Social interests and forms of social interaction

Social interest (from Latin socialis - public and interest - important) is the interest of any social subject (individual, social group, class, nation), associated with its position in a certain system public relations.

These are perceived needs real reasons actions, events, accomplishments behind the immediate internal motivations (motives, thoughts, ideas, etc.) of individuals, social groups, classes participating in these actions. According to A. Adler’s definition, social interest is an element of the motivational-need sphere; it acts as the basis for integration into society and the elimination of feelings of inferiority. It is characterized by a willingness to be imperfect, to contribute to the common well-being, to show trust, care, compassion, a willingness to make responsible choices, to creativity, intimacy, cooperation and inclusion.

Essential have class interests that are determined by the position of classes in the system of industrial relations. However, any social interests, incl. and class, are not limited to the sphere of industrial relations. They cover the entire system of social relations and are associated with various aspects position of its subject. The generalized expression of all the interests of a social subject becomes his political interest, which expresses the attitude of a given subject to political power in society. A social group seeking to realize

interests may come into conflict with other groups. Therefore, private interest often takes the form of public or even universal interest. Then it takes on the appearance of a legitimate, legitimate interest and is not subject to discussion. Any social transformation of society is accompanied by a sharp change in the balance of interests. The conflict of class, national, and state interests underlies social revolutions, wars and other upheavals in world history.

Socio-economic interests - a system of socio-economic needs of a subject (individual, collective, social group, society, state). Interest expresses the integrity of the system of socio-economic needs and, in this capacity, is a stimulus for the subject’s activity, determining his behavior. The subject’s awareness of his own socio-economic interests is historical process. Thus, awareness by commodity producers of their interests leads to their implementation and, accordingly, is the basis of the mechanism market economy. The realization of socio-economic interests by the working class contributes to the creation of a system of social guarantees for the whole society.

In society there is a complex dialectic of interaction between private, collective and general interests. Thus, private socio-economic interests, being an incentive for individuals to act, thereby ensure the realization of general interest.

The interdependence and interdependence of interests is even more manifested in the dialectic of collective and general interest, the interests of social groups and national interest. However, in such a complex social organism as society as a whole, collective interest, much less private interest, does not always coincide with general interest in everything. The state, in the interests of all social groups and strata, as well as individuals, regulates and controls both private and group (collective) interests, forming and protecting state interests.

The purpose of any legal norm is based on social interest. In this sense, it is the main component of the state will. Social interest belongs to the fundamental categories of sociology. It can be presented as a concept that characterizes what is objectively significant, necessary for an individual, family, team, class, nation, society as a whole. Interest and need are not identical. Objective socio-economic needs act as motivating reasons for people’s volitional activity, but they determine it only when they manifest themselves in social interests.

Society is characterized by the meaningful nature of all the actions of its members. Interest is what binds members of civil society together. Social interests determine the goals of people's activities. As a result, certain relationships are established, a certain social system, political and legal organization society, culture, morality, etc., which ultimately correspond economic conditions life of society. Consequently, social interest is the starting point of people’s purposeful activity and the determinant of its social significance. This property of the category of interest determines its role in the formation of law as the main criterion for identifying the objective basis of the content of law, its social essence.

Social interest, being conscious and enshrined in the rules of law, predetermines the operation of law. The relationship between social interests as an objective reality and interest in law is explained by the relationship between the objective and the subjective in the interest itself. There are three points of view on this issue in the legal literature. Some authors consider interest to be an objective phenomenon; others - subjective; still others - by the unity of objective and subjective. Depending on the basis of classification, economic, political, spiritual, class, national, group, and personal interests are distinguished. In its turn

Each sphere of society has its own subgroups of the most important social interests.

Introduction of the dissertation (part of the abstract) On the topic "Social interest in the political space: Socio-philosophical analysis"

The relevance of research. In the modern world, serious transformation processes are taking place, affecting political, economic, social and other spheres of society. Significant changes in the area are obvious public consciousness. It is hardly possible to find a phenomenon that would be most subject to such changes, on the one hand, and on the other, would be a better indicator of the depth of the changes taking place - than interest. Even with a cursory glance at the trends in the development of social consciousness, one can clearly see the logic of its change semantic content, as well as to isolate the mutual influence of various social factors and the interests of society and the individual. Often, certain malignant behavioral patterns are a way of realizing certain social interests. In this connection, the search for adequate forms of stopping such patterns is impossible without a clear understanding of the content of interests, as well as an understanding of their interaction both within the individual and group, and in interpersonal and intergroup interaction.

