Works and periodization of ancient Russian literature. General characteristics of ancient Russian literature of the 12th century
5. Monuments ancient Russian literature Monuments of Old Russian literature 6. Living evidence of the past Living evidence of the past 1. Old Russian chronicle book Old Russian chronicle book 2. The first Russian libraries The first Russian libraries 3. The book is a witness to history The book is a witness to history 4. How was the “Tale of Bygone Years” preserved? How Has The Tale of Bygone Years survived? Plan Tests
Old Russian handwritten book Handwritten books appeared in our Fatherland in connection with the spread of Christianity, that is, more than ten centuries ago. Ostromir Gospel
Then books began to be written in Rus'. The Tale of Bygone Years says that Grand Duke Yaroslav the Wise gathered many book writers who translated from Greek into Slavic, and they wrote many books. “This Yaroslav loved books and wrote many, and placed them in Hagia Sophia, which he himself created.” Miniature of the Radziwill Chronicle
Book printing in Rus' began a little over four centuries ago by Apostle Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets
Many ancient handwritten books were lost during the Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus' and various reasons in the following centuries. A lot of ancient books have been lost in this century. Defense of Ryazan from the Mongol-Tatar hordes of Batu Khan in December 1237
From the 11th century, when the great princes Vladimir the Red Sun and Yaroslav the Wise lived, just over two dozen books have survived. Among the books that have come down to us are the Gospels, several liturgical books, biographies of saints and works of church writers. The book is a witness to history. Ostromir Gospel
In total, about five hundred manuscripts remain from the 11th–13th centuries to our time. Most of them are books for committing church services. Almost all of them are written not on paper, but on parchment. Miniature from Miroslav's Gospel. Izbornik of Svyatoslav
Ostromilovo Gospel, recording by Deacon Gregory at the end of the book. Records and notes were often made on the books, by which one can determine the author of the work or copyist, or the owner of the book, the time of writing, and even learn about events not related to the contents of the book.
The book, which has come down to us from ancient times, itself is a witness to the era when it was created. Therefore, handwritten books of Ancient Rus' will always be an inexhaustible source for studying the history of the Russian people, their language, literature and art.
Nestor was not the first chronicler of Ancient Rus'. But he was the first to compile such a detailed and coherent narrative about ancient Russian history. Settlement of the Eastern Slavs in the second half of the 9th century How was the Tale of Bygone Years preserved?
The first chronicle of Ancient Rus' was the Kiev Chronicle. Later, over the years, it was revised and became part of the ancient Kyiv vault, which was kept at the Church of St. Sophia by order of Prince Yaroslav the Wise. Initial view of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv 1034 (reconstruction) Yaroslav the Wise
This code was subsequently also repeatedly revised and copied by the monks of Kiev. Pechersky Monastery, until it took on its final form and began to be called “The Tale of Bygone Years.” Kiev-Pechersk monastery in the XII-XIII centuries. Graphics card reconstruction
This chronicle that has come down to us describes the events of Russian history up to the 10s of the 12th century. Its first edition was compiled around 1113 by Nestor, a monk of the Kiev Pechersk Monastery, by order of Prince Svyatopolk II Izyaslavich. Grand Duke Svyatopolk II Izyaslavovich Venerable Nestor the Chronicler
The manuscript of “The Tale of Bygone Years,” written by the hand of Nestor the chronicler himself, unfortunately, has not survived, like almost all lists of handwritten chronicles of the 11th–13th centuries. "Askold and Dir grew in this city... and began to reign...". Miniature of the Radziwill Chronicle
But from Kyiv, Nestor’s chronicle began to spread through rewriting to other cities of Rus', where, at the request of the princes or with the blessing of the bishops, Russian chronicle writing continued. The baptism of Princess Olga in Constantinople. Miniature of the Radziwill Chronicle
In 1118, in Pereyaslavl, an unnamed chronicler created the third edition of the Tale of Bygone Years for Prince Mstislav Vladimirovich. Grand Duke Mstislav I Church of the Transfiguration in Pereslavl-Zalessky
Only the Novgorod Chronicle has preserved to this day a more or less complete text of the first edition of the “Tale” as part of the code of 1118, with amendments by Dobrynya Yadreikovich. Ancient plan of the Novgorod Kremlin
In 1119, Presbyter Vasily, close to Vladimir Monomakh, edited the text of “The Tale of Bygone Years” for the fourth time and it was preserved for us by the Ipatiev Chronicle. The coming of Vladimir Monomakh to reign
Solar eclipse 1236. In the process of repeated correspondence, the text of Vasilyeva’s edition of “The Tale of Bygone Years” became part of the Tver Code of 1305, which came to us in the Laurentian Chronicle of 1377.
