Poussin's work. Nicolas Poussin. Parisian intrigues and return to Rome

2 - The works of Nicolas Poussin

Most famous artist France of the 17th century, working in classic style, is considered Nicolas Poussin. The main stages of his work are: his stay in Rome from 1624 (which brought to life his first famous works, painted under the influence of Raphael's style), life in Paris in 1640 - 1642 (where his best paintings on church themes were painted) and the last Roman period, which brought him fame as a master of historical landscape

A true classic French painting XVII century there was Nicolas Poussin (1593-1665), the great Norman, the most decisive representative of the Gallo-Roman trend of French art, with a clear inclination towards antiquity and the Renaissance of Raphael. He always subordinates the individuality of individual types to the acquired Roman sense of beauty and nevertheless gives to all his works his own French imprint. The desire for internal unity, intelligible clarity and complete convincingness of the depicted episodes leads him not only to the extremely accurate execution of every gesture and expression, but also to the expression of the essence of every action, first experienced mentally and then clearly expressed in visual forms. He hates side pieces and unnecessary additions. Each of his figures plays a necessary, calculated and thoughtful role in the rhythm of the lines and in expressing the meaning of his painting. The very character of its landscapes, mostly borrowed from Roman mountain nature and playing an important role, sometimes even constituting the main thing in his paintings with small figures, he adapts to the nature of the episodes depicted. “I didn’t neglect anything,” he said himself. His art is primarily the art of lines and drawing. His colors, inconsistent, at first variegated, are then brought to a more general tone, sometimes dry and cloudy. IN best paintings However, truthful chiaroscuro reigns, playing with warm spots of light, and in the landscapes there are noble outlines of mountains, luxurious deciduous trees are well distributed and the magnificent buildings are mostly bathed in mood-filled, perfect light. As a landscape painter, Poussin combined all the power of his Dutch and Italian predecessors with a clearer sense of unity and created a movement whose influence would reverberate for centuries. If we cannot admire Poussin’s strict classicism, we must still admit that he was able to express everything he wanted to say convincingly and with mood.

The history of Poussin's painting, sketched first by Bellori and Felibien, then by Bouchite, John Smith and Maria Gregham, and finally by Deniot and Adviel, begins in Rome, where he appeared in 1624. What he learned in his homeland from Quentin Varenne, in In Paris, with the Dutch Ferdinand Elle and Georges Lalemant, we do not know. The engravings of Raphael's school undoubtedly influenced his direction already in Paris. The mere fact that he copied the antique wall painting “Aldobrandine Wedding” in Rome characterizes his entire Roman development. The first known paintings, painted by him around 1630 in Rome for Cardinal Barberini, “The Death of Germanicus” in the Barberini Gallery and “The Destruction of Jerusalem,” copies of which are in the Vienna gallery, are arranged more concisely and more perfectly than later works, but already reveal all his most hidden qualities.

The seemingly vast area of ​​Poussin’s subjects is limited almost exclusively to ancient mythology and history, the Old Testament and Christian themes, written by him with the same inner inspiration as the pagan ones. Scenes of martyrdom were not to his liking. Of course, the main work of his first Roman period (1624-1640) for the church of St. Peter, replaced here by a mosaic copy, a large painting in the Vatican Gallery quite expressively depicts martyrdom St. Erasmus. Poussin, however, here too tries, as far as possible, to soften the terrible episode with a gentle sense of beauty. His most famous paintings from this period are: “The Rape of the Sabine Women”, “The Gathering of Manna” and the later “The Finding of Moses” in the Louvre, an early image of the “Seven Holy Gifts” in Belvoir Castle, “Parnassus”, made in the Raphaelian spirit, in Madrid and -Alexandrian-feeling "Pursuit of Syringa by Pan" in Dresden.

Rice. 125 - "The Torment of St. Erasmus." Painting by Nicolas Poussin in the Vatican. Based on a photograph by F. Hanfstaengl in Munich

Of the paintings painted by Poussin during his two-year stay in Paris already as "first master of the king" (1640-1642), "The Miracle of St. Xavier" in the Louvre reveals him best sides as a church painter. Sketches for the decoration of the Louvre Gallery are preserved only in Pena's engravings.

Of the numerous paintings of Poussin's last Roman period (1642-1665), the second series of "The Blessed Sacrament" (Bridgewater Gallery, London) caused a stir with the depiction of the Last Supper in the form of a Roman triclinium with reclining guests. The latest landscape with Diogenes throwing a cup, in the Louvre, was painted in 1648. The pastoral idyll "Et in Arcadia ego" in the Louvre and the "Testament of Eudamides" in the Moltke Gallery in Copenhagen are among his most stylish works. We cannot list here his numerous paintings in the Louvre, London, Dulwich, Madrid, St. Petersburg, Dresden, etc. The works that gave him fame as the creator of the “historical” or “heroic” landscape, a magnificent and at the same time sincere painting with Orpheus and Eurydice of 1659 in the Louvre and four powerful landscapes of the same collection (1660-1664), with the four seasons animated by episodes from the Old Testament, belong to the last decade of his life.