IN modern society inevitably becomes more complicated political situation, where society, social communities of people cannot do without the integration of interests and aspirations to achieve a better life, prosperity, and develop in a civilized manner in the field of domestic and world politics. A person, living in a public environment, firstly, strives to consciously realize his potential strengths and activity in all areas and spheres of existence in accordance with his needs and interests, or is looking for supporters, people with close or similar interests in order to realize them together. Therefore, secondly, he is involved in the collective field of human action, that is, in politics. Politics, thanks to its institutions, resources, means and mechanisms, is able to help a person realize his interests or, on the contrary, can hinder their realization.

Particularly significant in this regard is the understanding of modern changes in social structure associated with the transition of society to the post-industrial stage of development. Taking into account these changes is necessary, first of all, to analyze the development of institutions of political representation that emerged during the development of industrial society, as well as to identify the characteristics of modern individual and collective actors in the socio-political process.

In this regard, the modern situation inevitably dictates the need to analyze socio-political interests in the process of becoming a social subject of politics. The issue of inclusion in political activity in order to satisfy their interests.

Category " social interest"is a general humanitarian category. The prerequisites for its emergence were laid down, in our opinion, by ancient Greek philosophers, in particular, Plato and Socrates in the concept of “innate ideas”. Subsequently, the category developed and in recent decades has been actively used by various specialists in descriptive and explanatory models, including philosophical, political science, psychological, economic, sociological and other paradigms. In specialized literature, the following types of social interests are found: national interests, state interests, economic interests, interests of various subjects (for example, the interests of a child or various social groups), interest in learning, legal interests, personal interests, etc. and so on.

However, there are different interpretations of this category. Interest also acts as “ set of most important incentives", and as the orientation of the individual, group, social layer," and as "an element of the motivational-need sphere." In other words, in various subject areas the category is loaded with its specific content, which, on the one hand, indicates its versatility and globality, on the other hand, is evidence of insufficient theoretical elaboration. In our opinion, a socio-philosophical analysis of social interest in the political space can be a significant step in this direction.

The degree of scientific development of the problem. Modern science has a significant amount of empirical and theoretical knowledge on various aspects of the problem, which was chosen for research by the author of the dissertation. The study of the phenomenon of social interest in the process of its formation and transformation was carried out throughout the history of the development of philosophical, sociological, political science, psychological thought (Plato, Aristotle, N. Machiavelli, Descartes, J.-J. Rousseau, Hegel, Kant, Marx, Engels, M. Weber, P. Bourdieu, etc.).

On modern stage the given problems act as the subject and object of research, both foreign and domestic scientists from various fields of socio-political thought. The literature presents theoretical constructions and empirical works aimed at analyzing the social determinants of the emergence and evolution of interests at the micro- and macro-levels (G.K. Lshin, G. Burbulis, V.Yu. Vereshchagin, L.I. Guseva, L.I. Demidov, O Offerdahl, E.V. Okhotsky, L.S. Panarin, A.V. Shpak, etc.

On the other hand, the scientific literature covers in detail the problem of translation public knowledge to the level of its technological application. This determined the approach to social interest as a macrosystem - ideas in this direction can be traced in the works of B.C. Dudchenko, G.I. Ikonnikova, M. Markova, V.I. Patrusheva, N. Stefanova.

Analysis of political interest as a way to optimize and algorithmize professional political activity, as well as elements of research into their influence on the transformation of social interests, constitutes the content of modern research conducted by M.G. Anokhin, S. Black, B.L. Borisov, I.A. Vasilenko, G.V. Grachev, A.A. Degtyarev, A.V. Dmitriev, Yu.G. Zaprudsky, B.C. Komarovsky, E.N. Pashentsev, G. Simon, P. Sharan, etc.).

The dissertation research also uses the results of political science analysis of social interests in relation to the problem of political participation (M. Albert, G. Benvetiste, V.D. Citizens, A.I. Kitov, M. Meskon, A.JI. Sventsitsky, F. Khedouri, V.M. Shepel, etc.).

However, despite the extensive scientific literature on various aspects of the analysis of the concept of interest, one can quite reasonably say that there are a number of pressing problems in understanding the essence of the phenomenon of social interest in its interpretation in relation to the political sphere public life, specific Russian characteristics its development, as well as its acquisition of new properties and features in the conditions of modern society.

We can put forward the author’s hypothesis that social interest in the modern social space of Russia is in the formative stage and is incomplete. His analysis in relation to the sphere of politics is of scientific interest in the sense that progressive changes in the political sphere of Russian society are especially noticeable.

