Educational portal - everything for a law student. Social and state system of the Golden Horde

As a result of a five-year struggle around the vacated throne, Ogedei's son, Guyuk Khan, became the great Mongol Khan. His reign lasted only two years. In 1248, after illness, he died. Now the grandson of Genghis Khan inherited from his youngest son, Munke. Under this khan, the Mongol power reached largest sizes. In the east, Mongol troops under the leadership of Mongke's brother Kublai, passing through Sichuan province, moved to Tibet and Indochina. Another brother of the great khan, Hulagu, expanded the empire's possessions in the west. His troops defeated the Abbasids and captured the capital of the Caliphate, Baghdad.

Munke Khan was last emperor, who ruled the entire empire of Genghis Khan. After his death, the huge Mongol power disintegrates; Western uluses fall away from it. Vast spaces of Western Siberia and the Kazakh steppes were given to Batu’s brother Ichen, and the ulus served as the basis for the formation of the Siberian Khanate. Persia, west Central Asia, part of Asia Minor and Transcaucasia was received by Munke’s brother Hulagu. Since 1256, this ulus received the name “Khulagid ulus”. The territory east of the Amu Darya to Xinjiang constituted the Chagatai ulus.

The most extensive of the uluses that emerged from the Mongol Empire was the Jochi ulus. Eastern sources call it the Blue Horde, Russian chronicles call it the Golden Horde. The Golden Horde occupied part of Central Asia, the North Caucasus, Crimea, North-Eastern Rus', the Black Sea steppes, the territory of the Kama Bulgarians, Western Siberia to the Irtysh. At the mouth of the Volga, not far from Astrakhan, the capital of the Golden Horde, called Sarai-Batu, was founded. In the capital they built the Khan's palace, a caravanserai for merchants, and the houses of the most noble people close to the Khan.

Later, under Khan Berke, the capital was moved slightly higher along the Volga, where it was built new town- Sarai-Berke, on one of the branches of the Volga - Akhtuba.

The Golden Horde captured territory inhabited by more cultured peoples than the conquerors themselves. And in Central Asia, and on the coast of Crimea, and in Kama Bulgaria, and on the banks of the Volga, ancient craft centers, cities such as Urgench, Bulgar, Suvar, Surozh, etc., were preserved. In these cities, there were already guild organizations in which acute class struggle. Of course, these ancient centers of culture could not help but exert their influence on the culture and life of the conquerors. The Golden Horde feudal lords began to adopt the Turkic language and convert to Islam. In the first half of the 14th century, under Khan Uzbek, Islam became the state religion of the Golden Horde.

In the Golden Horde, the process of development of feudal relations continued among the nomadic population of the steppes, although vestiges of the tribal system also remained. The Mongol-Tatar population, in addition to various corvée works, brought their feudal khans, nayons (beks) quitrent in the form of kumis, horses, sheep; in Kama Bulgaria the population paid rent in bread. In addition to duties, the population also paid taxes to the state in favor of the feudal lords. The possessions of individual feudal lords were exempt from paying taxes to the state. Such feudal lords were called tarkhans. The Golden Horde feudal lords were interconnected by a system of vassalage.

Existed in a barn under the khan The Supreme Council from the feudal aristocracy - a sofa. The most important state affairs were discussed on the sofa - military, administrative, financial. The Divan sent his Basque officials to the conquered lands. Baskaks were in Rus', in Kama Bulgaria, in the Caucasus, in the Black Sea cities and in Central Asia.

Excavations of the capital Sarai-Berke show that the Golden Horde outwardly adopted a high culture in the conquered states, especially in Central Asia. In the capital there were mosques made of marble, richly decorated, a luxurious palace of the khan himself with courtyards where fountains were installed, and the walls were decorated with white and green ornaments. All this was created by the hands of artisans exiled from conquered countries.

In Saray-Berke there was a caravanserai where eastern merchants traded; merchants from the Genoese colonies and Russian merchants came to the city. Excavations have shown that there was a water supply system in this capital, the clay pipes of which are kept in Moscow in the Historical Museum.

2. State system of the Golden Horde

The Golden Horde was a feudal state of the developed Middle Ages. The highest power in the country belonged to the khan, and this title of the head of state in the history of everything Tatar people associated mainly with the period of the Golden Horde. If the entire Mongol Empire was ruled by the dynasty of Genghis Khan (Genghisids), then the Golden Horde was ruled by the dynasty of his eldest son Jochi (Juchids). In the 60s of the 13th century, the empire was actually divided into independent states, but legally they were considered uluses of Genghis Khan.

Therefore, the system of state governance, established during his time, practically remained until the end of the existence of these states. Moreover, this tradition continued in the political and socio-economic life of those Tatar khanates that were formed after the fall of the Golden Horde. Naturally, some transformations and reforms were carried out, some new government and military positions appeared, but all government and social system overall remained stable.

Under the khan there was a divan - a state council, consisting of members of the royal dynasty (oglans-princes, brothers or other male relatives of the khan), large feudal princes, high clergy, and great military leaders. Large feudal princes are noyons for the early Mongol period of the times of Batu and Berke, and for the Muslim, Tatar-Kipchak era of Uzbek and his successors - emirs and beks. Later, by the end of the 14th century, very influential and powerful beks with the name “Karacha-bi” appeared from the largest clans of Shirin, Baryn, Argyn, Kipchak (these noble families were also the highest feudal-princely elite of almost all Tatar khanates that arose after the collapse of the Golden Horde).

At the divan there was also the position of bitikchi (scribe), who was essentially a secretary of state who had significant power in the country. Even large feudal lords and military leaders treated him with respect.

All this high elite of government is known from Eastern, Russian and Western European historical sources, as well as from the labels of the Golden Horde khans. The same documents record the titles large number other officials, various government officials, medium or small feudal lords. The latter included, for example, Tarkhans, who for one or another public service were exempt from taxes and duties, receiving so-called tarkhan labels from the khan.

A label is a khan's letter or decree giving the right to public administration in individual uluses of the Golden Horde or states subordinate to it (for example, labels for the reign of Russian princes), for the right to conduct diplomatic missions, other important government affairs abroad and within the country and, of course, for the right of land ownership by feudal lords of various ranks. In the Golden Horde, and then in the Kazan, Crimean and other Tatar khanates, there was a system of soyurgals - military fief ownership of land. The person who received the soyurgal from the khan had the right to collect in his own favor those taxes that previously went to the state treasury. According to Soyurgal, land was considered hereditary. Naturally, such great privileges were not given just like that. The feudal lord, who received the legal right, had to provide war time army with an appropriate number of cavalry, weapons, horse-drawn transport, provisions, etc.