In those distant times, the chronicle rewritten by the monk Lawrence was probably not an exceptional phenomenon. Similar chronicles were kept in other large ancient Russian cities. But the manuscript of monk Lawrence turned out to have a special purpose. It is she who has survived to this day, while other chronicles of that time have not survived. Page from the Laurentian Chronicle
An ancient Russian writer who compiled a chronicle, story or biographies of saints probably did not think that he was creating monuments. But after some time, descendants evaluate the work as a monument if they see in it something outstanding or characteristic of the era when this monument was created. The legend “On the Writings” by the monk Khrabra, copy of 1348.
Among the outstanding monuments of ancient Russian literature are “The Tale of Bygone Years” by Nestor the Chronicler, “The Tale of Boris and Gleb”, “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, “The Life of Sergius of Radonezh”, “The Tale of Mamaev's massacre», « Chronicle story about the Battle of Kulikovo" and other heroic works of Ancient Rus'. "The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev." 17th century list
Question: What event is associated with the appearance of handwritten books in Rus'? 4. With the construction of Hagia Sophia in Kyiv. Read the question carefully and mark the correct answer 2. With the baptism of Rus' by the holy Prince Vladimir. 3. With the creation of the alphabet by the holy brothers Cyril and Methodius. 1. With the start of work of the first state printing house for printing books.
Question: In what year was the alphabet created by Saints Cyril and Methodius? d. Read the question carefully and mark the correct answer g g d.
Question: Scientists have reliably established that the princely and church libraries contained hundreds and thousands of handwritten books. How many manuscripts and their fragments have survived to this day from the 11th-13th centuries? Read the question carefully and mark the correct answer 3. about 100 manuscripts 2. about 500 manuscripts and fragments of manuscripts
Question: In what form has “The Tale of Bygone Years” come to us? Read the question carefully and mark the correct answer 3. In the form of a list in the Vladimir Chronicle of 1305. 4. In the form of a list as part of the chronicle of 1377, which was copied by the monk Lawrence. 1. In the form of a manuscript written by the Monk Nestor the Chronicler in 1113. 2. In the form of a list, which was copied by the monk Sylvester in 1116.
Question: Where is the surviving copy of The Tale of Bygone Years located? Read the question carefully and mark the correct answer 3. In Novosibirsk, in the State Public Scientific and Technical Library. 1. In St. Petersburg, in the State National Library. 2. In Moscow, in the State Russian Library.
Question: Which of the following objects are written historical sources? Read the question carefully and mark the correct answers 3. page from “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamai” 2. Monomakh’s hat 1. page from the “Radzivil Chronicle” 4. wooden utensils 5. weapon of a Golden Horde warrior
Question: Which of the following objects are material historical sources? Read the question carefully and mark the correct answers 5. Monomakh’s hat 3. weapon of a Golden Horde warrior 4. page from the “Radzivil Chronicle” 2. wooden dishes 1. page from “The Tale of the Massacre of Mamai”
Chapter 1. How to study native history? Lesson 1. Origins and sources Lesson 2. Witnesses and testimonies Lesson 3. Conspiracy traces of the past Chapter 2. At the dawn of Russian history. Lesson 4. Ancient Slavs Lesson 5. Creators Slavic writing Lesson 6. Byzantium and Ancient Rus' Lesson 7. The beginning of Kievan Rus Lesson 8. Holy Equal-to-the-Apostles Princess Olga Chapter 3. Enlightenment of Rus'. Lesson 9. Holy Equal-to-the-Apostles Prince Vladimir Lesson 10. Baptism of Rus' Lesson 11. Yaroslav the Wise and his time Lesson 12. Laws and orders in Rus' during the time of Yaroslav the Wise Lesson 13. The flourishing of culture in Rus' under Yaroslav the Wise Lesson 14. Kiev-Pechersk Lavra Chapter 4. Discord and civil strife in Rus'. Lesson 15. Discord in Rus' under the children of Yaroslav Lesson 16. Vladimir Monomakh Lesson 17. The Word about Igor's Campaign Chapter 5. Expansion of Rus'. Lesson 18. The choice of Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky Lesson 19. Old Russian city and its population Lesson 20. The Art of Ancient Rus' Chapter 6. Shield and glory of Rus'. Lesson 21. Mister Veliky Novgorod Lesson 22. Sofia of Novgorod Lesson 23. Birch bark certificates Lesson 24. Pskov Chapter 7. Trials of the Russian land. Lesson 25. First meeting with the Mongol-Tatar horde Lesson 26. Batu's invasion Lesson 27. Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus' Lesson 28. Holy Prince Alexander Nevsky Lesson 29. Moscow and the Moscow Principality Lesson 30. Battle of Kulikovo Lesson 31. Venerable Sergius Radonezh Chapter 8. Revived Rus' Russia. Lesson 32. Overthrow of the Horde yoke Lesson 33. Unification of Russian lands around Moscow Lesson 34. Unity of Russia
The word "Monument" comes from the word "memory". Most often, monuments are buildings or busts built in honor and glory of a person. For example, many monuments to Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin were created. To perpetuate the memory of the great poet, his grateful admirers erected monuments to him. Monuments in those places where the poet lived and wrote his works are especially dear to us. They preserve the memory of the poet’s stay in these places. Ancient temples and ancient buildings in general are called architectural monuments, because they also preserve the memory of past centuries of native history. www.tracetransport.ru
In order for a work to be recognized as a literary monument, time must pass. An ancient Russian writer who compiled a chronicle, story or biographies of saints probably did not think that he was creating monuments. But after some time, descendants evaluate the work as a monument if they see in it something outstanding or characteristic of the era in which it was created.