The methodological and theoretical basis of the dissertation was the synthetic research method, which includes logical and philosophical analysis, systemic and activity-based approaches to studying the phenomenon of social interest. For specific analysis purposes, methods of institutional, technological, structural and functional analysis were used, as well as individual methods, ideas and principles developed by political science and sociology: the method of collecting and analyzing documentary and statistical material, the observation method, the comparative method. At the same time, the theoretical basis of the study was the basic concepts and constructs contained in the works of leading domestic and foreign scientists.

The object of the study is social interest in the space of society as a complex dynamic system.

The subject of the study is social interest as a macrosystem in relation to interests arising at other levels of society.

The purpose of the dissertation is a socio-philosophical analysis of the specifics of social interest in relation to its manifestation in the political space.

The goal was specified in the following tasks:

1. Carry out a conceptual analysis of social interest as an object of interdisciplinary research

2. Reveal the specifics of the content of social interest as a macrosystem in relation to microsystems of interests at other levels.

3. Analyze the forms and mechanisms of manifestation of social interests in political system society.

4. Identify areas and features of the influence of political interests on social sphere, in particular on the stratification structure of Russian society.

Scientific novelty of the research. The dissertation research contains a fundamentally new approach to social interest as a macrosystem that makes it possible to predict and manage social processes at a higher level.

1. It is shown that the scientific and theoretical understanding of the content of the concept of social interest, achieved by studying it at the interdisciplinary level, allows us to define it as a multidimensional social and personal phenomenon, motivational-evaluative, subject-activity and reference-oriented.

2. It has been established that the specificity of social interest is a social-personal system implemented at various levels

4. It has been revealed that political interest, being a specific macrosystem, is in a relationship of transformation and modification with other social interests

Provisions for defense:

1. Social interest, being a complex and multi-dimensional social and personal phenomenon, from the point of view of the activity approach, is the result subject activity and interactions with other people in various forms of referentially significant activity, determining the internal guidelines for a person’s choice of objects of interest, social circle, reference groups, relationships of socialization and cooperation, and are the subject of interdisciplinary research, revealing additional compensatory characteristics that express evaluative and satisfactory needs for power and control over events and people and are the basis of social differentiation of society.

2. The specificity of social interest is that it represents a personal and social macrosystem, which determines the content and structure of micro- and macrosystems of interests at other levels, personal and social interaction society. At the same time, the interests on the basis of which the subjects act, determined by their social, economic, political, religious, spiritual nature, are at the same time determined by the entire set of cultural, value, and worldview positions of the subjects. Social interests are a socio-dynamic system that changes depending on the transformation of the social subjects themselves, the variability of the social environment and forms of social interaction.

3. Interdisciplinary analysis of social interests, their forms and mechanisms of manifestation from the point of view of rational (socio-philosophical approach) and non-rational (motivational-value socio-psychological approach) are the basis for social modeling and forecasting of social interests as a functional social system.

4. Political interests are in a complex and contradictory relationship with social interests: being formed under their influence, they not only transform and modify social interests, but are also transformed themselves. The dynamics of mutual influence of interests as macrosystems is determined by the criterion parameters of the stages of development of society (socio-dynamic functioning, development, stagnation, decline, systemic crisis, regression).

Theoretical and practical significance of the research.

The dissertation research complements existing views on the problem of social interest, revealing the latter through the analysis of its theoretical and practical components. The conclusions presented in the work fill concrete content with the phenomenon of social interest as a macrosystem, and also determine its role in relation to microsystems of interests at other levels.

The conclusions and proposals formulated in the dissertation are of interest both from the point of view of theoretical understanding of the phenomenon described, and from the point of view of practical significance in predicting and modeling the development of social processes in society, developing solutions in the field social policy, organizing the work of socio-political organizations.

The dissertation material can be used in the process of teaching theoretical and applied sociology, applied political science, conflictology, as well as in practical activities on forecasting and planning of socio-political development in the country and region.

Approbation of work. The dissertation materials were presented at the scientific and practical conference “ Violence in modern Russia "(Rostov n/D., 1999); at the All-Russian scientific conference « Teaching comparative political science and world politics at Russian universities"(Novorossiysk, 2000); at the interuniversity scientific and theoretical conference " Political and legal institutions"(Rostov-on-Don, 2000); at the regional scientific and theoretical conference “Political and legal culture and spirituality” (Rostov n/D., 2001); at the scientific and practical conference " Globalization and regionalization in the modern world"(Rostov-on-Don, 2001); 3rd Russian Philosophical Congress " Rationalism and culture on the threshold of the third millennium"(Rostov-on-Don, 2002).

Implementation of research results. The dissertation materials were used in the educational process when teaching the special course “ Political interests in the modern political process» 3rd year students of the Department of Political Science at Rostov State University.