In addition to labels, there was a system of issuing so-called paizov. Paiza is a gold, silver, bronze, cast iron, or even just a wooden tablet, also issued on behalf of the khan as a kind of mandate. The person who presented such a mandate locally was provided with the necessary services during his movements and trips - guides, horses, carts, premises, food. It goes without saying that a person with a higher position in society received a gold paizu, and a simpler person received a wooden one. There is information about the presence of paits in the Golden Horde in written sources; they are also known as archaeological finds on the excavations of Saray-Berke - one of the capitals of the Golden Horde.

In the Ulus of Jochi there was a special position of the military bukaul, which was responsible for the distribution of troops and the dispatch of detachments; He was also responsible for military maintenance and allowances. Even ulus emirs - in wartime temniks - were subordinate to Bukaul. In addition to the main bukaul, there were bukauls of individual regions.

The clergy and, in general, representatives of the clergy in the Golden Horde, according to the records of labels and Arab-Persian historical geography, were represented by the following persons: mufti - head of the clergy; sheikh - spiritual leader and mentor, elder; Sufi - a pious, pious person, free from bad deeds, or an ascetic; qadi is a judge who decides cases according to Sharia, that is, according to the code of Muslim laws.

Large role in political and social life The Golden Horde state was played by the Baskaks and Darukhachi (Darukha). The first of them were military representatives of the authorities, military guards, the second were civilians with the duties of a governor or manager, one of whose main functions was control over the collection of tribute. The position of baskak was abolished at the beginning of the 14th century, and darukhachi, as governors of the central government or heads of administrations of darug regions, existed even during the period of the Kazan Khanate.

Under the baskak or under the daruhach there was the position of tribute, i.e. their assistant in collecting tribute - yasak. He was a kind of bitikchi (secretary) for yasak affairs. In general, the position of bitikchi in the Ulus of Jochi was quite common and was considered responsible and respected. In addition to the main bitikchi under the khan's divan-council, there were bitikchi under the ulus divans, who enjoyed great power locally. They could, for example, be compared with the volost clerks of pre-revolutionary Russia, who performed almost all government work in the outback.

Most of these civil servants existed during the periods of the Kazan, Crimean and other Tatar khanates. It is also quite remarkable that the vast majority of these medieval terms and titles are literally understandable to anyone to modern man, owning Tatar language- they are written like this in documents of the 14th and 16th centuries, they sound like this even today.

The same can be said about the various types of duties that were levied on the nomadic and sedentary population, as well as about various border duties: “salyg” (poll tax), “kalan” (quitrent), “yasak” (tribute), “herazh” "("haraj" is an Arabic word meaning a 10 percent tax on Muslim peoples), "burych" (debt, arrears), "chygysh" (exit, expense), "yndyr haky" (payment for the threshing floor), "barn is small "(barn duty), "burla tamgasy" (residential tamga), "yul khaky" (road toll), "karaulyk" (payment for guard), "tartanak" (weight, as well as tax on import and export), "tamga "(there is a duty there).

In the most general view described the administrative system of the Golden Horde back in the 13th century. G. Rubruk, who traveled the entire state from west to east. His sketch of the traveler contains the basis of the administrative-territorial division of the Golden Horde, defined by the concept of “ulus system”.

Its essence was the right of nomadic feudal lords to receive from the khan himself or another large steppe aristocrat a certain inheritance - an ulus. For this, the owner of the ulus was obliged to field, if necessary, a certain number of fully armed soldiers (depending on the size of the ulus), as well as to perform various tax and economic duties.

This system was an exact copy of the structure of the Mongol army: the entire state - the Great Ulus - was divided in accordance with the rank of the owner (temnik, thousand-man, centurion, foreman) - into definite-sized destinies, and from each of them, in case of war, ten, hundred , a thousand or ten thousand armed warriors. At the same time, uluses were not hereditary possessions that could be transferred from father to son. Moreover, the khan could take away the ulus completely or replace it with another.

In the initial period of the existence of the Golden Horde, there were apparently no more than 15 large uluses, and rivers most often served as the borders between them. This shows a certain primitiveness of the administrative division of the state, rooted in old nomadic traditions.

The further development of statehood, the emergence of cities, the introduction of Islam, and closer acquaintance with Arab and Persian traditions of governance led to various complications in the Juchids' possessions with the simultaneous withering away of Central Asian customs dating back to the time of Genghis Khan.

Instead of dividing the territory into two wings, four uluses appeared, led by ulusbeks. One of the uluses was the personal domain of the khan. He occupied the steppes of the left bank of the Volga from its mouth to the Kama.

Each of these four uluses was divided into a certain number of “regions”, which were uluses of feudal lords of the next rank.

In total, the number of such “regions” in the Golden Horde in the 14th century. was about 70 in number of temniks. Simultaneously with the establishment of the administrative-territorial division, the formation of the state administration apparatus took place.

The Khan, who stood at the top of the pyramid of power, spent most of the year at his headquarters wandering across the steppes, surrounded by his wives and a huge number of courtiers. He spent only a short winter period in the capital. The moving khan's horde headquarters seemed to emphasize that the main power of the state continued to be based on a nomadic beginning. Naturally, it was quite difficult for the khan, who was in constant motion, to manage the affairs of the state himself. This is also emphasized by sources that directly report that the supreme ruler “pays attention only to the essence of affairs, without going into the details of the circumstances, and is content with what is reported to him, but does not seek out details regarding collection and expenditure.”

The entire Horde army was commanded by a military leader - beklyaribek, that is, the prince of princes, the grand duke. Beklyaribek usually exercised military power, often being the commander of the khan's army. Sometimes his influence exceeded the power of the khan, which often led to bloody civil strife. From time to time, the power of the Beklyaribeks, for example, Nogai, Mamai, Edigei, increased so much that they themselves appointed khans.

As statehood strengthened in the Golden Horde, the administrative apparatus grew, its rulers took as a model the administration of the Khorezmshah state conquered by the Mongols. According to this model, a vizier appeared under the khan, a kind of head of government who was responsible for all spheres of the non-military life of the state. The vizier and the diwan (state council) headed by him were in charge of finances, taxes, and trade. Foreign policy The khan himself was in charge with his closest advisers, as well as the beklyaribek.

The heyday of the Horde state was marked by the highest level and quality of life in Europe at that time. The rise occurred almost during the reign of one ruler - Uzbek (1312 - 1342). The state took upon itself the responsibility to protect the lives of its citizens, administer justice, and organize social, cultural and economic life.

All this testifies to the well-coordinated state mechanism of the Golden Horde with all the attributes that are necessary for the existence and development of a large medieval state: central and local government bodies, a judicial and tax system, a customs service and a strong army.

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That written law did not have any priority over oral customs: they were recognized as equal in legal force. Legal monuments in general and labels of the khans of the Golden Horde in particular are a unique source on the history of state and law. At the same time, their value (like other legal monuments) increases due to the fact that, unlike narrative sources, they do not contain...