What is the value of literary monuments, architectural monuments and cultural monuments in general? The monument is a witness of its time.
Among the outstanding monuments of ancient Russian literature are “The Tale of Bygone Years” by Nestor the Chronicler, “The Tale of Boris and Gleb”, “The Tale of Igor’s Host”, “The Life of Sergius of Radonezh”, “The Chronicle Tale of the Battle of Kulikovo” and other heroic works of Ancient Rus' . One of the most remarkable monuments of ancient Russian literature is the “Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh to his children,” extracted from the Laurentian Chronicle. Those who study their native history and Russian literature cannot help but turn to all these monuments of ancient Russian literature. We will also turn to them, because they all bear us living testimony about the past of our Fatherland.
Literature is part of reality; it occupies a certain place in the history of the people and fulfills enormous social responsibilities. During the period of the 9th - early 13th centuries. serves the purpose of unification, expresses the national consciousness of unity. She is the keeper of history and legends, and these latter were a kind of means of exploring space, marking the holiness or significance of a particular place: a tract, a mound, a village, etc. Historically, legends conveyed historical depth to the country, they were that “fourth dimension” in within the framework of which the entire vast Russian land was perceived and became visible. The same role was played by chronicles and lives of saints, historical stories and stories about the founding of monasteries. All Russian literature was distinguished by deep historicism. Literature was one of the ways to master the surrounding world.
What did ancient Russian literature teach? The secular element of ancient Russian literature was deeply patriotic. She taught active love to the homeland, fostered citizenship, and strived to correct the shortcomings of society.
In essence, all monuments of ancient Russian literature, thanks to their historical topics much more closely interconnected than at present. They can be arranged in chronological order, but as a whole they present one story: Russian and world. Ancient literature, by the nature of its existence and creation, is closer to folklore than to the personal creativity of modern times. The work, once created by the author, was then changed by scribes in numerous rewrites, altered, acquired different ideological colors in different environments, was supplemented, acquired new episodes, etc.: therefore, almost every work that has come to us in several copies is known to us in various editions, types and editions.
The first Russian works are full of admiration for the wisdom of the universe, but a wisdom that is not closed in itself, but serves man. Along the path of such an anthropocentric perception of the universe, the relationship between the artist and the object of art also changed. And this new attitude led a person away from what was canonically recognized by the church.
The appeal of art to its creators and to all people has become the style-forming dominant of everything monumental art and all literature of the pre-Mongol period. It is from here that the imposing, solemn, ceremonial quality of all forms of art and literature of this time comes.
"The Life of Prince Alexander Nevsky." Portrait of a prince
Among the North Russian monuments associated with the invasion of the Tatars is “The Word of the Destruction of the Russian Lands.” The “Lay” lists the natural and material wealth with which, before the invasion, the “light-bright and ornately decorated Russian land” abounded: numerous lakes, rivers and wells, steep mountains, ...
"Enchanted Wanderers" and "Inspired Vagabonds". "Unhappy Wanderers" by Pushkin
Endless roads, and on these roads there are people, eternal vagabonds and wanderers. Russian character and mentality encourage an endless search for truth, justice and happiness. This idea is confirmed in such works of classics as “The Gypsies”, “Eugene Onegin” by A. S. Pushkin, “The Sealed Angel”, “The Cathedral People”, “The Enchanted Wanderer” ...
Result of action
And, finally, for the sake of which two demons from eternity descended to the earth of different times. Once again, the results of their actions do not coincide. Woland, as expected from the very beginning, achieved what he wanted. Four days were enough for him to explore the new Moscow world and understand that people had not changed at all, “...they are people like people, they love d...
The literature of Ancient Rus' arose in the 11th century. and developed over seven centuries until the Petrine era. Old Russian literature is a single whole with all the diversity of genres, themes, and images. This literature is the focus of Russian spirituality and patriotism. On the pages of these works there are conversations about the most important philosophical, moral problems, about which heroes of all centuries think, speak, reflect. The works form a love for the Fatherland and one’s people, show the beauty of the Russian land, so these works touch the innermost strings of our hearts.
The significance of Old Russian literature as the basis for the development of new Russian literature is very great. Thus, images, ideas, even the style of writings were inherited by A. S. Pushkin, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy.
Old Russian literature did not arise out of nowhere. Its appearance was prepared by the development of language, oral folk art, cultural ties with Byzantium and Bulgaria and is due to the adoption of Christianity as a single religion. First literary works, appeared in Rus', translated. Those books that were necessary for worship were translated.
The first original works, that is, written by the Eastern Slavs themselves, date back to the end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th centuries. V. The formation of Russian national literature took place, its traditions and features were formed, determining its specific features, a certain dissimilarity with the literature of our days.