Structure and scope of work. The dissertation consists of an Introduction, two chapters, a conclusion with conclusions and practical recommendations, and a bibliography. The bibliography includes 225 titles, 28 of them in foreign languages. The volume of the dissertation is 143 pages.

Conclusion of the dissertation on the topic "Social Philosophy", Martirosyan, Sofia Ashotovna

CONCLUSION

The analysis of social interest in the political space carried out in the dissertation allows us to formulate conclusions about the essence, structure, nature and specificity of this phenomenon, its relationship with macrosystems of interests at other levels.

The dissertation research conceptualizes the category “interest” from the point of view of its genesis in the humanitarian fields of knowledge and identifies specific semantic aspects of its consideration.

The study of the content of the concept “interest” has a centuries-old tradition, which has its roots in ancient philosophy. The term “interest” itself has been updated since the middle of the 15th century, although it still does not have a generally used strict scientific definition.

This situation is explained, among other things, by the dual semantics of the term. On the one hand, its universal and global character is reflected (the interest of the state, the interest of the nation, public interest), turning interest into transcendental and a unifying element for different individual intentions that collide with each other, and, on the other hand, it seems specific and fragmented into component parts. The work analyzes approaches to considering the category of interest in various theoretical and methodological concepts and directions, and proves the need for its interdisciplinary research.

The dissertation shows that a powerful impetus and clear orientation for the subsequent study of the nature, content and functions of social interests was given by Hegel’s idea of institutions that form and constitute political system, as embodied rationality, superior to the rational will of an individual.

In the works of G. Odonrell, D. North, A. Shidler, E. Giddens, J. March, J. Olsen, A. Stepan, E. Ostrom, P. Hall, the behavior of each individual is explained from the point of view of certain institutional conditions that are created people, but the starting point is the consent of people to exchange activities. In the process of activity, individuals do not so much adapt to institutions as try to change them in accordance with their interests.

Continuing this tradition, institutionalists and neo-institutionalists noted that the design of socio-political institutions will inevitably have a normative bias that favors the achievement of certain results.

According to the activity approach (A.L. Leontiev, V.A. Petrovsky, B.G. Ananyev, S.L. Rubinstein, G.V. Osipov, F.R. Filippov), the interests of an individual are formed in the process of his activity. The productivity of this approach as a whole is undoubted, but it should be noted that there is some one-sidedness of the dominant idea in it that the psyche is formed only in objective activity. The feasibility of more fully implementing A.A. Bodalev’s proposal on the need to take into account the influence on the development of the individual as a whole of interaction with other people and the transformation of the introduced A.N. Leontiev's concept of leading activity into the concept of referential-significant activity. This will make it possible to identify the sources and mechanisms by which a person acquires value guidelines as regulators of his social behavior and social interests.

Analysis of studies of motivational aspects of interests in the works of Western (T. Parsons, H. Heckhausen, A. Maslow, G. Murray) and domestic scientists (V. G. Aseev, L. I. Bozhovich, B. S. Bratus, V. K .Vilyunas, V.A.Ivannikov, I.V.Imedadze, A.V.Kirichenko, V.M.Dyachkov, N.A.Volgin, Yu.M.Orlov, A.Yu.Panasyuk, B.A.Sosnovsky ) allows us to show the place of motivation in the formation of interests and identify the direct relationship between a person’s motives and his interests.

The study notes the possibilities of using the psychodynamic concept within the framework of an interdisciplinary approach (S. Freud,

L.Ldler), which focuses on the compensatory function of interest, the role of which is especially emphasized in conditions of breaking the established system of values and the system of social roles; the humanistic concept of E. Fromm, especially from the point of view of his assertion that people themselves actively form the social process, culture, interests, and then they themselves assimilate them as influence from the outside. Equally important is the determination of the mechanisms of influence of stereotypes on the process of developing certain interests (U. Lipman, U. Thomas, F. Znanetsky, G. Tarnd, S. Ash, M. Sherif, K. Hovland, J. Ellul V.M. Bekhterev, D. Uznadze, Charkviani,

V.V.Dyakova, D.P.Gavra).

The ideas contained in the works of representatives of the value approach (T. Parsons, E. Durkheim,

S.A. Anisimov, V.O. Vasilenko, O.G. Drobnitsky, V.P. Tugarinov, M.I. Yurasov) from the point of view that value orientations form a certain basis of consciousness and behavior of the individual and directly influence the formation interests.

The main methodological guideline of the stratification approach is the point of view according to which interest is considered as an institutional element. At the same time, a social institution is understood as a stable system of formal and informal rules, norms, guidelines that regulate various areas human activity and organizing social integrity. The institutionalization of interests is determined by the nature of the social system and those values that are most significant for the stability and functioning of society.