Systems and mail messages. One can list for a long time the numerous historical names in Moscow (Kitai-Gorod, Arbat, Balchug, Ordynka, etc.) also dating back to Horde times, when Rus' and the Golden Horde actually lived within the framework of a single state-political system and were to some extent similar to each other to a friend. Thus, to reduce the relationship between Russia and the Horde to the consequences of the notorious “...

Therefore, it can be said that knowledge of this period of Russian history, in turn, is of great importance for the student of the Mongol Empire in general and the Golden Horde in particular. 2. Golden Horde: myths and reality At the beginning of the 13th century, the Mongol tribes, united by the power of Genghis Khan, began campaigns of conquest, the goal of which was to create a huge superpower. Already in the second half of 13...

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RUSSIAN FEDERATION

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE TYUMEN STATE UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

TEST

discipline: History On the topic: Public and political system

Golden Horde

Introduction

1. Formation of the Golden Horde

Conclusion

Golden Horde

Bibliography

The Mongol conquest, although it did not change the overall socio-economic structure of the peoples of the conquered countries, did make significant changes to their socio-political life and way of life. The clergy, merchants, large feudal lords in settled agricultural areas and the nomadic nobility of the Turks became the support of the Mongol khans and feudal lords, and the working people came under double economic and political oppression. The Mongol Empire was considered the property of the Genghisid Khan family, who jointly owned it as their fiefdom.

The military power of the Golden Horde constantly kept all its neighbors in suspense and very for a long time was not disputed by anyone. Monarchs of even distant countries sought to establish friendly relations with her and support them with all their might.

The most enterprising merchants traveled vast distances to get to its capital, which was rightfully known as the largest trading base between East and West.

All over the world, travelers and trade caravans spread true stories and incredible legends about the peoples who inhabited the Golden Horde, their peculiar customs and nomadic life, about the wealth and power of the khans who ruled here, countless herds of cattle and endless steppes, where you could not meet a single person for weeks. True and fictional stories about the huge state of nomads continued to exist even after its disappearance.

The purpose of this test work: a study of the connection between the state and society of the Golden Horde in the XIII-XIV centuries.

The objectives of this test are to characterize the state and social system of the Golden Horde.

Introduction

At the beginning of 1243, a new state was formed in Central Eurasia - the Golden Horde - a power formed as a result of the collapse of the Mongol Empire of Genghis Khan, on the territory of medieval Kazakhstan, as well as Rus', Crimea, the Volga region, the Caucasus, Western Siberia, Khorezm. It was founded by Batu Khan (1208-1255), the grandson of Genghis Khan as a result of the conquests of the Mongols. The Golden Horde occupied a huge territory not only for those times, but also from a modern point of view: from the Irtysh River and the western foothills of Altai in the east and to the lower reaches of the Danube River in the west, from the famous Bulgar in the north to the Caucasian Derbent Gorge in the south.

This huge state was divided into two parts: the main, western part, i.e., the Golden Horde itself, was called “Altyn Urda, Ak Urda” (White) Horde, and the eastern part, which included the western territories of modern Kazakhstan and Central Asia - Kok ( Blue) Horde.

This division was based on the former ethnic border between the Kipchak and Oguz tribal unions. If the creators of the Golden Horde state were mainly the Mongol elite of the Chingizids, who were soon assimilated by the local population, then its ethnic basis was made up of the Turkic-speaking tribes of Eastern Europe, Western Siberia and the Aral-Caspian region: Kipchaks, Oguzes, Volga Bulgars, Madjars, remnants of the Khazars, some other Turkic ethnic formations and, undoubtedly, Turkic-speaking Tatars who moved from Central Asia to the west in pre-Mongol times, as well as those who came in the 20-40s of the 13th century as part of the armies of Genghis Khan and Batu Khan.

This entire gigantic territory was quite homogeneous in landscape terms - it was mainly steppe. Feudal law was also in effect in the steppe - all the land belonged to the feudal lord, to whom ordinary nomads obeyed.

IN early XVI V. The Golden Horde broke up into a number of states - the Crimean, Kazan, Astrakhan khanates, the Nogai Horde, etc., which were the heirs of the political, state and legal traditions of the Golden Horde. Some of these states existed for quite a long time: the Kazakh khanates - until mid-19th, and the Bukhara Emirate and the Khiva Khanate - until the beginning of the twentieth century. During its heyday, it included vast territories of Central Asia, Southern Siberia, Eastern Europe, the Middle East, China and Tibet. In the second half of the 13th century, the empire began to disintegrate into uluses, headed by the Chingizids. The largest fragments of Great Mongolia were the Yuan Empire, the Golden Horde, the State of the Ilkhans and the Chagatai ulus.

The Golden Horde included Western Siberia, Northern Khorezm, Volga Bulgaria, the Northern Caucasus, Crimea, Dasht-i-Kipchak (Kipchak steppe from the Irtysh to the Danube). The extreme southeastern limit of the Golden Horde was Southern Kazakhstan (now the city of Dzhambul), and the extreme northeastern limit was the cities of Tyumen and Isker (near the modern city of Tobolsk) in Western Siberia. From north to south, the Horde extended from the middle reaches of the river. Kama to Derbent. This entire gigantic territory was quite homogeneous in landscape terms - it was mainly steppe.

Capitals of the Golden Horde:

1. Saray-Batu (Old Saray) (Lower Volga, Akhtuba river, settlement near the village of Selitrennoye, Kharabalinsky district, Astrakhan region, Russia). The city was founded by Batu Khan in 1254. Destroyed in 1395 by Tamerlane. Settlement near the village Selitrennoye, a remnant of the first capital of the Golden Horde - Sarai-Batu ("city of Batu"), is striking in its size. Spread over several hillocks, it stretches along the left bank of the Akhtuba for more than 15 km. The city grew very quickly. At the beginning of the 14th century, it was the capital - with continuous rows of houses, with mosques (of which 13 were cathedrals), with palaces, the walls of which sparkled with mosaic patterns, with reservoirs filled clear water, with extensive markets and warehouses. The Khan's palace towered on the highest hill above the bank of Akhtuba. According to legend, the khan's palace was decorated with gold, so the entire state began to be called the Golden Horde. And even today, in the area of the village of Selitrennoye, you can find examples with bright oriental ornaments, coins of the 13th-14th centuries, fragments of ceramics, and clay water pipes. The city had its own ceramic, foundry, and jewelry workshops;

2. Saray-Berke (New Saray) (now the village of Tsarev, Leninsky district, Volgograd region, Russia). The city was built by Khan Berke in 1262. Since 1282 - the capital of the Golden Horde. Destroyed in 1396 by Tamerlane. In 1402, the capital was restored, but could no longer achieve its former splendor and splendor;

3. Saraichik (Small Sarai) (now the village of Saraichikovskoye, Makhambet district, Guryev region, Kazakhstan). The city was formed at the end of the 13th century. as a trade and economic center of the Golden Horde on the trade route from the Volga region to Central Asia (Khorezm). In 1395 it was destroyed by Tamerlane. Restored in the 30-40s of the 15th century. From the second half of the 15th century. became the capital of the Nogai Horde. Completely destroyed by the Russians in 1580, on the eve of the conquest of Siberia.