The purpose of this work is to show the features of Old Russian literature and its main genres.
II. Features of Old Russian literature.
2. 1. Historicism of content.
Events and characters in literature, as a rule, are the fruit of the author's imagination. Authors works of art, even if they describe the true events of real people, they conjecture a lot. But in Ancient Rus' everything was completely different. The ancient Russian scribe only talked about what, in his opinion, really happened. Only in the 17th century. Everyday stories with fictional characters and plots appeared in Rus'.
Both the ancient Russian scribe and his readers firmly believed that the events described actually happened. Thus, chronicles were a kind of legal document for the people of Ancient Rus'. After the death of Moscow Prince Vasily Dmitrievich in 1425, his younger brother Yuri Dmitrievich and son Vasily Vasilyevich began to argue about their rights to the throne. Both princes turned to the Tatar Khan to arbitrate their dispute. At the same time, Yuri Dmitrievich, defending his rights to reign in Moscow, referred to ancient chronicles, which reported that power had previously passed from the prince-father not to his son, but to his brother.
2. 2. Handwritten nature of existence.
Another feature of Old Russian literature is the handwritten nature of its existence. Even the appearance of the printing press in Rus' changed the situation little until mid-18th century V. The existence of literary monuments in manuscripts led to a special veneration of the book. What even separate treatises and instructions were written about. But on the other hand, handwritten existence led to instability ancient Russian works literature. Those works that have come down to us are the result of the work of many, many people: the author, editor, copyist, and the work itself could last for several centuries. Therefore, in scientific terminology, there are such concepts as “manuscript” (handwritten text) and “list” (rewritten work). The manuscript may contain lists various works and can be written either by the author himself or by scribes. Another fundamental concept in textual criticism is the term “edition,” i.e., the purposeful processing of a monument caused by socio-political events, changes in the function of the text, or differences in the language of the author and editor.
Closely connected with the existence of a work in manuscripts is such a specific feature of Old Russian literature as the problem of authorship.
The author's principle in Old Russian literature is muted, implicit. Old Russian scribes were not thrifty with other people's texts. When rewriting, the texts were processed: some phrases or episodes were excluded from them or inserted into them, and stylistic “decorations” were added. Sometimes the author's ideas and assessments were even replaced by the opposite ones. The lists of one work differed significantly from each other.
Old Russian scribes did not at all strive to reveal their involvement in literary composition. Many monuments have remained anonymous; the authorship of others has been established by researchers based on indirect evidence. So it is impossible to attribute to someone else the writings of Epiphanius the Wise, with his sophisticated “weaving of words.” The style of Ivan the Terrible’s messages is inimitable, boldly mixing eloquence and rude abuse, learned examples and the style of simple conversation.
It happens that in a manuscript one or another text was signed with the name of an authoritative scribe, which may equally both correspond and not correspond to reality. Thus, among the works attributed to the famous preacher Saint Cyril of Turov, many, apparently, do not belong to him: the name of Cyril of Turov gave these works additional authority.
The anonymity of literary monuments is also due to the fact that the ancient Russian “writer” did not consciously try to be original, but tried to show himself as traditional as possible, that is, to comply with all the rules and regulations of the established canon.
2. 4. Literary etiquette.
Famous literary critic, researcher ancient Russian literature Academician D.S. Likhachev proposed a special term to designate the canon in the monuments of medieval Russian literature - “literary etiquette”.
Literary etiquette consists of:
From the idea of how this or that course of events should have taken place;
From ideas about how the actor should have behaved in accordance with his position;
From ideas about what words the writer should have described what was happening.
We have before us the etiquette of the world order, the etiquette of behavior and the etiquette of words. The hero is supposed to behave this way, and the author is supposed to describe the hero only in appropriate terms.
III. The main genres of ancient Russian literature.
The literature of modern times is subject to the laws of “genre poetics.” It was this category that began to dictate the ways of creating a new text. But in ancient Russian literature the genre did not play such an important role.
A sufficient amount of research has been devoted to the genre uniqueness of Old Russian literature, but there is still no clear classification of genres. However, some genres immediately stood out in ancient Russian literature.
3. 1. Hagiographic genre.
Life is a description of the life of a saint.
Russian hagiographic literature includes hundreds of works, the first of which were written already in the 11th century. The Life, which came to Rus' from Byzantium along with the adoption of Christianity, became the main genre of ancient Russian literature, that literary form, in which the spiritual ideals of Ancient Rus' were clothed.
The compositional and verbal forms of life have been refined over the centuries. High theme - story about a life that embodies ideal service to the world and God - determines the image of the author and the style of narration. The author of the life tells the story excitedly; he does not hide his admiration for the holy ascetic and his admiration for his righteous life. The author's emotionality and excitement color the entire narrative in lyrical tones and contribute to the creation of a solemn mood. This atmosphere is also created by the style of narration - high solemn, full of quotations from the Holy Scriptures.