Analysis of the theoretical and methodological base confirmed that the study of the category of interest requires the integration of accumulated sociological, philosophical, psychological and other knowledge.

The dissertation substantiates a complex of theoretical and methodological principles that make it possible to identify the role of interests as a source of social dynamics, their specificity in the political space of modern * Russian society.

Analysis of the category of interest allows us to identify some of its most essential elements: needs and the subject’s awareness of the need to satisfy them, social living conditions and the choice of specific practical actions that allow the subject to realize these needs.

Social subjects are in constant interaction, their life situation is strongly influenced by society, which is twofold. Either the situation of people is endangered, that is, it is deteriorating, destabilizing, or, on the contrary, it opens up new positive opportunities for them to improve their lives, increase their prestige, etc. From this interaction interest is born. It can be defined as the desire of the subject to change, improve or maintain, strengthen his living conditions and position with the help of social funds. Specifically, interest manifests itself as the desire of people and social groups for certain values, institutions, processes, connections, norms, and for a specific attitude towards reality.

The objects of interest are material and spiritual values, social institutions and social relations, established customs and orders. If a need is focused, first of all, on the subject of its satisfaction, then interest is directed to those social relations, institutions, institutions on which the distribution of values and benefits that ensure the satisfaction of needs depends.

The direct subject of social interest is not the good itself as such, but those positions of the individual or social layer that provide the opportunity to obtain this good. It is social position that outlines the boundaries of what is accessible and possible for an individual and/or social group. Through the possible and, in principle, accessible, it also influences the formation of realistic desires and aspirations. The situation, reflected in desires, feelings, attitudes and life plans, turns into a set of complex stimuli for activity - into interests, which act as the direct cause of social behavior.

Most supporters of sociological and psychological interpretations see the nature of interest as dialectical, viewing it through the prism of the unity of objective and subjective components. Disclosure of the essence of social interest allows, with this approach, to form an idea of the general line of aspiration of individuals, social groups, classes aimed at achieving their needs.

The social connections of a person, even in a very small, small group, represent a multitude of interactions consisting of actions and responses. There is a need to reconcile interests.

The mechanism for performing a social action can be represented as follows: the individual’s need under the influence of the situation - actualization of the motive - interest - goal - motivational setting - social action. The more easily it is expressed in the interests of the social community, the more fully the effective force of need manifests itself.

Specifics sociological analysis the problem of needs is to clarify the relationships between social subjects: at the level of society, social group and individual, and each of these levels has a certain originality, internal specificity. At the same time, they interpenetrate each other, forming an endless whirlpool of human aspirations and desires, a complex variety of factors that determine them, a motley picture of the results of these aspirations, manifested in the actions and deeds of people.

Less important is the analysis of the category of interest through the prism of focus, which includes two closely related aspects: subject content, since focus is always a focus on something, some more or less specific object, and the tension that arises . Like any dynamic tendency, it always contains a more or less conscious connection between the individual and something outside him, the relationship between the internal and the external.

Another aspect of the analysis of the category under consideration is to clarify the role of personality attitudes in which certain perceptual content is activated.

An essential property of interest is that it is always directed towards one or another object.

Interest is a motive that acts due to its perceived significance and emotional appeal. In each interest, both aspects are usually represented to some extent, but the relationship between them is different. different levels consciousness may be different. When, for example, the general level of consciousness or awareness of a given interest is low, emotional appeal dominates.

The different scope and distribution of interests, expressed in one or another of their breadth and structure, are combined with one or another of their strength or activity. The strength of interest is often, although not necessarily, combined with its persistence. Interests in the general orientation of the individual form a system of mobile, changeable, dynamic tendencies with a moving center of gravity.

It has been revealed that the forms of social-group and meta-group constellation, carried out through mechanisms of political participation, have their source in the content and dynamics of the structure of social interests, which determine not only positively integrating, but also protest forms of political behavior.

Social changes caused by globalization and changes in the type of social structure in many countries, including Russia, have led to a more complex system of social interests influencing politics, accelerated the dynamics of changes in the structure of interests, and provoked the growth of contradictory trends in society. In this regard, the analysis of little-studied objects is updated: communities that carry out political activity in the form of participation.

Political participation in the dissertation research is understood as the involvement of ordinary citizens in the formation of government bodies, in the recognition of the legitimacy of power, in the formation of ongoing ruling group politics and control over its implementation, into the development and approval of political culture, and, finally, into control over the behavior of elites. We are talking about the involvement in one form or another of members of society in the process of forming a system of political participation.