Poussin personally educated only one student, his brother-in-law, born of French parents in Rome and died there, Gaspard Duguay (1613-1675), also called Gaspard Poussin. He developed the motifs of the Albanian and Sabine mountains into large, sharply stylized, ideal landscapes, already typical in the pattern of their "tree foliage", sometimes with thunderclouds and clouds, with figures like additions, in which he rather neglected the episode than antique costume or heroic nudity . He inhaled new life mainly in landscape murals, which have long been known in Italy. He decorated the palaces of the Roman magnates (Doria, Colonna) with extensive series of landscapes. In landscape frescoes with episodes from the history of the prophet Elijah in San Martino ai Monti, he brought to artistic perfection a special type of church painting, explored by the author of this book, widespread in Rome by the Belgian Paul Bril. All more or less significant galleries have individual paintings by Duguay. Typical are its landscapes with storms and " Tombstone Caecilia Metella" of the Vienna Gallery. He is also valued as an engraver.

In the 2nd half of the 17th century in France, classicism became the official direction in art. However, in sculpture and painting it is more difficult than in architecture; there is an even greater influence of the Baroque. Nevertheless, classicism gained its position.

As already mentioned, classicism arose on the crest of the social upsurge of the French nation and the French state. The basis of the theory of classicism was rationalism, and antiquity served as the aesthetic ideal. Only the beautiful and sublime, according to ancient ideals, were proclaimed works of classicism.

The creator of the movement of classicism in French painting of the 17th century was Nicolas Poussin. Already in his student years, Poussin became interested in the art of the Renaissance and antiquity. He went to improve his skills in Italy, took lessons in Venice and Rome, involuntarily admiring the Baroque painting of Caravaggio.

The themes of Poussin's paintings are varied: mythology, history, New and Old Testaments. Poussin's heroes are people of strong characters and majestic actions, with a high sense of duty to society and the state. His paintings are poetically sublime; measure and order reign in everything. The coloring is based on the consonance of strong, deep tones. However, Poussin's best works are devoid of cold rationality.

In the first period of his creativity, he wrote a lot on ancient subjects. The unity of man and nature, a happy, harmonious worldview are characteristic of his paintings of this period. His sensual element becomes orderly, rational, everything has acquired the features of heroic, sublime beauty.

In the 40s, a turning point was observed in his work. It is associated with a move to Paris, to the court of Louis XVIII, where the modest and profound artist was very uncomfortable. At this time, the theme of death, frailty and the futility of the earthly breaks into Poussin’s paintings. The lyrical spontaneity leaves the paintings, and a certain coldness and abstraction appears.

IN recent years Poussin's best life is landscapes. He created a wonderful cycle of paintings "The Seasons", which has symbolic meaning and personifying the periods of the earthly human existence.

Poussin borrowed the characters in this picture from the poem “Metamorphoses” by the Roman poet Ovid.
Polyphemus is a Cyclops, a scary-looking one-eyed giant who lived in Sicily, was distinguished by a bad temper and destroyed everything that came to hand. He did not engage in crafts, but lived from what nature provided and tended herds. One day he fell in love with the sea nymph Galatea. She was his complete opposite, and not only in appearance. Cyclops in ancient mythology personify destructive forces, and nymphs - creative, so Polyphemus could not count on reciprocity. Galatea loved Akidas, the son of the forest god Pan.
Tamed by his sublime feelings, the giant stopped crushing rocks, breaking trees and sinking ships. Having sat down on a coastal rock, he began to play his hundred-voice pipe. Before, the pipe made terrible sounds. Now a beautiful song poured out of her, and the nymphs, enchanted by the melody, stopped laughing at Polyphemus. Their eternal suitors, satyrs, fertility deities with horse tails, horns and hooves, calmed down; the river god listened, sitting down on a stone. Nature itself became silent, listening to the music, and peace and harmony reigned in it. This is the philosophy of Poussin’s landscape: the world looks so wonderful when order replaces chaos. (By the way, although the heroes are from myth, the nature on the canvas is real, Sicilian).
Meanwhile, the Cyclops, deceived in his hopes, again gave free rein to his evil temper. He waylaid his opponent and crushed him with a rock. The saddened Galatea turned her beloved into a transparent river.

Once, while in a state of depression, Poussin painted an allegory called “The Dance of Human Life.”

The artist depicted four women representing pleasure, wealth, poverty and labor. They dance in a round dance to the accompaniment of a lyre played by an old man. This is Chronos, known to the Romans as Saturn. According to Greek myth, Chronos was the king of the gods before Zeus. He was predicted to be overthrown by his own son. Not wanting to give up power, he came up with a unique way out of the situation: as soon as his wife had a child, Chronos swallowed him. One day his wife deceived him: instead of the baby Zeus, she slipped a swaddled stone to her husband. Zeus was secretly transported to the island of Crete, where he grew up, after which he overthrew his father and reigned on Olympus.