When writing a life, the hagiographer (the author of the life) was obliged to follow a number of rules and canons. The composition of a correct life should be three-fold: introduction, story about the life and deeds of the saint from birth to death, praise. In the introduction, the author asks forgiveness from readers for their inability to write, for the rudeness of the narrative, etc. The introduction was followed by the life itself. It cannot be called a “biography” of a saint in in every sense this word. The author of the life selects from his life only those facts that do not contradict the ideals of holiness. The story about the life of a saint is freed from everything everyday, concrete, and accidental. In a life compiled according to all the rules, there are few dates, exact geographical names, or names of historical figures. The action of the life takes place, as it were, outside of historical time and specific space; it unfolds against the backdrop of eternity. Abstraction is one of the features of the hagiographic style.
At the end of the life there should be praise to the saint. This is one of the most important parts of life, which required great literary art and a good knowledge of rhetoric.
The oldest Russian hagiographic monuments are two lives of princes Boris and Gleb and the Life of Theodosius of Pechora.
3. 2. Eloquence.
Eloquence is an area of creativity characteristic of ancient period development of our literature. Monuments of church and secular eloquence are divided into two types: teaching and solemn.
Solemn eloquence required depth of concept and great literary skill. The speaker needed the ability to construct a speech effectively in order to capture the listener, set him in a high mood corresponding to the topic, and shock him with pathos. There was a special term for a solemn speech - “word”. (There was no terminological unity in ancient Russian literature. A military story could also be called “the Word.”) Speeches were not only pronounced, but written and distributed in numerous copies.
Solemn eloquence did not pursue narrow practical goals; it required the formulation of problems of broad social, philosophical and theological scope. The main reasons for creating “words” are theological issues, issues of war and peace, defense of the borders of the Russian land, internal and foreign policy, the struggle for cultural and political independence.
The most ancient monument of solemn eloquence is the “Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion, written between 1037 and 1050.
Teaching eloquence is teachings and conversations. They are usually small in volume, often devoid of rhetorical embellishments, and written in the Old Russian language, which was generally accessible to people of that time. Church leaders and princes could deliver teachings.
Teachings and conversations have purely practical purposes and contain information necessary for a person. “Instruction to the Brethren” by Luke Zhidyata, Bishop of Novgorod from 1036 to 1059, contains a list of rules of behavior that a Christian should adhere to: do not take revenge, do not utter “disgraceful” words. Go to church and behave quietly in it, honor your elders, judge truthfully, honor your prince, do not curse, keep all the commandments of the Gospel.
Theodosius of Pechora is the founder of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. He owns eight teachings to the brethren, in which Theodosius reminds the monks of the rules of monastic behavior: not to be late for church, make three prostrations, maintain decorum and order when singing prayers and psalms, and bow to each other when meeting. In his teachings, Theodosius of Pechora demands complete renunciation from the world, abstinence, constant prayer and vigil. The abbot sternly denounces idleness, money-grubbing, and intemperance in food.
3. 3. Chronicle.
Chronicles were weather records (by “summers” - by “years”). The annual entry began with the words: “Into the summer.” After this there was a story about events and incidents that, from the point of view of the chronicler, were worthy of the attention of posterity. These could be military campaigns, raids steppe nomads, natural disasters: droughts, crop failures, etc., as well as simply unusual incidents.
It is thanks to the work of chroniclers that modern historians have an amazing opportunity to look into the distant past.
More often ancient Russian chronicler there was a learned monk who sometimes spent time compiling a chronicle long years. In those days, it was customary to start telling stories about history from ancient times and only then move on to the events of recent years. The chronicler had to first of all find, put in order, and often rewrite the work of his predecessors. If the compiler of the chronicle had at his disposal not one, but several chronicle texts at once, then he had to “reduce” them, that is, combine them, choosing from each what he considered necessary to include in his own work. When materials relating to the past were collected, the chronicler moved on to recounting the events of his time. The result of this great job the chronicle was forming. After some time, other chroniclers continued this collection.
Apparently, the first major monument of ancient Russian chronicle writing was the chronicle code compiled in the 70s of the 11th century. The compiler of this code is believed to have been the abbot of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nikon the Great (? - 1088).
Nikon's work formed the basis of another chronicle, which was compiled in the same monastery two decades later. IN scientific literature it received the code name “Initial Vault”. Its nameless compiler replenished Nikon's collection not only with news from recent years, but also with chronicle information from other Russian cities.
“The Tale of Bygone Years”
Based on the chronicles of the 11th century tradition. The greatest chronicle monument of the era of Kievan Rus - “The Tale of Bygone Years” was born.
It was compiled in Kyiv in the 10s. 12th century According to some historians, its probable compiler was the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor, also known for his other works. When creating “The Tale of Bygone Years,” its compiler used numerous materials with which he supplemented the Primary Code. These materials included Byzantine chronicles, texts of treaties between Rus' and Byzantium, monuments of translated and ancient Russian literature, and oral traditions.