The social component of interest groups in Russia is its weakest and most vulnerable component. Establishing a sense of social community and making common demands, whether within work groups or single purpose movements, nationally or at regional and local levels, is difficult and slow. This is clearly not facilitated by conditions when the social structuring of society runs parallel to its political and economic transformation, especially in the absence of a tradition of mass volunteerism.

The possibility of changing the vector of action of social microconnections in the future depends mainly on how quickly their predominantly protective role will be complemented by other functions under the influence of the evolution of value orientations of both the younger generation and the older generation, socialized under the Soviet regime.

The structuring of social interests in the conditions of the current Russian reality is almost exclusively protest and protective in nature, and its demands are directed primarily to the state represented by the federal government. However, the possibility of going beyond the boundaries of an enterprise, region, industry and developing into national movements based on general demands (non-payment of wages and pensions, challenging the results of privatization, returning funds to defrauded investors, etc.) remains unrealized, including due to the local nature of the protest , weak political and legal elaboration of protest platforms.

The prospects for self-organization of social interests on a protest basis directly depend on whether such demands can play the role of a unifying factor and transform into “ social capital» mutual trust and mutual assistance. Mass base protest movements constitute the poorest segments of the population, which determines the quality of protest actions.

The dualistic type of Russian mentality, combining fragments of collectivist traditions and individualistic traits that developed against the background of the denial of the quasi-collectivist experience of the Soviet period, determines a different level and different ways of structuring civic activity than in developed democracies. Rapid social stratification and the growth of the potential for social protest in conditions of crisis development are not direct factors in the structuring of social interests and the massive growth of group activity. On the contrary, at this stage they rather play the role of factors of social atomization and, on their basis, the growth of corporate defensive sentiments within an enterprise, profession, industry, but not at the level of rootedness, but with the potential to transform into mass forms of civic activity.

Analysis of the level of citizen activity in priority areas of activity " third sector” shows that organizations acting on behalf of social interests generally have a very narrow mass base, but their number is constantly growing. In relation to the state, they can take different positions: from full cooperation to open confrontation. In many ways, such relationships are determined by the state and political regime.

The work analyzes in detail the social base and content of the social interests of trade unions, environmental and human rights groups, associations of resettlement organizations acting on behalf of the interests of refugees, consumer unions, women's and youth organizations, etc. It is shown that voluntary organizations in transitional Russia have so far successfully acted as exponents of aggregated interests and as “target” groups only in cases where the collection of interests occurred “from below,” and the activity of group structures itself also developed at the grassroots level and mainly at this level and was limited.

Assessing the role of social interests from the point of view of the channels of influence at their disposal on the process of development and decision-making, one should note their weakness both in the face of other organized interests and in the face of the state. This weakness is an objective reflection of the low level of aggregation of the interests themselves in the conditions of social demarcation inherent in the transition period against the background of widespread social apathy.

Other characteristic the process of formalizing social interests in the conditions of the transition period - coming both from within the groups themselves and from the outside, from representatives of the party-political spectrum, attempts to politicize them, or more precisely, to draw them into the orbit of political influence in order to obtain their political support. The trend towards politicization of the social sphere is also noticeable at the local level.

When the system of functional representation is in the process of formation, the authority of the bodies of territorial representation is low, the legal field on which the activities of interest groups are regulated remains loose, and the economic difficulties of the transition period give rise to mass protest sentiments, “social” groups can become an important channel for expressing protest at grassroots level. They can also become a means of collecting unclaimed social activity, and not only of a protest nature.

The “double standard” in relations with the state as the source of the individual’s plight and at the same time responsible for his well-being suggests the likelihood of a combination of conflict and consensus orientations of social interest groups with the predominance of one or the other in accordance with the nature and goals of specific movements and the preponderance of the logic of confrontation in the conditions crisis development. The progress of the process of structuring social interests in the transition period approves new forms of their organization, mainly around narrowly focused, specific goals. In parallel with this, there is a development of traditional forms that are undergoing transformation in accordance with a new range of tasks and a change in the quality of the interests that they represent.

The increasing role of politics in the regulation and organization of social processes, changes in the dynamics of the political system itself, the formation of new political-institutional structures and the complication of the system of political participation actualize the sporadic (situational) activity of new non-autonomous subjects of interest in the political sphere, included in the activities of larger and institutionalized political groups .

Based on an analysis of the views of G. Mosca, F. Pareto, K. Marx, M. Weber, P. Sorokin, E. Toffler, A. Touraine, B. Catl and others, the main directions and features of the influence of political interests on the formation of the stratification structure were studied in Russia. The need to study the social structure from the point of view of changes associated with the transition of society to the post-industrial stage of development is substantiated. Taking these changes into account is important, first of all, for analyzing the development of institutions of political representation, as well as for identifying the characteristics of modern individual and collective actors in the political process.