In this myth, Chronos symbolizes the merciless time, absorbing what it itself has created. And Poussin needed it in the picture to say: time passes, he doesn’t care, and wealth is replaced by poverty, pleasure by work.

On the left in the picture herma(pillar) with two-faced Janus. This is an exclusively Roman deity. It was in his honor that the month of January was named. Janus was depicted with two faces looking into different sides, since it was believed that he knew both the past and the future. “So it was and will be,” Poussin apparently thought as he wrote out the herm.

The background for the round dance is a flat, serene landscape. The sun god Helios rides across the sky in a golden chariot. He makes this journey every day - after all, the sun rises every day - and sees from above the affairs of gods and people, but does not interfere in anything. With his presence on the canvas, Helios is intended to remind that eternal nature is indifferent to human sorrows and joys. Pushkin’s lines on this matter are remarkable:

And again at the tomb entrance

The young one will play with life

And indifferent nature

Shine with eternal beauty.

Here Poussin conveys philosophical reflections on the themes of death and the frailty of existence. The action takes place only in the foreground, as if in relief. A young man and a girl accidentally came across a tombstone with the inscription “And I was in Arcadia,” i.e. “And I was young, handsome, happy and carefree - remember about death!” The figures of young people are similar to antique sculptures. Carefully selected details, embossed patterns, balance of figures in space, even diffused lighting - all this creates a certain sublime structure, alien to everything vain and transient. Stoic humility before fate and wise acceptance of death make the worldview of classicism similar to antiquity.

The plot is taken from Ovid's Metamorphoses.
Silenus, educator and companion of the god of viticulture and winemaking Bacchus, was captured by the peasants and brought to Midas, king of Phrygia. He released Silenus, and Bacchus granted the king, at his request, the ability to turn everything he touched into gold. But when even food began to turn into gold, the king repented of his greed and begged for mercy.
Bacchus took pity on Midas and ordered him to wash himself in the river Pactolus. Midas entered the river and immediately got rid of the unfortunate gift, and Pactolus became gold-bearing.
The painting depicts the moment when the kneeling Midas thanks Bacchus for liberation from the fatal gift. In the background by the river a man can be seen kneeling, apparently searching for gold in the river sand.

Confirmation is a Sacrament in which, through anointing with myrrh, the powers of God’s grace are communicated to the baptized person to strengthen him in spiritual life.
It is performed by a priest or bishop by anointing the forehead and other parts of the body with myrrh and pronouncing the words “Seal of the gift of the Holy Spirit. Amen.” Confirmation is performed on a person only once in a lifetime, usually after the Sacrament of Baptism.
In the picture, the Sacrament of Confirmation takes place of small children brought by their mothers. Now the priest is anointing the forehead of one child with myrrh, and nearby a mother and daughter are preparing for the Sacrament, kneeling. The priest persuades one child that nothing bad will happen, everything will be fine. The picture conveys a mood of excitement, solemnity, and a sense of participation in a great event.

Meleager is the son of the ruler of the Calydonian kingdom in Aetolia. He grew up to be a brave, handsome young man and went to Colchis with the Argonauts. While he was away, his father forgot to bring the annual tribute to Diana, and the goddess, as punishment for this, sent a monstrous boar to his kingdom, which devoured people and devastated the fields. Returning from the campaign, Meleager gathered all the brave men of Greece and organized a big hunt, during which they were going to catch or kill a boar.
Many heroes responded to Meleager’s call, including the beautiful Atalanta. This princess led a life full of adventures, because when she was born, her father, upset that a daughter was born instead of the long-awaited son, ordered her to be taken to Mount Parthenum and given to be devoured by wild animals. But the hunters passing by saw a bear feeding a baby who was not at all afraid of her, and, taking pity on the girl, they brought her to their home and raised her to be a real hunter.
The Great Calydonian Hunt was led by Meleager and Atalanta, who fell in love with each other. They bravely pursued the beast, and other hunters galloped after them. The boar ran, and then Atalanta inflicted a mortal wound on him, but, dying, the beast almost killed her herself if Meleager had not arrived in time and finished him off.