The compiler of “The Tale of Bygone Years” set as his goal not just to tell about the past of Rus', but also to determine the place of the Eastern Slavs among the European and Asian peoples.
The chronicler talks in detail about the settlement Slavic peoples in ancient times, about the settlement of territories by the Eastern Slavs that would later become part of the Old Russian state, about the morals and customs of different tribes. The Tale of Bygone Years emphasizes not only the antiquity of the Slavic peoples, but also the unity of their culture, language and writing, created in the 9th century. brothers Cyril and Methodius.
The chronicler considers the adoption of Christianity to be the most important event in the history of Rus'. A story about the first Russian Christians, about the baptism of Rus', about the spread new faith, the construction of churches, the emergence of monasticism, and the success of Christian enlightenment occupy a central place in the Tale.
The wealth of historical and political ideas reflected in “The Tale of Bygone Years” suggests that its compiler was not just an editor, but also a talented historian, a deep thinker, and a brilliant publicist. Many chroniclers of subsequent centuries turned to the experience of the creator of the Tale, sought to imitate him and almost necessarily placed the text of the monument at the beginning of each new chronicle.
ancient Russian literature patristics
The heyday of Kievan Rus, the time of the triumph of Christianity. About four hundred churches were built in Kyiv alone. A variety of genres is encouraged, and the influence of folklore on Old Russian literature does not dry out. The priority of the book tradition is affirmed.
The style of monumental historicism continues to develop, as in images and frescoes, the prince in the chronicle is always official, as if addressed to the viewer. The Christian worldview in depicting people was put at the service of strengthening the feudal system. It spoke mainly where legal crimes were discussed: murders, fraud.
In relation to negative characters, the writer is less official than in relation to goodies your narrative.
One of the most negative characters Ipatiev Chronicle - Vladimir Galitsky. His main feature: greed; he acts not directly, not by war, but by bribery and money. This image of Vladimir reflected the hatred of representatives of the poor Principality of Kyiv to a richer one in the 12th century. Principality of Galicia. Literary portraits The princes are also laconic, energetically inscribed in space.
On an icon of the 12th century Tretyakov Gallery from the Novgorod Yuriev Monastery, St. George the Victorious stands with a shield behind his back, with a spear and sword in his hands. The authors strive to emphasize the bravery of the princes not only in the description, but also in the commendable characteristics of the heroes, but also in the description of the action. There are almost no characters here and there is no connection between the development of historical events and the characteristics of the participants. Each prince performs his life's work as a representative of a certain family, princes.
Dependent chroniclers tried to portray their prince from the point of view of ideal behavior. They talked mainly about the activities of certain layers of society. XII is characterized by the awakening of thought, says Klyuchevsky. The initial Russian chronicle, along with other monuments of Russian literature, is a significant indicator of the growth and national consciousness in Ancient Rus'. The language of the chronicle, preserving the vocabulary and form of the Church Slavonic language in church narratives and in quotations from biblical books in other cases, is especially informative in the patericon, which is part of the folk poetic living Russian language. New genres are partly formed at the intersection of folklore and literature.
The most outstanding monument of this era is “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” “The word was created in the 12th century. First pronounced at the congress in Lyubechi. The author saw the essence of this event as conveying the idea of unity. Recovery theme genre system. The work has a unity of composition. “The Word...” is dedicated to Igor’s campaign. In “The Lay...” it is natural to often have unexpected transitions from one part to another. the text of the Word is artistically homogeneous in mood, thanks to a single picture of the Russian land. The dominant theme is love and care. The connection between “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” and oral folk poetry is most clearly felt within two genres, most often mentioned in the word Lamentation and song glorifications - “Glory”: the lament of Yaroslavna is mentioned at least 5 times, the lamentations of the same Russian soldiers during the campaign Igor, the lament of Yaroslavna’s mother Lament is what the author of the word means when he talks about the groans of Kyiv and Chernigov and the entire Russian land after Igor’s campaign. Twice the author cites the most laments: the lament of Yaroslavna, the lament of Russian wives. Repeatedly distracts himself from the story by resorting to exclamations. The closeness of the Word to laments is strong in Yaroslavna’s lament. The author of the Tale of Igor's Campaign constantly resorts to images of the animal world, never introduces foreign animals into his work, resorting only to images of Russian nature.
Pagan elements in the word about Igor's campaign are, as we know, strongly exposed. The harmony of the composition is maintained by dividing the word into a number of songs; the picture ends with a refrain. The poem is divided into stanzas. The composition is determined by the design and lyro-epic nature; the author assesses the network of conciliar unity of the past and the present. Russian women embody care and love for their deceased son. I.P Eremin rightly notes in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” many techniques of oratory. Before us in the Word, as in many ancient Russian monuments, the author more often feels himself speaking than writing, his readers - listeners, not readers, his topic - a lesson, and not a story.
Victory weapons were forged in the righteous age. The focus is on people who do not call upon different forces. The Word about Igor's Host is a lyrical revelation to nature. In this era, genre formation occurs. Characteristic works are outside of traditional genres, which include the above-mentioned “Word” and “Prayer of Daniel the Imprisoner.”