The main trends in the evolution of the social structure are the collapse of traditional social groups (working class, petty bourgeoisie, peasantry, etc.); further social differentiation, the formation of new social groups and the emergence of a complex, mosaic social structure; changing criteria social stratification and the emergence of new middle and upper strata of society; increasing social and geographical mobility and changing lifestyles, greater openness of social space; crisis of traditional social identification and individualization of social protest.

The system of social representation is considered, which includes not only interest groups, but also their connection with the system of power, as well as with civil society, i.e. with social groups with which individuals are identified: religious, ethnic, professional, regional and other similar associations .

Through the system of social representation, society formulates problems that require immediate solutions. Various groups and associations use its channels to express demands that correspond to their real or imaginary interests and transfer these demands to the center of political struggle and to the sphere of political decision-making. Because of this, the system of social representation acts, on the one hand, as the most important intermediary between the state and the population, a mechanism of group consolidation, i.e., a structure designed to express and protect socially defined demands in a politically heterogeneous environment. On the other hand, the system of social representation provides a mechanism for correcting the political system, which protects this system from stagnation and makes it possible to correct previously made political decisions in a legal manner, without resorting to violent actions.

The political stratification of society is fluid, its main layers can increase and decrease. However, the political stratification profile, just like the social one, cannot be extended indefinitely: the mechanism of redistribution of power is automatically triggered in the form of spontaneous actions of the masses demanding the restoration of justice, or to avoid this, conscious regulation of this process is required.

Conscious regulation of power relations in society is associated with the development of targeted policies that take into account all the features social development both within a given country and internationally; this is the expansion of the middle layer of society, which is the guarantor of stable political development; this is the improvement of the entire system of social representation, taking into account the specific requirements of the time. The content of politics as a special kind of social regulation is to coordinate the interests of various groups, to develop norms and rules that are mandatory for all citizens, and to monitor their implementation.

List of references for dissertation research Candidate of Philosophical Sciences Martirosyan, Sofia Ashotovna, 2005

1. Abashkina E.A., Egorova-Gantman E. et al. Politicians are not born: how to become and remain an effective political leader. -M., 1993.

2. Alexandrova T.J1. Methodological problems of sociology of professions // Socis. 2000. - No. 8.- P. 11-17.

3. Alekseeva O. Trends in the development of the non-profit sector in Russia // Opportunities and prospects of resource centers in Russia. Conference materials. M., 1998.

4. Allais M., Behavior of a rational person under conditions of risk: criticism of the postulates of the American school. M., 1994.

5. Alyushin A.L., Porus V.N. Power and “political realism”//Psychology and psychoanalysis of power. T.1. Samara, 1999.

6. Amelin V.N. The influence of representation relations on the electoral process // Bulletin of Moscow University. Series 18. Sociology and political science. 1998.- No. 4.

7. Amelin V.N., Degtyarev A.A. Experience in the development of applied political science in Russia // Polis. - 1998. No. 3. - P. 157-178.

8. Aristotle. Op. in 4 volumes. T.4. M., 1984.

9. Ashin G.K., Okhotsky E.V. Course of elitology. M.: JSC " Sportakadempress", 1999. - 368 p.

10. Blagoveshchensk UFO. Assessing political positions in State Duma 3rd convocation based on voting results. M.: INDEM Foundation, 2004. - 80 p.

11. Large explanatory sociological dictionary (Collins) / Transl. from English T. I. -M., 1999.

12. Borodin O.I. Political marketing. Dissertation candidate. social Sci. -Volgograd, 1999.

13. V.F.Chernovolenko, V.P.Ossovsky, V.I.Paniotto. The prestige of professions and problems of social and professional orientation of youth.14

Please note that the scientific texts presented above are posted for informational purposes and were obtained through recognition original texts dissertations (OCR). Therefore, they may contain errors associated with imperfect recognition algorithms.
There are no such errors in the PDF files of dissertations and abstracts that we deliver.