When Moses spent forty days and nights on Mount Sinai talking with God, the people of Israel were tired of waiting for him. They needed a new guide to lead the way and show them the way to the Promised Land. And they asked Aaron, the elder brother of Moses, to create an image pagan god to worship him.
Aaron collected gold jewelry from all the women and cast it into a golden calf.
He placed an altar in front of the polished body that shone brightly in the sun. Everyone looked at him like he was a miracle. Aaron promised to have a big celebration the next day. The next day everyone dressed up in festive attire. Aaron made a burnt offering on the altar. After this, everyone began to eat, drink, dance around the golden calf and praise Aaron for the appearance of a beautiful golden god among them.
The Lord saw all this, became very upset and ordered Moses to go down to the people, for they were doing an unrighteous thing. “Your people have become corrupt,” He said to Moses, “which you brought out of the land of Egypt.”
When Moses saw the dancing around the golden calf, he was inflamed with anger, went up to the altar and threw the calf into the fire.
Then he separated those who recognize the laws of the Lord from those who do not recognize them. The sons of Levi killed those who wanted to serve the golden calf. After which the Lord ordered Moses to lead the people further.

An excellent musician and singer, Orpheus conquered with his talent not only people, but even the gods and nature itself. He was married to the beautiful nymph Eurydice, whom he loved immensely. But the happiness did not last long. Eurydice was bitten by a poisonous snake, and Orpheus was left alone.
From the grief that befell him, Orpheus fell into a deep depression. He sang sad songs in honor deceased wife. Trees, flowers and herbs mourned Eurydice with him. Desperate, Orpheus went to the underworld dead god Hades, where the souls of the dead went to try to rescue their loved one from there.
Having reached the terrible underground river Styx, Orpheus heard the loud groans of the souls of the dead. The carrier Charon, who transported souls to the other side, refused to take him with him. Then Orpheus stroked the strings of his golden cithara and began to sing. Charon listened and nevertheless transported the singer to Hades.
Without stopping playing and singing, Orpheus bowed before God underground kingdom. In the song, he talked about his love for Eurydice; life without her has lost its meaning.
The entire kingdom of Hades froze, everyone listened to the sad confession of the singer and musician. Everyone was touched by Orpheus' sadness. When the singer fell silent, silence reigned in the kingdom of gloomy Hades. Then Orpheus turned to Hades with a request to return his beloved Eurydice to him, promising to return here with his wife upon first request. when the time comes.
Hades listened to Orpheus and agreed to fulfill his request, although he had never done such a thing before. But at the same time he set a condition: Orpheus must not look back and turn to Eurydice throughout the entire journey, otherwise Eurydice will disappear
The loving couple set off on their way back. Hermes showed the way with a lantern. And then the kingdom of light appeared. Out of joy that they would soon be together again, Orpheus forgot about his promise to Hades and looked around. Eurydice held out her hands to him and began to walk away.
Orpheus was petrified with grief. For a long time he sat on the bank of the underground river, but no one came to him. He lived for three years in deep sorrow and sorrow, and then his soul went to the kingdom of the dead to his Eurydice.

Narcissus is a wonderful young man whose parents predicted that he would live to a ripe old age. but will never see his face. Narcissus grew up to be a young man of extraordinary beauty; many women sought his love, but he was indifferent to everyone. When Narcissus rejected the passionate love of the nymph Echo, she dried up from grief so that only her voice remained. The rejected women demanded that the goddess of justice punish Narcissus. Nemesis heeded their pleas.
One day, returning from a hunt, Narcissus looked into an unclouded source and saw his reflection for the first time, and was so delighted with it that he passionately fell in love with it, with his reflection. He could not tear himself away from seeing himself and died of self-love.
The gods turned Narcissus into a flower called narcissus.

The painting is based on a plot from the Old Testament. King Solomon was distinguished by his sound judgment, excellent memory, extensive knowledge, and considerable patience. He listened carefully to people and helped wise advice. He considered refereeing to be his most important responsibility. And the glory of it fair trial spread throughout Jerusalem.
There lived two young women in Jerusalem, each with an infant child. They lived together and slept together. One day, in a dream, a woman accidentally crushed her child, and he died. Then she took the living baby from her sleeping neighbor and put him on her bed, and placed the dead one on her. In the morning, the second woman saw a dead baby near her and refused to accept him as her own, immediately seeing that he was a stranger. She accused her neighbor of deception and forgery.
However, the other woman did not want to admit it and insisted on her own, not wanting to give up the living baby. They argued for a long time and finally went to Solomon so that he could judge them.
Solomon listened to each one. After that, he ordered the servant to bring a sword and said: “My decision is this. There are two of you, one living child. Cut him in half, and let each be comforted by his half.” One said: “Let it be neither for me nor for you, cut it.” And the other one said: “Give her the child, just don’t chop it.”
Solomon immediately realized who the mother of the living child was and who was the deceiver. He told his guards: “Give the child to the mother who did not want him to die. She real mother child",

The Jerusalem Temple is a religious building, the center of the religious life of the Jewish people between the 10th century BC. and 1st century AD It was an object of pilgrimage for all Jews three times a year.
In 66 - 73 there was an anti-Roman uprising. While suppressing this uprising, the Roman army led by Titus laid siege to Jerusalem. From the very beginning of the siege, hostilities concentrated around the temple.
The siege and fighting lasted five months. However, repeated attempts by the Romans to capture the wall of the temple courtyard were unsuccessful until Titus ordered the temple gates to be set on fire. The temple was on fire. The rebels holding the temple fought until the end when flames engulfed the building. many of them threw themselves into the fire. The temple burned for 10 days, and then Jerusalem was reduced to ruins. The Temple Mount, on which the temple stood, was plowed up. Almost 100,000 thousand inhabitants were captured by the Romans.