2. State system of the Golden Horde

The Golden Horde was a feudal state of the developed Middle Ages. The highest power in the country belonged to the khan, and this title of head of state in the history of the entire Tatar people is associated mainly with the period of the Golden Horde. If the entire Mongol Empire was ruled by the dynasty of Genghis Khan (Genghisids), then the Golden Horde was ruled by the dynasty of his eldest son Jochi (Juchids). In the 60s of the 13th century, the empire was actually divided into independent states, but legally they were considered uluses of Genghis Khan. Therefore, the system of state governance, established during his time, practically remained until the end of the existence of these states. Moreover, this tradition continued in the political and socio-economic life of those Tatar khanates that were formed after the fall of the Golden Horde. Naturally, some transformations and reforms were carried out, some new government and military positions appeared, but the entire state and social system as a whole remained stable. Under the khan there was a divan - a state council, consisting of members of the royal dynasty (oglans-princes, brothers or other male relatives of the khan), large feudal princes, high clergy, and great military leaders. Large feudal princes are noyons for the early Mongol period of the times of Batu and Berke, and for the Muslim, Tatar-Kipchak era of Uzbek and his successors - emirs and beks. Later, by the end of the 14th century, very influential and powerful beks with the name “Karacha-bi” appeared from the largest families of Shirin, Baryn, Argyn, Kipchak (these noble families were also the highest feudal-princely elite of almost all Tatar khanates that arose after the collapse Golden Horde). At the divan there was also the position of bitikchi (scribe), who was essentially a secretary of state who had significant power in the country. Even large feudal lords and military leaders treated him with respect.

The bodies administering justice in the Mongol Empire were: the court of the Great Khan, the court of the kurultai - a congress of representatives of the ruling family and military leaders, the court of specially appointed persons - the dzarguchi judges. All these bodies operated in the Golden Horde. As in the Mongol Empire, the highest court was the rulers of the Golden Horde, who in the second half of the 13th century. received first actual and then official independence and accepted the title of khan.

Justice as one of the functions of the khan's power was inherited by the Mongols from the ancient Turks: already in the Turkic Khaganate in the VI-IX centuries. Khagan is the highest court.

The central government in Mongolia recognized the right of the actual founder of the Golden Horde, Batu (Batu, ruled in 1227-1256) to try the noyons and officials subordinate to him, although with the proviso that “the judge of Batu is the kaan.” Subsequent khans of the Golden Horde also actively carried out judicial functions. It was under Mengu-Timur, the grandson of Batu, in 1269. The Golden Horde officially became an independent state, and its rulers became sovereign sovereigns, one of the integral signs of whose power was the exercise of the function of the supreme judge.

The main source of law in the Mongol Empire and the Chingizid states were the so-called yas (laws) of Genghis Khan (collectively called the Great Yasa) and his successors - the great khans. The Great Yasa of the founder of the empire and the yasa of his successors constituted the main source of law for all bodies administering justice, including the khan. Other sources should not have contradicted the jars. The Great Yasa of Genghis Khan, compiled in 1206 as an edification to his successors, consisted of 33 fragments and 13 sayings of the khan himself. The yasa contained mainly rules military organization Mongol troops and norms of criminal law. It was distinguished by the unprecedented cruelty of punishment not only for crimes, but also for misdeeds.

Another important source is the labels of the khans themselves. A label was any document issued on behalf of the supreme ruler - the khan and which had certain characteristics (had a certain structure, was equipped with a scarlet seal - tamga, was addressed to persons who were lower in position than the person who issued it, etc.). Oral and written orders and instructions of the khans were the highest law for their subjects, including the feudal nobility, subject to immediate and unquestioning execution. They were used in practice government agencies Golden Horde and senior state officials. Not all labels were sources of law that were used to guide the administration of justice. For example, yarlyk messages, which were not legal, but diplomatic documents, could not serve as sources of law for khans (and lower ulus judges); yarlyk letters, letters of protection and letters of protection, were also not sources for the court. large quantities issued to diplomats and private individuals. In addition to labels, there was a system of issuing so-called paizov. Paiza is a gold, silver, bronze, cast iron, or even just a wooden tablet, also issued on behalf of the khan as a kind of mandate. The person who presented such a mandate locally was provided with the necessary services during his movements and trips - guides, horses, carts, premises, food. It goes without saying that a person with a higher position in society received a gold paizu, and a simpler person received a wooden one.

Khan, being the creator of law (he confirmed or repealed the decisions of his predecessors, issued his own labels and other normative and individual acts), was not bound by any norms. In making decisions, the khans were guided not only by their will, but also by written documents - jars and labels of Genghis Khan and his successors. The law of the Golden Horde is characterized by extreme cruelty, legalized arbitrariness of feudal lords and state officials, archaism and formal uncertainty.

Property relations in the Golden Horde were regulated by customary law and were very complicated. This especially applies to land relations - the basis of feudal society. Ownership of the land and the entire territory of the state belonged to the ruling khan family of the Jochids. In a nomadic economy, land inheritance was difficult. Therefore, it took place mainly in agricultural areas. The owners of the estates, naturally, had to bear various vassal duties to the khan or the local ruler appointed by him. In the khan family, power was a special object of inheritance, and political power combined with the right of ownership of ulus land. He was considered the heir here younger son. According to Mongolian law, the youngest son generally had priority in inheritance. The family and marriage law of the Mongol-Tatars and the nomadic peoples subject to them was regulated by ancient customs and, to a lesser extent, by Sharia. The head of the patriarchal polygamous family, which formed part of the ail, clan, was the father. He was the owner of all the family property and controlled the fate of the family members under his control. Thus, the father of an impoverished family had the right to give his children into service for debts and even sell them into slavery. The number of wives was not limited (Muslims could have no more than four legal wives). Children of wives and concubines were legally in an equal position, with some advantages for sons from older wives and legal wives among Muslims. After the death of the husband, management of all family affairs passed into the hands of the eldest wife. This continued until the sons became adult warriors.

