In the 16th century, the first discussion “Disputes between old and new” was between fans of Homer’s epic talent and fans of Virgil. Arguments about who is better. Mainly in France (Homer won behind the scenes)

1664 François Daubeniac defended his dissertation on the Iliad, in which he stated that Homer did not exist. Homer is not a proper name, but the term ʼʼblindʼʼ referred to the early poet-storytellers, denoting an Aeda or a group of Aeda. The Iliad is a collection of songs by several singers. Collection of songs by blind singers. Where then does the unity of the text come from? The reason for it all is the edition of the 6th century BC.

1715 - publication of Daubeniac's dissertation

1713 - the work of Bentley, who did not deny the existence of Homer, but said that the Iliad was based on the songs of several singers, and Homer edited them

1795 - Fiedrich Augut Wolf from the “Introduction to Homer”. He argued that there was no unity between the poem and the general text; there was no written language yet, but in oral form there were small songs created by several aeds. He did not deny Homer, but this is only one of the Aeds, the other names have been erased from memory. Poems are artificially combined from songs.

1. The theory of small songs (Karl Lachmann) tried to find the original components.

2. Unitary or theory of Unity (Heinrich Nitsch) said that there was already writing at that time and believed that the Odyssey and the Iliad were single poems. He considered Homer a real person, one of the Aeds, who took part in the creation and gave unity.

3. Core Core Theory (George Grott) There was Homer, but he wrote two small poems, the Prailiad and the Proto-Odyssey, and in the 6th century BC. they were expanded by other Aeds.

The heroic epic is written on the basis of myth, except for some later ones. The Iliad and Odyssey are based on episodes from the Trojan mythological cycle. The content is not about the hero, but about the action. The poem is not about Achilles, but about the anger of Achilles.

The Iliad is a war poem. Dedicated to the second part of the series, the course of the Trojan War, the last year of the siege of Troy. Eat detailed list all heroes. Subsequently it becomes mandatory (based on the catalog of ships of the Iliad) The most important thing is the description of the war. The war is shown through individual fights and exploits of heroes, and not through large battle scenes. Detailed description of the weapon.

The image of a Homeric warrior emerges. War is the main occupation, for the sake of glory of descendants, booty

The Odyssey is a post-war poem describing peaceful life. War of memories.

There are many descriptions of feasts, where you can see the figure of an aed.

Women shown: Elena, Penelope, Kirka. The home life and work of women are shown. Many labor and ritual songs.

Elements of a fairy tale.

The poem ends with the return and reprisal of the suitors.

The main features of Homer's heroic epic: big size poems, always about the past, usually the ancient past; it is spoken on behalf of the author, there is a layering of eras due to the fact that life and rituals are taken from the contemporary era; the obligatory participation of the Olympic gods, the scene of the meeting of the gods and their active participation in the lives of the heroes; absence author's position on events and characters, objective presentation, the author does not analyze, does not judge, only narrates; deliberate archaization, ancientization of terms and rituals, detailed descriptions of objects, weapons, everyday life, the heroes themselves are godlike, strong, beautiful; retardation - detailed description an object or event (a kind of plug-in design); repetitions most important events in several lines with the same words; epithets (shows the attitude towards the hero) firmly attached to the heroes of the definition, there should be a huge number; epithets of gods are associated either with their functions or with cult nicknames; comparisons are related to actions, not to a person or thing, have independent meaning, are used for an emotional impact on the listener, associated with the desire for clarity; chronological incompatibility of individual events (the author cannot show the simultaneity of two actions, and therefore jumps from the description of one event to another (the duel of Paris and Menelaus and Helen and Priam discuss the Achaean warriors)); unevenness in the description of events (associated with the oral creation of the poem. Preparation for the action is described longer than the action itself); common places (stencil verses showing repeated actions (sunrise, sunset, arrival, departure of the hero) 2-3 lines)

The language of Homer's poems:

Formed in Ionia. Written in literary language (the earliest Greek literary language) is divorced from Greek colloquial speech and practically does not reflect it. Metonymy is the replacement of one word with two or three others, similar in meaning (spear - sharp copper).