According to the stories of Roman historians, mostly men lived in Rome, because... neighboring tribes did not want to marry their daughters to poor Roman grooms. Then Romulus organized a holiday and invited the neighbors of the Sabines along with their families. During the holiday, the Romans suddenly rushed at the unarmed guests and kidnapped their girls.
Outraged neighbors started a war. The Romans easily defeated the Latins who attacked Rome. However, the war with the Sabines was much more difficult. With the help of the daughter of the head of the Capitol fortress Tarpeia, the Sabines took possession of the Capitol. The fight continued for a very long time.
The Sabines, under the command of King Titus Tatius, finally defeated the Romans and put them to flight. Romulus appealed to the gods and promised to build a temple to Jupiter Stator (the Founder) if he stopped the fleeing. However, the situation was saved by the previously abducted Sabine women, who, together with their newborn children, with loose hair and torn clothes, rushed between the fighters and began to beg to stop the battle.
The Sabines agreed, and the Romans agreed too. Was concluded eternal peace, according to which the two peoples united into one state under the supreme leadership of Titus Tatius and Romulus. The Romans had to bear, in addition to their name, the Sabine name - Quirites, the religion became common.

In the center of the picture is the Nereid Amphitrite, the wife of Neptune. She sits on a bull, whose body ends in a fish tail, surrounded by a large retinue. Two Nereids respectfully support Amphitrite's elbow and pink veil, and two Tritons trumpet her glory.
The figure of Neptune is shifted to the edge of the picture to the left. With one hand he controls a trio of rapidly rushing horses, and with the other he holds a trident, a traditional attribute of the god of the seas. His gaze is turned to the beautiful Amphitrite.
Even further to the left, above the figure of Neptune, we see the chariot of the goddess of love Aphrodite, accompanied by cupids and holding a lit torch.
Other cupids shower the main characters with flowers of roses and myrtle, symbolizing the love attraction and marriage of Neptune and Amphitrite.
One of the cupids is aiming his bow at Neptune, and the arrows of the second have already reached the man, who is carrying away a beautiful nymph on his shoulders. But who is represented in this kidnapping scene? The man’s face is not visible, it is covered with his hand, and therefore we can assume that the Nereid Galatea and the Cyclops Polyphemus, who was considered the son of Neptune, in love with her, are depicted here. And his gesture becomes clear to us: the Cyclops was outwardly ugly, and the artist avoided depicting ugliness in his painting.

Poussin (Poussin) Nicolas (1594-1665), French painter. Representative of classicism. Sublime in imagery, deep in philosophical intent, clear in composition and design, paintings on historical, mythological, religious themes, affirming the power of reason and social and ethical norms (“Tancred and Erminia”, 1630s, “Arcadian Shepherds”, 1630 -th years); majestic heroic landscapes (“Landscape with Polyphemus”, 1649; “Seasons” series, 1660-1664).

Poussin (Poussin) Nicolas (June 1594, Villers, near Les Andelys, Normandy - November 19, 1665, Rome), French artist. One of the founders of French classicism.

First Parisian period (1612-1623)

The son of a peasant. He attended school in Les Andelys, showing no particular interest in art. Poussin's first experiments in painting were facilitated by Quentin Varenne, who painted churches in Andely. In 1612, young Poussin came to Paris, where he entered the workshop of J. Lallemand, and then F. Elle the Elder. He is interested in studying antiquity and gets acquainted with painting from engravings. A significant role in his fate is played by his meeting with the Italian poet G. Marino, whose interest in ancient and Renaissance culture influenced young artist. The only surviving works by Poussin from the Parisian period are pen and brush drawings (Windsor Library) for Marino's poem; under his influence, the dream of a trip to Italy was born.

First Roman period (1623-40)

In 1623, Poussin came first to Venice, then to Rome (1624), where he remained until the end of his life. The artist’s biographer A. Felibien notes that “all his days were days of study.” Poussin himself notes that he “neglected nothing” in his desire to “comprehend the rational basis of beauty.” He is attracted by painting and Bolognese, sculpture of ancient and baroque Rome. A significant role in the formation of Poussin as an artist-intellectual and erudite was played by his acquaintance with Cassiano del Pozzo - his future patron, an expert on antiquity, owner of a magnificent collection of drawings and engravings (“paper museum”), thanks to whom Poussin began to visit the Barberini library, where he met the works of philosophers, historians, ancient and Renaissance literature. Evidence of this is Poussin’s drawings for his treatise on painting (Hermitage).