“Prayer” was openly and partially published by N.M. Karamzin. The prayer came to us in copies XVI-XVIII no earlier, with traces of later insertions and interpolations. All famous lists The prayers are clearly divided into 2 editions. The prayer of Daniel the prisoner is a petition letter, from which it follows that a certain Daniel, judging by the text of the prayer, is in captivity. The prayer names different princes. The first is composed as follows: “The Word of Daniil the Sharper was written to his prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich.” The second edition dates back to the 12th century. in some sources, others - in the 13th century.
System folklore genres was sufficiently adapted, mainly, to reflect the needs of pagan tribal community. A cult of the brothers Boris and Gleb is created, who meekly submitted to the hand of the murderer, followers of Svyatopolk. Princes Boris and Gleb were the first saints canonized by the Russian Church. Boris and Gleb were the first married elects of the Russian Church, the first recognized miracle workers, its recognized heavenly prayer books for new Christian people. Boris and Gleb were not martyrs for Christ, but fell victims of a political crime in a princely feud, like many before and after them.
In this article we will look at the features of Old Russian literature. The literature of Ancient Rus' was primarily church. After all, book culture in Rus' appeared with the adoption of Christianity. Monasteries became centers of writing, and the first literary monuments These are mainly works of a religious nature. Thus, one of the first original (that is, not translated, but written by a Russian author) works was the “Sermon on Law and Grace” by Metropolitan Hilarion. The author proves the superiority of Grace (the image of Jesus Christ is associated with it) over the Law, which, according to the preacher, is conservative and nationally limited.
Literature was created not for entertainment, but for teaching. Considering the features of ancient Russian literature, it should be noted that it is instructive. She teaches to love God and her Russian land; she creates images of ideal people: saints, princes, faithful wives.
Let us note one seemingly insignificant feature of ancient Russian literature: it was handwritten. Books were created in a single copy and only then copied by hand when it was necessary to make a copy or the original text became unusable over time. This gave the book special value and generated respect for it. In addition, for the ancient Russian reader, all books traced their origins to the main one - the Holy Scriptures.
Since the literature of Ancient Rus' was fundamentally religious, the book was seen as a storehouse of wisdom, a textbook of righteous life. Old Russian literature is not fiction, but modern meaning this word. She does everything avoids fiction and strictly follows the facts. The author does not show his individuality; he hides behind the narrative form. He does not strive for originality; for an ancient Russian writer it is more important to stay within the framework of tradition and not to break it. Therefore, all lives are similar to one another, all biographies of princes or military stories are compiled according to a general plan, in compliance with the “rules”. When The Tale of Bygone Years tells us about Oleg’s death from his horse, this beautiful poetic legend sounds like historical document, the author really believes that this is how it happened.
The hero of ancient Russian literature does not have no personality, no character in our view today. Man's destiny is in the hands of God. And at the same time, his soul acts as an arena for the struggle between good and evil. The first will win only when a person lives according to moral rules given once and for all.
Of course, in Russian medieval works we will not find either individual characters or psychologism - not because ancient Russian writers did not know how to do this. In the same way, icon painters created planar rather than three-dimensional images, not because they could not write “better,” but because they were faced with other artistic tasks: the face of Christ cannot be similar to an ordinary human face. An icon is a sign of holiness, not a depiction of a saint.
The literature of Ancient Rus' adheres to the same aesthetic principles: it creates faces, not faces, gives the reader example of correct behavior rather than depicting a person's character. Vladimir Monomakh behaves like a prince, Sergius of Radonezh behaves like a saint. Idealization is one of the key principles of ancient Russian art.
Old Russian literature in every possible way avoids mundaneness: she does not describe, but narrates. Moreover, the author does not narrate on his own behalf, he only conveys what is written in the sacred books, what he read, heard or saw. There can be nothing personal in this narrative: no manifestation of feelings, no individual manner. (“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” in this sense is one of the few exceptions.) Therefore, many works of the Russian Middle Ages anonymous, the authors do not even assume such immodesty - to put your name. And the ancient reader cannot even imagine that the word is not from God. And if God speaks through the mouth of the author, then why does he need a name, a biography? That is why the information available to us about ancient authors is so scarce.
At the same time, in ancient Russian literature a special national ideal of beauty, captured by ancient scribes. First of all, this is spiritual beauty, the beauty of the Christian soul. In Russian medieval literature, in contrast to Western European literature of the same era, the knightly ideal of beauty - the beauty of weapons, armor, and victorious battle - is much less represented. The Russian knight (prince) wages war for the sake of peace, and not for the sake of glory. War for the sake of glory and profit is condemned, and this is clearly seen in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” Peace is assessed as an unconditional good. The ancient Russian ideal of beauty presupposes a wide expanse, an immense, “decorated” earth, and it is decorated with temples, because they were created specifically for the exaltation of the spirit, and not for practical purposes.