Pleonasm is an abundance of synonyms that catches the eye (he said the word and said it).

Hexameter is a 6-foot verse created for the heroic epic. Each line begins with a long syllable. It has become mandatory for all epic poetry.

A number of other works were attributed to Homer, for example, the Homeric Hymns. Appeal to the Olympian gods (34 appeals). The anthem here is a relative concept, a mini-epic. Also in the Ionian dialect in obvious imitation of Homer (epithets, stencil verses). Topics: birth of the gods, description of the exploits and battles of the gods. Possibly used at rhapsodist competitions as an introduction. “Having started with you, I will move on to another song” was written at the end of each hymn. Created (7(1-5 Apollo(2), Demeter, Aphrodite, Hermes)-5(god Pnau) centuries BC). The traditional image of the gods is described from the point of view of the ascension of the images of the gods (strong, powerful, beautiful).

A number of cyclic poems (kikli) are also attributed to kikl - ʼʼkrugʼʼ. Practically not preserved (8-6 centuries BC). They were collected by Alexandrian scientists. They closed the circle of some large mythological cycle (Trojan cycle. Beginning with Cypria, Iliad, Ethiopia (the Amazons and the army of the Ethiopian king Memnon come to the aid of the Trojans, ends with the death of Achilles) Little Iliad (the burial of Achilles and the dispute over his armor (between Odysseus and Ajax) Thalamanides) Destruction of Ilion (Pheloctetes kills Paris, the Trojan Horse and the fire of Troy) Poems of the Return (Odyssey, about Agamemnon, Menelaus, Ajax the less, Nestor, Deamed, Neaptolen, son of Achilles) Theban cycle (Oedipodium, (about the murder of Oedipus’ father) Thebaid ( struggle for power), Epigones (second campaign against Thebes), Alcmaeonidas (Alcmeon's campaign against Thebes)). storylines. The authors tried to include as many characters as possible. They were studied by early historians, lagographs, from the point of view of history, and were used as confirmation of various histories.
Posted on ref.rf
events.

A parody of the heroic epic. (9-7 centuries BC) were written in the Ionian dialect, hexameter with classic Homeric epithets and similes, but the heroes are present in a different context (Margid (7th century BC poorly preserved. At the center of the parody is a cowardly, greedy glutton , the cat does not want to fight, but glorifies himself as a hero) and The War of Mice and Frogs (5th century BC. Parody of the Iliad)

Translations of Homer in Russian literature:

12th century mention in the manuscripts of Metropolitan Clement Slavyatich.

17th century, the first translations were related to the War of the Mice and Frogs, rather than the Iliad and Odyssey.

18th century fragmentary translation by Tredyakovsky, Lomonosov. An attempt to create a Russian hexameter

1760 Konstantin Kondratovich first translated the Iliad from the Latin version. Not published.

1820-30 first prose translation by Dmitry Lykov

Gnedich translated the 1829 translation for 20 years. I approached as a researcher, together with historians. I tried to accurately convey customs, weapons, clothing, and terms. Archaization of language. He translated in fragments and songs, presenting the translation in magazines and salons. Opened for Russia ancient literature

1842-49 translation of the Odyssey by Zhukovsky. Translated without knowing Greek language. I ordered an interlinear and gave this interlinear a poetic form. Free translation of the poem. 1850s. Vasily Ordynsky attempted to translate the Iliad into the language of epics

1896 ᴦ. Nikolai Minsky's new translation of the Iliad in a more modern language, but it was believed that it was inferior to Gnedich.

Veresaev 19-20 centuries. Iliad, based on Gnedich's translation. Attracts historians and folklorists. Translates the Odyssey.

Archaic period - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Archaic period" 2017, 2018.