The first work executed in Rome was the canvas “Echo and Narcissus” (1625-26, Louvre) based on the poem “Adonis” by Marino. This poetic work became the beginning of a series of paintings of the 1620-30s on mythological subjects, glorifying love, inspiration, and the harmony of nature. Landscape plays a large role in these paintings (“Nymph and Satyr”, 1625-1627, Museum fine arts them. A. S. Pushkin, Moscow; "Venus and the Satyrs", 1625-1627, National Gallery, London; "Sleeping Venus", 1625-1626, Louvre). The refraction of the ancient heritage occurs in the artist through the prism of images, whose passion for painting is evidenced by the idyllic tranquility of the images and golden, sonorous colors.

The artist continues to develop the theme of Titian’s “poetry” in the scenes of “Bacchanalia” of the 1620-30s (Louvre; Hermitage; National Gallery, London), the canvases “The Triumph of Bacchus” (1636, Louvre) and “The Triumph of Pan” (1636-1638 , National Gallery, London), looking for a form of embodiment that corresponds in his view to the ancient understanding of the joy of life as the unbridled elements of nature, the happy harmony of the spirit.

During his several years in Rome, Poussin gained recognition, as evidenced by the image commissioned from him for the Cathedral of St. Peter "Martyrdom of St. Erasmus" (1628-1629, Vatican Pinacoteca, Rome). The artist invented an unconventional path, proceeding neither from the works of the Baroque masters, emphasizing religious exaltation, nor from the paintings of the Caravaggists: in conveying the stoic resistance of the saint, he found support in nature, and in a painterly manner he followed the transfer of the effects of daylight in the open air.

From the late 1620s and into the 1630s, Poussin became increasingly attracted historical topics. He expects in it an answer to the moral problems that concern him (“The Rescue of Pyrrhus,” 1633-1635, Louvre; “The Rape of the Sabine Women,” 1633, private collection; “The Death of Germanicus,” 1627, Palazzo Barberini, Rome). The painting "The Death of Germanicus" on a subject from Roman history, commissioned by Cardinal Barberini, is considered a programmatic work European classicism. The scene of the stoic death of the famous commander, poisoned by order of Emperor Tiberius, embodies an example of valiant heroism. The poses of his warriors swearing vengeance are calm and solemn, a group of which forms a thoughtful, easy-to-read composition. The figures are painted in a plastically expressive manner and are likened to relief. The tragic act of death on a majestic antique bed is embodied in a scene full of civic pathos. As in the classical tragedy with a large number characters, a detailed multi-faceted narrative makes us think that Poussin used the so-called perspective box (this method was also known to other masters of the 16th-17th centuries), in which, arranging wax figures, he found a rhythmically clear structure of the composition. This canvas, written during a period of fascination with Titian’s idylls, expressed Poussin’s aesthetic credo - “not only our tastes should be judges, but also reason.”

Comprehension moral lessons The artist continued the story in the series “Seven Sacraments” (1639-1640, Louvre), commissioned by Cassian del Pozzo. Treating the sacraments (Baptism, Communion, Confession, Repentance, Confirmation, Marriage, Unction) in the form of gospel scenes, he strives to give each multi-figure composition a certain emotional mood. The compositions of the paintings are characterized by rationalistic thoughtfulness, the coloring is rather dry and is based on combinations of a few colors.

Second Parisian period (1640-1642)

At the end of 1640, under pressure from official circles in France, Poussin, who did not want to return to Paris, was forced to return to his homeland. By decree of the king, he is appointed head of all artistic works, which turns against him a group of court painters led by S. Vouet. Poussin was entrusted with altar compositions, allegories for Richelieu's office, and the decoration of the Grand Gallery of the Louvre. For likening heroes Christian history The altar image he painted for the Jesuit church, “The Miracle of St. Francis Xavier" (1642, Louvre). Without completing the work, surrounded by the hostility of the courtiers, he decides to return to Rome. High artistic ideals come into conflict with intrigues in the court environment. In the panel commissioned by Richelieu “Time saves Truth from the encroachments of Envy and Discord” ( Art Museum, Lille) Poussin expressed in allegorical form the story of his short stay at court. It contains not only a semantic subtext - the composition of the panel in the form of a tondo is built according to a strictly classicist principle, which he did not consider necessary to change for the sake of rocaille tastes.

Back in Italy (1643-1665)

Poussin again devoted a lot of time to drawing from life. The world embodied in his painting is rationalistic and calm, while in his drawing it is full of movement and impulse. Emotional landscapes, executed with pen and brush, sketches of architecture, compositional sketches are not subject to strict control of the mind. The drawings contain vivid impressions of observing nature, enjoying the magic of the play of light hidden in the foliage of trees, in the depths of the sky, in the distances melting into the haze.