The criminal law of the Golden Horde was exceptionally cruel. This stemmed from the very nature of the military-feudal system of the Golden Horde, the despotic power of Genghis Khan and his successors, the severity of the low attitude general culture, inherent in a nomadic pastoral society located in the very initial stage of feudalism. Cruelty and organized terror were one of the conditions for establishing and maintaining long-term domination over the conquered peoples. According to the Great Yasa, the death penalty was imposed for treason, disobedience to the khan and other feudal lords, and officials, unauthorized transfer from one military unit to another, failure to provide assistance in battle, compassion for a prisoner in the form of helping him with food and clothing, for advice and assistance from one of the parties in a duel lying to elders in court, appropriation of someone else's slave or escaped captive. It was also imposed in some cases for murder, property crimes, adultery, bestiality, spying on the behavior of others and especially the nobility and authorities, magic, slaughter of cattle in an unknown way, urinating in the fire and ashes, even those who choked on a bone during the feast were executed. The death penalty, as a rule, was carried out publicly and in ways characteristic of nomadic image life - by strangulation on a rope suspended from the neck of a camel or horse, or by being dragged by horses.

Other types of punishment were also used, for example, for domestic murder, a ransom in favor of the victim’s relatives was allowed. The size of the ransom was determined by the social status of the murdered person. For the theft of horses and sheep, nomads demanded a tenfold ransom. If the culprit was insolvent, he was obliged to sell his children and thus pay a ransom. In this case, the thief, as a rule, was mercilessly beaten with whips. In criminal proceedings, during the investigation, witnesses were brought in, oaths were pronounced, and cruel torture was used. In a military-feudal organization, the search for an undetected or escaped criminal was entrusted to the dozen or hundreds to which he belonged. Otherwise, the entire ten or hundred were responsible.

The clergy and, in general, representatives of the clergy in the Golden Horde, according to the records of labels and Arab-Persian historical geography, were represented by the following persons:

Mufti - head of the clergy;

Sheikh - spiritual leader and mentor, elder;

Sufi - a pious, pious person free from bad deeds or an ascetic;

Kadiy is a judge who decides cases according to Sharia, that is, according to the code of Muslim laws.

The Baskaks and Darukhachi (Darukha) played a major role in the political and social life of the Golden Horde state. The first of them were military representatives of the authorities, military guards, the second were civilians with the duties of a governor or manager, one of whose main functions was control over the collection of tribute. The position of baskak was abolished at the beginning of the 14th century, and darukhachi as governors of the central government or heads of regional administrations - darugs - existed even during the period of the Kazan Khanate. In the Ulus of Jochi there was a special position of the military bukaul, who was responsible for the distribution of troops, dispatching detachments, and he was also responsible for military maintenance and allowances. Even ulus emirs - in wartime temniks - were subordinate to Bukaul. In addition to the main bukaul, there were bukauls of individual regions.

Under the baskak or under the daruhach there was the position of tribute, i.e., their assistant in collecting tribute - yasak. He was a kind of bitikchi (secretary) for yasak affairs. In general, the position of bitikchi in the Ulus of Jochi was quite common and was considered responsible and respected. In addition to the main bitikchi under the khan's divan-council, there were bitikchi under the ulus divans, who enjoyed great power locally. They could, for example, be compared with the volost clerks of pre-revolutionary Russia, who performed almost all government work in the outback.

There were a number of other officials in the system of government officials who are known mainly by khan's labels. These are: “ilche” (envoy), “tamgachy” (customs officer), “tartanakchy” (tax collector or weigher), “totkaul” (outpost), “guard” (watch), “yamchy” (postal), “koshchy” (falconer), “barschy” (leopard keeper), “kimeche” (boatman or shipbuilder), “bazaar and torganlnar” (guardians of order at the bazaar). These positions are known by the labels of Tokhtamysh in 1391 and Timur-Kutluk in 1398. Various types duties that were levied on the nomadic and sedentary population, as well as on various border duties: “salyg” (poll tax), “kalan” (rent), “yasak” (tribute), “haraj” (“haraj” is an Arabic word, meaning a 10 percent tax on Muslim peoples), “burych” (debt, arrears), “chygysh” (output, expense), “yndyr khaky” (payment for the threshing floor), “barn mali” (barn duty), “burla tamgasy "(zhitnaya tamga), "yul khaky" (road toll), "karaulyk" (payment for guard duty), "tartanak" (weight, as well as import and export tax), "tamga" (tamga duty). In the most general form, he described the administrative system of the Golden Horde back in the 13th century. G. Rubruk, who traveled the entire state from west to east. His sketch of the traveler contains the basis of the administrative-territorial division of the Golden Horde, defined by the concept of “ulus system”. Its essence was the right of nomadic feudal lords to receive from the khan himself or another large steppe aristocrat a certain inheritance - an ulus. For this, the owner of the ulus was obliged to field, if necessary, a certain number of fully armed soldiers (depending on the size of the ulus), as well as to perform various tax and economic duties. This system was an exact copy of the structure of the Mongol army: the entire state - the Great Ulus - was divided in accordance with the rank of the owner (temnik, thousand-man, centurion, foreman) - into definite-sized destinies, and from each of them, in case of war, ten, hundred , a thousand or ten thousand armed warriors. At the same time, uluses were not hereditary possessions that could be transferred from father to son. Moreover, the khan could take away the ulus completely or replace it with another.

One of the uluses was the personal domain of the khan. He occupied the steppes of the left bank of the Volga from its mouth to the Kama. Each of these four uluses was divided into a certain number of “regions”, which were uluses of feudal lords of the next rank. In total, the number of such “regions” in the Golden Horde in the 14th century. was about 70 in number of temniks. Simultaneously with the establishment of the administrative-territorial division, the formation of the state administration apparatus took place. The Khan, who stood at the top of the pyramid of power, spent most of the year at his headquarters wandering across the steppes, surrounded by his wives and a huge number of courtiers. He spent only a short winter period in the capital. The moving khan's horde headquarters seemed to emphasize that the main power of the state continued to be based on a nomadic beginning. Naturally, it was quite difficult for the khan, who was in constant motion, to manage the affairs of the state himself. This is also emphasized by sources that directly report that the supreme ruler “pays attention only to the essence of affairs, without going into the details of the circumstances, and is content with what is reported to him, but does not seek out details regarding collection and expenditure.” The entire Horde army was commanded by a military leader - beklyaribek, i.e., prince of princes, grand duke.

Beklyaribek usually exercised military power, often being the commander of the khan's army. Sometimes his influence exceeded the power of the khan, which often led to bloody civil strife. From time to time, the power of the Beklyaribeks, for example, Nogai, Mamai, Edigei, increased so much that they themselves appointed khans.

The vizier and the diwan (state council) headed by him were in charge of finances, taxes, and trade. Foreign policy was in charge of the khan himself with his closest advisers, as well as the beklyaribek.

The rights of the Great Khan as head of state included military, legislative and administrative powers. The idea of unity of supreme power in the first decades of the empire's existence was reflected in coinage. Coins issued in the cities of various uluses, including Central Asian ones, were, as a rule, anonymous; much less often they included the name and personal tamga of the Great Khan.