The attitude of ancient Russian literature is also connected with the theme of beauty to oral and poetic creativity, folklore. On the one hand, folklore was of pagan origin, and therefore did not fit into the framework of the new, Christian worldview. On the other hand, he could not help but penetrate literature. After all, the written language in Rus' from the very beginning was Russian, and not Latin, as in Western Europe, and there was no impassable border between the book and the spoken word. Folk ideas about beauty and goodness also generally coincided with Christian ones; Christianity penetrated into folklore almost unhindered. Therefore, the heroic epic (epics), which began to take shape in the pagan era, presents its heroes both as patriotic warriors and as defenders of the Christian faith, surrounded by “filthy” pagans. Just as easily, sometimes almost unconsciously, ancient Russian writers use folklore images and stories.
The religious literature of Rus' quickly outgrew its narrow church framework and became truly spiritual literature, which created a whole system of genres. Thus, “The Sermon on Law and Grace” belongs to the genre of a solemn sermon delivered in church, but Hilarion not only proves the Grace of Christianity, but also glorifies the Russian land, combining religious pathos with patriotic ones.
Genre of life
The most important genre for ancient Russian literature was the hagiography, the biography of a saint. At the same time, the task was pursued, by telling about the earthly life of a saint canonized by the church, to create an image ideal person for the edification of all people.
IN " Lives of the Holy Martyrs Boris and Gleb"Prince Gleb appeals to his killers with a request to spare him: “Do not cut the ear, which is not yet ripe, filled with the milk of goodness! Do not cut the vine, which is not yet fully grown, but bears fruit!” Abandoned by his squad, Boris in his tent “cries with a broken heart, but is joyful in soul”: he is afraid of death and at the same time he realizes that he is repeating the fate of many saints who accepted martyrdom for faith.
IN " Lives of Sergius of Radonezh“It is said that the future saint in his adolescence had difficulty comprehending literacy, lagged behind his peers in learning, which caused him a lot of suffering; when Sergius retired into the desert, a bear began to visit him, with whom the hermit shared his meager food, it happened that the saint gave the last piece of bread to the beast.
In the traditions of life in the 16th century, “ The Tale of Peter and Fevronia of Murom”, but it already sharply diverged from the canons (norms, requirements) of the genre and therefore was not included in the collection of lives of the “Great Chet-Minea” along with other biographies. Peter and Fevronia are real historical figures, who reigned in Murom in the 13th century, Russian saints. The author of the 16th century produced not a life, but an entertaining story based on fairy tale motifs, glorifying the love and loyalty of the heroes, and not just their Christian deeds.
A " Life of Archpriest Avvakum", written by himself in the 17th century, turned into a vivid autobiographical work, filled with reliable events and real people, living details, feelings and experiences of the hero-narrator, behind which stands the bright character of one of the spiritual leaders of the Old Believers.
Genre of teaching
Since religious literature was intended to educate true Christian, one of the genres was teaching. Although this is a church genre, close to a sermon, it was also used in secular (secular) literature, since the ideas of the people of that time about the correct, righteous life did not differ from the church ones. You know" Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh", written by him around 1117 "sitting on a sleigh" (shortly before his death) and addressed to children.
The ideal ancient Russian prince appears before us. He cares about the welfare of the state and each of his subjects, guided by Christian morality. The prince's other concern is about the church. All earthly life should be considered as work to save the soul. This is the work of mercy and kindness, and military work, and mental work. Hard work is the main virtue in Monomakh’s life. He made eighty-three major campaigns, signed twenty peace treaties, learned five languages, and did what his servants and warriors did.
Chronicles
A significant, if not the largest, part of ancient Russian literature is works of historical genres that were included in the chronicles. The first Russian chronicle - "The Tale of Bygone Years""was created at the beginning of the 12th century. Its significance is extremely great: it was proof of Rus'’s right to state independence, independence. But if chroniclers could record recent events “according to the epics of this time,” reliably, then the events of pre-Christian history had to be restored from oral sources: legends , legends, sayings, geographical names. Therefore, the chroniclers turn to folklore. These are the legends about the death of Oleg, about Olga’s revenge on the Drevlyans, about Belgorod jelly, etc.
Already in The Tale of Bygone Years two the most important features Old Russian literature: patriotism and connection with folklore. Book-Christian and folklore-pagan traditions are closely intertwined in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.”
Elements of fiction and satire
Of course, ancient Russian literature was not unchanged throughout all seven centuries. We saw that over time it became more secular, elements of fiction intensified, and satirical motifs increasingly penetrated into literature, especially in the 16th-17th centuries. These are, for example, " The Tale of Misfortune", showing what troubles disobedience and the desire to “live as he pleases,” and not as his elders teach, can bring a person, and “ The Tale of Ersha Ershovich", ridiculing the so-called "voivode's court" in the tradition of a folk tale.
But in general, we can talk about the literature of Ancient Rus' as a single phenomenon, with its own end-to-end ideas and motives that have passed through 700 years, with its general aesthetic principles, with a stable system of genres.