On the other hand, the artist creates a “theory of modes”, inspired by ancient aesthetics. Each of the modes means for him a certain reasonable basis that could be used by an artist striving for logical restraint, a certain “norm”. For example, for subjects that are strict and full of wisdom, the “Doric mode” could be chosen, for cheerful and lyrical themes, the “Ionic” mode could be chosen. But the artist’s normative aesthetics contained a huge thirst for beauty, faith in the ideals of the morally beautiful.

Program work late creativity Poussin appeared in the second series of “The Seven Sacraments” (1646, National Gallery, Edinburgh). Classically strict compositional solution combined with the internal emotional psychological richness of the images. The search for harmony of feeling and logic is also noted in the paintings “Moses cutting out water from a rock” (1648, Hermitage), “The Generosity of Scipio” (1643, Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts, Moscow), in which the dream of a heroic personality is expressed , conquering disasters with her will and morally instructing people.

At the end of the 1640s, Poussin painted a series of landscapes (“Landscape with Polyphemus”, 1648, Hermitage; “Landscape with Diogenes”, Louvre), expressing in them his admiration for the grandeur of the natural world. The figures of ancient philosophers, saints, and monks are barely visible in the landscape full of cosmic grandeur. For several centuries, Poussin’s heroic image of nature will become an example of creating an ideal landscape in which nature and idealization coexist in harmony, full of majestic and solemn sound.

The highest embodiment of this harmony was the cycle of four paintings “The Seasons” (1660-1665, Louvre), completed in the year of death. Each canvas (“Spring”, “Summer”, “Autumn”, “Winter”) expresses a certain mood of the artist in his individual vision of the ideal and nature; they contain a thirst for beauty and knowledge of its laws, reflection on human life and universal humanity. The canvas “Winter” was the last in the series. It expresses the idea of ​​death, which was often present in the works of Poussin, but here takes on a dramatic resonance. Life for the classicist artist was the triumph of reason, death was the personification of his death, and the result of this was the madness that gripped people during the time depicted by the artist Flood. The biblical episode is correlated in its universal sound with a small cycle of human existence, disrupted by the Element.

In his self-portrait (1650, Louvre), the artist depicted himself as a thinker and creator. Next to him is the profile of the Muse, as if personifying the power of antiquity over him. And at the same time, this is an image of a bright personality, a man of his time. The portrait embodies the program of classicism with its commitment to nature and idealization, the desire to express the high civil ideals that Poussin’s art served.

Nicolas Poussin (French Nicolas Poussin; in Italy he was called Niccolo Pussino (Italian Niccolò Pussino); 1594, Les Andelys, Normandy - November 19, 1665, Rome) - French artist, one of the founders of classicism painting. A significant part of the active creative life spent in Rome, where he had been since 1624 and enjoyed the patronage of Cardinal Francesco Barberini. Having attracted the attention of King Louis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu, he was awarded the title of the king's first painter. In 1640 he came to Paris, but could not adapt to the situation at the royal court and experienced a number of conflicts with leading French artists. In 1642, Poussin returned to Italy, where he lived until his death, fulfilling orders from the French royal court and a small group of enlightened collectors. He died and was buried in Rome.

Jacques Thuillier's 1994 catalog identifies 224 paintings by Poussin whose attribution is beyond doubt, as well as 33 works whose authorship may be disputed. The artist's paintings are based on historical, mythological and biblical stories, marked by strict rationalism of composition and choice artistic means. Landscape became an important means of self-expression for him. One of the first artists, Poussin appreciated the monumentality of local color and theoretically substantiated the superiority of line over color. After his death, his statements became the theoretical basis of academicism and the activities of the Royal Academy of Painting. His creative manner carefully studied by Jacques-Louis David and Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres.
Over the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, assessments of Poussin's worldview and interpretations of his work changed radically.

The most important primary source for the biography of Nicolas Poussin is the surviving correspondence - a total of 162 messages. 25 of them, written in Italian, were sent from Paris to Cassiano dal Pozzo - the artist's Roman patron - and dated from January 1, 1641 to September 18, 1642. Almost all other correspondence, from 1639 to the artist’s death in 1665, is a monument to his friendship with Paul Fréart de Chanteloup, court advisor and royal head waiter. These letters are written in French and do not pretend to be of high literary style, but are an important source of Poussin's daily activities. The correspondence with Dal Pozzo was first published in 1754 by Giovanni Bottari, but in a slightly revised form. The original letters are kept in the French National Library. The edition of the artist’s letters, published by Didot in 1824, was called “falsified” by Poussin’s biographer, Paul Desjardins.

The first biographies of Poussin were published by his Roman friend Giovanni Pietro Bellori, who served as librarian to Queen Christina of Sweden, and Andre Felibien, who met the artist in Rome, while serving as secretary of the French embassy (1647), and then as royal historiographer. Bellori's book Vite de "Pittori, Scaltori ed Architetti moderni was dedicated to Colbert and was published in 1672. Poussin's biography contains brief handwritten notes on the nature of his art, which were preserved in manuscript in the library of Cardinal Massimi. Only in the middle of the 20th century did it become clear that “Notes on Painting,” that is, the so-called “modes” of Poussin, are nothing more than extracts from ancient and Renaissance treatises Vita di Pussino from Bellori’s book. French only in 1903.