The heyday of the Horde state was marked by the highest level and quality of life in Europe at that time.

The rise occurred almost during the reign of one ruler - Uzbek (1312-1342). The state took upon itself the responsibility to protect the lives of its citizens, administer justice, and organize social, cultural and economic life.

3. Social system of the Golden Horde

The social structure of the Golden Horde was complex and reflected a variegated class and National composition this robber state. A clear class organization of society, similar to that which existed in Rus' and Western Europe feudal states and which was based on hierarchical feudal ownership of land, was not here.

The status of a subject of the Golden Horde depended on his origin, services to the khan and his family, and his position in the military-administrative apparatus. In the military-feudal hierarchy of the Golden Horde, the dominant position was occupied by the aristocratic family of the descendants of Genghis Khan and his son Jochi. This numerous family owned all the land of the state, it owned huge herds, palaces, many servants and slaves, innumerable wealth, military booty, the state treasury, etc.

Subsequently, the Jochids and other descendants of Genghis Khan retained a privileged position in the Central Asian khanates and in Kazakhstan for centuries, securing the monopoly right to bear the title of sultan and occupy the khan's throne.

The Khan had the richest and largest ulus type domain. The Jochids had a preferential right to occupy the highest government posts. In Russian sources they were called princes. They were awarded state and military titles and ranks. The next level in the military-feudal hierarchy of the Golden Horde was occupied by noyons (in eastern sources - beks). Not being members of the Juchids, they nevertheless traced their genealogy back to the associates of Genghis Khan and their sons. The Noyons had many servants and dependent people, huge herds.

They were often appointed by khans to responsible military and government positions: darugs, temniks, thousand officers, baskaks, etc. They were awarded tarkhan letters, which exempted them from various duties and responsibilities. The signs of their power were labels and paizi.

A special place in the hierarchical structure of the Golden Horde was occupied by numerous nukers - warriors of large feudal lords. They either were in the retinue of their lords, or occupied middle and lower military-administrative positions - centurions, foremen, etc.

These positions made it possible to extract significant income from the population of those territories where the corresponding military units were located or where they were sent, or where nukers occupied administrative positions.

From among the nukers and other privileged people, a small layer of tarkhans advanced to the Golden Horde, who received tarkhan letters from the khan or his senior officials, in which their owners were granted various privileges.

The ruling classes also included numerous clergy, primarily Muslim, merchants and rich artisans, local feudal lords, clan and tribal elders and leaders, large landowners in the settled agricultural regions of Central Asia, the Volga region, the Caucasus and Crimea.

The peasantry of agricultural regions, urban artisans, and servants were in varying degrees of dependence on the state and feudal lords. The bulk of the workers in the steppes and foothills of the Golden Horde were Karacha - nomadic cattle breeders. They were part of clans and tribes and were forced to unquestioningly obey clan and tribal elders and leaders, as well as representatives of the military-administrative power of the Horde. Carrying out all the economic duties, the Karachus at the same time had to serve in the army.

In the agricultural regions of the Horde, feudal dependent peasants worked. Some of them - Sabanchi - lived in rural communities and, in addition to the plots of feudal land allocated for them, worked and carried out other duties in kind. Others - urtakchi (sharecroppers) - bonded people worked the land of the state and local feudal lords for half the harvest, and bore other duties.

Artisans driven from conquered countries worked in the cities. Many of them were in the position of slaves or people dependent on the khan and other rulers. Small traders and servants also depended on the arbitrariness of the authorities and their masters. Even wealthy merchants and independent artisans paid taxes to the city authorities and carried out various duties. Slavery was a fairly common phenomenon in the Golden Horde. First of all, captives and residents of conquered lands became slaves. Slaves were used in craft production, construction, and as servants of feudal lords. Many slaves were sold to the countries of the East. However, the majority of slaves both in cities and in agriculture after one or two generations they became feudal dependents or received freedom.

The Golden Horde did not remain unchanged, borrowing a lot from Muslim East: crafts, architecture, bathhouse, tiles, ornamental decor, painted dishes, Persian poetry, Arabic geometry and astrolabes, morals and tastes more sophisticated than those of simple nomads. Having extensive connections with Anatolia, Syria and Egypt, the Horde replenished the army of the Mamluk sultans of Egypt with Turkic and Caucasian slaves, and the Horde culture acquired a certain Muslim imprint. Islam became the state religion in the Golden Horde by 1320, but, unlike other Islamic states, this did not lead to the total Islamization of its society, state and legal institutions.

A feature of the judicial system of the Golden Horde, firstly, was the above-mentioned coexistence of the institutions of traditional Mongolian justice - the dzargu courts and the Muslim kadi court, while no conflict of seemingly incompatible legal systems was observed: representatives of each of them considered cases classified as their exclusive control.

1. Formation of the Golden Horde

historical medieval state

The purpose of this test was achieved by completing the assigned tasks. As a result of the research conducted on the topic “Golden Horde: State and Society,” several conclusions can be drawn:

The Golden Horde was one of the largest states of the Middle Ages, whose possessions were located in Europe and Asia. Its military power constantly kept all its neighbors in suspense and was not challenged by anyone for a very long time. A huge territory, a large population, a strong central government, a large combat-ready army, skillful use of trade caravan routes, extorting tribute from conquered peoples, all this created the power of the Horde empire. It grew stronger and stronger in the first half of the 14th century. experienced the peak of its power.

The head of the Chingizids was the Great Khan, who was the supreme ruler of the state. The rights of the Great Khan as head of state included military, legislative and administrative powers.

Justice in the Golden Horde generally corresponded to the level of development of the court in various countries of the world - both European and Asian. The peculiarities of the court of the Golden Horde are explained both by the uniqueness of the legal consciousness of its society and by the combination of a number of other factors - the influence of the traditions of the regions over which the power of the Juchids extended, the adoption of Islam, nomadic traditions, etc.

The Horde order was maximally favorable to trade, the life and life of a person were more protected than that of a resident Western Europe. In the worldview and ideological sphere, the main way in which the Horde differed from Europe was religious tolerance, which goes back to the principles of Genghis Khan.

The state took upon itself the responsibility to protect the lives of its citizens, administer justice, and organize social, cultural and economic life. The heyday of the Horde state was marked by the highest level and quality of life in Europe at that time.

Regional rulers enjoyed extensive power in their areas. Representatives were usually appointed to these positions noble families feudal aristocracy, mainly from the same family, who by inheritance occupy the position of rulers of the regions.

Summing up the development of the Golden Horde state over the first hundred years of its existence, we can conclude that this rather primitive state association, as it was when founded by Batu, by the time of the reign of Uzbek Khan had become one of the largest states of the Middle Ages.