Felibien's book Entretiens sur les vies et sur les ouvrages des plus excellents peintres anciens et modernes was published in 1685. It contains 136 quarto pages dedicated to Poussin. According to P. Desjardins, this is “real hagiography.” The value of this work was given by the five long letters published in its composition, including one addressed to Felibien himself. This biography of Poussin is also valuable because it contained Felibien’s personal memories of his appearance, manners and everyday habits. Felibien outlined the chronology of Poussin's work, based on the stories of his brother-in-law, Jean Duguay. However, both Bellori and Felibien were apologists for academic classicism. In addition, the Italian sought to prove the influence of the Italian academic school on Poussin.

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A Norman by birth, Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665) was born in Les Andelys, a small town on the banks of the Seine. Young Poussin was provided with good education and the opportunity to explore initial stages artist's art. He learned more about the secrets of craftsmanship after moving to Paris, where he studied with masters.

Portrait painter Ferdinand Van Elle became the young painter's first mentor, and later Poussin studied with the master who painted churches, Quentin Varenne, and the court artist Georges Lallemand, who adhered to the relatively new style of Mannerism at that time. Copying paintings by recognized masters of painting also helped him “get better”; he could freely do this in the Louvre.

The first period of creativity in Italy

In 1624, the name of Poussin was already known among connoisseurs of painting, and he himself was increasingly fascinated by the work of Italian masters. Deciding that he had learned everything he could from his French mentors, Poussin moved to Rome. Besides Italian painting Poussin also highly valued poetry, largely due to his acquaintance with Giambattista Marino, a representative of gallant poetry. They became friends in Paris, and Nikola illustrated his friend’s poem “Adonis”. From the early Parisian period of the artist’s work, only illustrations have survived to this day.

Poussin studied mathematics and anatomy, sculptures from antiquity served him as models for sketches, and scientific works Durer and da Vinci helped in understanding how proportions human body must be transferred to artistic art. He acquired theoretical knowledge in geometry, optics, and the laws of perspective.

Carracci, Titian, Raphael and Michelangelo - the works of these masters deeply impressed French painter. The first years of life in Rome were a time of searching own style, and his work was then characterized by sharp angles, dark tones and an abundance of shadows. Later he artistic style changed, the color scheme became warmer, and the elements of the paintings were subordinated to a single center. The theme of creativity of that time was heroic stories and actions of ancient mythology.

Commissioned by one of Poussin’s Roman patrons, Cassiano del Pozzo, the artist created a series of paintings called “The Seven Sacraments,” and “The Destruction of Jerusalem” and “The Rape of the Sabine Women” brought him wider fame. He added modern trends to the mythological themes of his paintings, streamlining the composition and moving the action to the foreground of the picture. Poussin sought to achieve naturalness of positions characters and give their gestures and facial expressions clear meaning. Harmony and unity with nature, characteristic of ancient myths, inspired the artist, this can be seen in the paintings “Venus and the Satires”, “Diana and Endymion”, “The Education of Jupiter”.

Ovid’s “Metamorphoses” served as the basis for “The Kingdom of Flora”; the picture became a kind of hymn to the rebirth and spring renewal of nature. The theoretical knowledge acquired earlier allowed him to accurately follow the accepted laws of composition, and warm, clear colors made the paintings truly alive (“Tancred and Erminia”, “Venus and the Shepherds”). Additional accuracy was given to the images by preliminary preparation: he made models of wax figures, and before starting to work on the painting, he experimented with the play of light and the position of these figures.

Parisian intrigues and return to Rome

The most successful years in Poussin's career were the years he spent working on decorating the Louvre Gallery at the invitation of Cardinal Richelieu (second half of the 30s). Having received the title of the first royal painter, he worked on both the gallery and many other commissions. Such success did not increase his popularity among fellow painters, and those who also applied for work at the Louvre were especially dissatisfied.

The intrigues of ill-wishers forced the artist to leave Paris and in 1642 move to Rome again. During this period of creativity (until the 50s), the Bible and the Gospel became the source of themes for Poussin’s paintings. If in early works natural harmony reigned, now the heroes of the paintings are biblical and mythological characters who have won victory over their passions and possessed willpower (Coriolanus, Diogenes). Iconic painting of that period - “The Arcadian Shepherds”, compositionally speaking about the inevitability of death and the peaceful acceptance of this awareness. This painting became an example of classicism; the artist’s style acquired a more restrained character, not as emotionally lyrical as in the works of the first Roman period. The contrast of several colors became predominant in the color scheme.

The artist did not have time to complete his last work, “Apollo and Daphne,” but it was in his paintings that French classicism was formed.