Conclusion

1. Gumilyov L.N. Ancient Turks. M., 1993.

2. Egorov V.L. Golden Horde: myths and reality. - M.: Publishing house "Knowledge", 1990. P. 129.

3. Grigoriev. Labels, c. 124-126, Priselkov, Labels, p. 94-98.

4. Turko - Tatar World: Section V. Golden Horde. §27.

5. B.D. Grekov and Y. Yakubovsky. The Golden Horde and its fall. - Moscow-Leningrad, 1950, p. 100.

6. Vernadsky G.V. History of Russia: Mongols and Rus'. - M., 2000.

7. Munchaev Sh.M., Ustinov V.M. History of Russia: Textbook for universities - 3rd ed., rev. And additional - M. Norma, 2004. - 768 p.

8. Asylbekova M.Kh. History of Kazakhstan, volume II, Almaty, 1997.

9. Arina E. Kazakhs, volume 1, Almaty, 1998.

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Formation of the Ulus of Jochi (Golden Horde).

The division of the Mongol Empire by Genghis Khan between his sons, carried out by 1224, can be considered the emergence of the Ulus of Jochi. After the Western Campaign (1236-1242), led by Jochi’s son Batu (Batu in Russian chronicles), the ulus expanded to the west and the Lower Volga region became its center. In 1251, a kurultai was held in the capital of the Mongol Empire, Karakorum, where Mongke, the son of Tolui, was proclaimed great khan. Batu, "eldest of the family" ( aka), supported Mongke, probably hoping to gain full autonomy for his ulus. Opponents of the Jochids and Toluids from the descendants of Chagatai and Ogedei were executed, and the possessions confiscated from them were divided between Mongke, Batu and other Chingizids who recognized their power.

State system.

According to the traditional structure of nomadic states, the Ulus of Jochi after 1242 was divided into two wings: right (western) and left (eastern). The right wing, which represented Batu’s Ulus, was considered the eldest. The Mongols designated the West as white, which is why Batu's Ulus was called the White Horde (Ak Horde). The right wing covered the territory of western Kazakhstan, the Volga region, the North Caucasus, the Don and Dnieper steppes, and the Crimea. Its center was the Sarai.

The left wing of the Jochi Ulus was in a subordinate position in relation to the right; it occupied the lands of central Kazakhstan and the Syr Darya valley. The Mongols designated the east in blue, so the left wing was called the Blue Horde (Kok Horde). The center of the left wing was Horda-Bazar. Batu's elder brother Orda-Ejen became the khan there.

The wings, in turn, were divided into uluses, which were owned by the other sons of Jochi. Initially there were about 14 such uluses. Plano Carpini, who traveled to the east in 1246-1247, identifies the following leaders in the Horde, indicating the places of nomads: Kuremsu on the western bank of the Dnieper, Mautsi on the eastern steppes, Kartan, married to Batu’s sister, in the Don steppes, Batu himself on the Volga and two thousand people on two banks of the Urals. Berke owned lands in the North Caucasus, but in 1254 Batu took these possessions for himself, ordering Berke to move east of the Volga. Plano Carpini, who traveled to the east in 1246-1247, identifies the following leaders in the Horde, indicating the places of nomads: Kuremsu on the western bank of the Dnieper, Mautsi on the eastern steppes, Kartan, married to Batu’s sister, in the Don steppes, Batu himself on the Volga and two thousand people on two banks of the Urals. Berke owned lands in the North Caucasus, but in 1254 Batu took these possessions for himself, ordering Berke to move east of the Volga.

At first, the ulus division was characterized by instability: possessions could be transferred to other persons and change their boundaries. At the beginning of the 14th century, Uzbek Khan carried out a major administrative-territorial reform, according to which the right wing of the Jochi Ulus was divided into 4 large uluses: Saray, Khorezm, Crimea and Dasht-i-Kipchak, led by ulus emirs (ulusbeks) appointed by the khan. The main ulusbek was the beklyarbek. The next most important dignitary is the vizier. The other two positions were occupied by particularly noble or distinguished feudal lords. These four regions were divided into 70 small estates (tumens), headed by temniks.

The uluses were divided into smaller possessions, also called uluses. The latter were administrative-territorial units of various sizes, which depended on the rank of the owner (temnik, thousand's manager, centurion, foreman).

The capital of the Golden Horde under Batu became the city of Sarai-Batu (near modern Astrakhan); in the first half of the 14th century, the capital was moved to Sarai-Berke (founded by Khan Berke (1255-1266), near modern Volgograd). Under Khan Uzbek, Sarai-Berke was renamed Sarai Al-Jedid.

Social system.

Social system. The social structure of the Golden Horde was complex and reflected the variegated class and national composition of this predatory state. There was no clear class organization of society, similar to that which existed in Rus' and in Western European feudal states and which was based on hierarchical feudal ownership of land. The status of a subject of the Golden Horde depended on his origin, services to the khan and his family, and his position in the military-administrative apparatus. In the military-feudal hierarchy of the Golden Horde, the dominant position was occupied by the aristocratic family of the descendants of Genghis Khan and his son Jochi. This numerous family owned all the land of the state, it owned huge herds, palaces, many servants and slaves, innumerable wealth, military booty, the state treasury, etc. Subsequently, the Jochids and other descendants of Genghis Khan retained a privileged position in the Central Asian khanates and in Kazakhstan for centuries, securing the monopoly right to bear the title of sultan and occupy the khan's throne. The Khan had the richest and largest ulus type domain. The Jochids had a preferential right to occupy the highest government posts. In Russian sources they were called princes. They were awarded state and military titles and ranks. The next level in the military-feudal hierarchy of the Golden Horde was occupied by noyons (in eastern sources - beks). Not being members of the Juchids, they nevertheless traced their genealogy back to the associates of Genghis Khan and their sons. The Noyons had many servants and dependent people, huge herds. They were often appointed by khans to responsible military and government positions: darugs, temniks, thousand officers, baskaks, etc. They were awarded tarkhan letters, which exempted them from various duties and responsibilities. The signs of their power were labels and paizi. A special place in the hierarchical structure of the Golden Horde was occupied by numerous nukers - warriors of large feudal lords. They were either in the retinue of their lords, or occupied middle and lower military administrative positions - centurions, foremen, etc. These positions made it possible to extract significant income from the population of those territories where the corresponding military units were stationed or where they were sent, or where nukers occupied administrative positions . From among the nukers and other privileged people, a small layer of tarkhans advanced to the Golden Horde, who received tarkhan letters from the khan or his senior officials, in which their owners were granted various privileges. The ruling classes also included numerous clergy, primarily Muslim, merchants and rich artisans, local feudal lords, clan and tribal elders and leaders, large landowners in the settled agricultural regions of Central Asia, the Volga region, the Caucasus and Crimea. The peasantry of agricultural regions, urban artisans, and servants were in varying degrees of dependence on the state and feudal lords. The bulk of the workers in the steppes and foothills of the Golden Horde were Karacha - nomadic cattle breeders. They were part of clans and tribes and were forced to unquestioningly obey clan and tribal elders and leaders, as well as representatives of the military-administrative power of the Horde. Carrying out all the economic duties, the Karachus at the same time had to serve in the army. In the agricultural regions of the Horde, feudal dependent peasants worked. Some of them - Sabanchi - lived in rural communities and, in addition to the plots of feudal land allocated for them, worked and carried out other duties in kind. Others - urtakchi (sharecroppers) - bonded people worked the land of the state and local feudal lords for half the harvest, and carried out other duties. Artisans driven from conquered countries worked in the cities. Many of them were in the position of slaves or people dependent on the khan and other rulers. Small traders and servants also depended on the arbitrariness of the authorities and their masters. Even wealthy merchants and independent artisans paid taxes to the city authorities and carried out various duties. Slavery was a fairly common phenomenon in the Golden Horde. First of all, captives and residents of conquered lands became slaves. Slaves were used in craft production, construction, and as servants of feudal lords. Many slaves were sold to the countries of the East. However, most slaves, both in cities and in agriculture, after one or two generations became feudal dependents or received freedom.

The GOLDEN HORDE, a Mongol-Tatar state, was founded in the early 1240s by Khan Batu, the son of Khan Jochi. The power of the Golden Horde khans extended over the territory from the lower Danube and the Gulf of Finland in the west to the Irtysh basin and lower Ob in the east, from the Black, Caspian and Aral seas and Lake Balkhash in the south to the Novgorod lands in the north. The Golden Horde included Western Siberia, Khorezm, Volga Bulgaria, the Northern Caucasus, Crimea, Dasht-i-Kipchak, the steppes of the Northern Black Sea and Volga regions. The indigenous Russian lands were not part of the Golden Horde, but were in vassal dependence on it; Russian princes paid tribute and obeyed the orders of the khans. The center of the Golden Horde was the Lower Volga region, where under Batu the capital was the city of Sarai-Batu (near modern Astrakhan), in the first half of the 14th century the capital was moved to Sarai-Berke, founded by Khan Berke (1255-1266) (near modern Volgograd).

The Golden Horde was in many ways artificial and fragile public education, with a diverse population. The Volga Bulgars, Mordovians, Russians, Greeks, and Khorezmians lived in settled areas. The bulk of the nomads were the Turkic tribes of the Polovtsians (Kipchaks), Kanglys, Tatars, Turkmen, and Kyrgyz. The level of social cultural development population of the Golden Horde.

After the completion of the period of conquest, accompanied by monstrous destruction and mass casualties, main goal The Golden Horde rulers began to enrich themselves through the robbery of the enslaved population. The bulk of the land and pastures was concentrated in the hands of the Mongol nobility, in whose favor the working population bore duties. The handicraft production of the nomads of the Golden Horde took the form of home crafts. In the cities of the Golden Horde, there were various craft workshops with production for the market, but as a rule, craftsmen brought from Khorezm, the North Caucasus, Crimea, as well as immigrant Russians, Armenians, and Greeks worked in them. Many cities in the conquered lands were devastated by the Mongols, were in decline or completely disappeared. Large centers of caravan trade were Sarai-Batu, Sarai-Berke, Urgench, the Crimean cities of Sudak, Kafa (Feodosia), Azak (Azov) on the Sea of Azov.

The state was headed by khans from the house of Batu. On particularly important occasions, kurultai were convened - congresses of the nobility led by members ruling dynasty. The beklyare-bek (bek of beks) was a kind of head of executive power; viziers were in charge of certain areas of government. Local power was exercised by darugs, main responsibility which was the collection of taxes and duties. Often, along with the Darugs, military leaders - Baskaks - were sent to the places. State structure was of a semi-military nature; military and administrative positions, as a rule, were not separated. The most important positions in the army were occupied by members of the ruling dynasty - oglans (princes), who owned appanages in the Golden Horde. From among the beks (noyns) and tarkhanov, a cadre of military leaders was formed - temniks, thousanders, centurions, as well as bakauls (officials who distributed maintenance to the troops, military booty).

The fragile nature of the state and the growth of the liberation struggle of conquered and dependent peoples became the main reasons for the collapse and death of the Golden Horde. Already during its formation, the Golden Horde was divided into uluses that belonged to numerous sons of Jochi. Although Batu's brothers recognized his supreme power, they were largely independent. Decentralization tendencies clearly manifested themselves after the death of Khan Mengu-Timur (1266-1282), when the war began between the princes of the house of Jochi. Under the khans of Tuda-Mengu (1282-1287) and Talabug (1287-1291), the temnik Nogai became the de facto ruler of the state. Only Khan Tokhta (1291-1312) managed to get rid of Nogai and his associates. Uzbek Khan (1312-1342) managed to stop the new unrest; under him and his successor Khan Janibek (1342-1357), the Golden Horde reached the peak of its power. The Uzbek army numbered up to 300 thousand people. After the murder of Janibek, the new period instability of power. In 1357-1380, more than 25 khans were on the Golden Horde throne. In the 1360-1370s, the de facto ruler of the state was Temnik Mamai. In the early 1360s, Khorezm fell away from the Golden Horde, the lands in the Dnieper River basin came under the rule of Lithuania, and Astrakhan became independent. A powerful union of principalities led by Moscow emerged in Rus'. In an attempt to weaken the Moscow princes, Mamai, at the head of a huge army, went on a campaign against Rus', but was defeated by the united Russian troops in the Battle of Kulikovo (1380). Under Khan Tokhtamysh (1380-1395), the unrest ceased, and the khan's power again began to control the main territory of the state. Tokhtamysh defeated the army of Mamai on the Kalka River (1380), in 1382 he carried out a successful campaign against Rus', captured Moscow by deception and burned it. During this period, Timur became a dangerous opponent of the Golden Horde. As a result of a series of devastating campaigns, Timur defeated the troops of Tokhtamysh, captured and destroyed Volga cities, including Sarai-Berke, and plundered the cities of Crimea. The Golden Horde was dealt a blow from which it could no longer recover.

In the early 1420s, the Siberian Khanate was formed, in the 1440s - the Nogai Horde, the Kazan Khanate (1438) and the Crimean Khanate (1443) became independent, in the 1460s - the Kazakh, Uzbek, and Astrakhan Khanates. In the 15th century, Rus''s dependence on the Golden Horde weakened significantly. In 1480, Akhmat, Khan of the Great Horde, which for some time became the successor of the Golden Horde, tried to achieve obedience from Ivan III, but this attempt ended in failure and the Russian people were finally freed from Tatar-Mongol yoke. The Great Horde ceased to exist at the beginning of the 16th century.