480 rub. | 150 UAH | $7.5 ", MOUSEOFF, FGCOLOR, "#FFFFCC",BGCOLOR, "#393939");" onMouseOut="return nd();"> Dissertation - 480 RUR, delivery 10 minutes, around the clock, seven days a week and holidays

Martirosyan Sofia Ashotovna. Social interest in political space (Social and philosophical analysis): Dis. ...cand. Philosopher Sciences: 09.00.11: Rostov n/d, 2005 144 p. RSL OD, 61:05-9/194

Introduction

CHAPTER 1. SOCIAL INTEREST: PROBLEM FIELD AND RESEARCH METHODS

1.2. Interests as a source of social dynamics 41

CHAPTER 2. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL INTEREST RELATIONSHIP AND MUTUAL INFLUENCE 62

2.1. The role of social interest in the formation of a system of political participation 62

2.2. Political interest as a projection of the stratification structure of modern Russian society 85

CONCLUSION 116

List of used literature 128

Introduction to the work

The relevance of research. In the modern world, serious transformation processes are taking place, affecting political, economic, social and other spheres of society. Significant changes in the sphere of public consciousness are also obvious. It is hardly possible to find a phenomenon that would be most subject to such changes, on the one hand, and on the other, would be a better indicator of the depth of the changes taking place - than interest. Even with a cursory glance at the trends in the development of social consciousness, one can clearly see the logic of changes in its semantic content, as well as isolate the mutual influence of various social factors and interests of society and the individual. Often, certain malignant behavioral patterns are a way of realizing certain social interests. In this connection, the search for adequate forms of stopping such patterns is impossible without a clear understanding of the content of interests, as well as an understanding of their interaction both within the individual and group, and during interpersonal and inter-personal interaction.

In modern society, the political situation is inevitably becoming more complicated, where society and social communities of people cannot do without the integration of interests and aspirations to achieve a better life, prosperity, and develop in a civilized manner in the field of domestic and world politics. A person, living in a public environment, firstly, strives to consciously realize his potential strengths and activity in all areas and spheres of existence in accordance with his needs and interests, or is looking for supporters, people with close or similar interests in order to realize them together. Therefore, secondly, he is involved in the collective field of human action, that is, in politics. Politics, thanks to its institutions, resources, means and mechanisms, is able to help a person realize his interests or, on the contrary, can hinder their realization.

In this regard, the modern situation inevitably dictates the need to analyze socio-political interests in the process of becoming a social subject of politics. Of particular importance is the issue of involvement in political activity in order to satisfy one’s interests.

The category “social interest” is a general humanitarian category. The prerequisites for its emergence were laid down, in our opinion, by ancient Greek philosophers, in particular, Plato and Socrates in the concept of “innate ideas”. Subsequently, the category developed and in recent decades has been actively used by various specialists in descriptive and explanatory models, including philosophical, political science, psychological, economic, sociological and other paradigms. In specialized literature, the following types of social interests are found: national interests, state interests, economic interests, interests of various subjects (for example, the interests of a child or various social groups), interest in learning, legal interests, personal interests, etc. and so on.

However, there are different interpretations of this category. Interest acts both as a “set of the most important incentives” and as

“orientation of the individual, group, social layer”, and as “an element of the motivational-need sphere”. In other words, in various subject areas the category is loaded with its specific content, which, on the one hand, indicates its versatility and globality, on the other hand, is evidence of insufficient theoretical elaboration. In our opinion, a socio-philosophical analysis of social interest in the political space can be a significant step in this direction.

At the present stage, the given problem acts as a subject and object of research by both foreign and domestic scientists in various fields of socio-political thought. The literature presents theoretical constructs and empirical works aimed at analyzing the social determinants of the emergence and evolution of interests at the micro- and macro-levels (G.K. Lshin, G. Burbulis, V.Yu. Vereshchagin, L.I. Guseva, L. I. Demidov, O. Offerdal, E.V. Okhotsky, L.S. Panarin, A.V. Shpak, etc.

On the other hand, the scientific literature covers in detail the problem of transferring public knowledge to the level of its technological application. This determined the approach to social interest as a macrosystem - ideas in this direction can be traced in the works of B.C. Dudchenko, G.I. Ikonnikova, M. Markova, V.I. Patrusheva, N. Stefanova.

Analysis of political interest as a way to optimize and algorithmize professional political activity, as well as elements of research into their influence on the transformation of social interests, constitutes the content of modern research conducted by M.G. Anokhin, S. Black, B.L. Borisov, I.A. Vasilenko, G.V. Grachev, A.A. Degtyarev, A.V. Dmitriev, 10.G. Zaprudsky, B.S. Komarovsky, E.N. Pashentsev, G. Simon, P. Sharan, etc.).

However, despite the extensive scientific literature on various aspects of the analysis of the concept of interest, we can quite reasonably say that there are a number of pressing problems in understanding the essence of the phenomenon of social interest in its interpretation in relation to the political sphere of public life, the specific Russian features of its development, as well as its acquisition new properties and features in the conditions of modern society.

The methodological and theoretical basis of the dissertation was the synthetic research method, which includes logical and philosophical analysis, systemic and active approaches to studying the phenomenon of social interest. For specific analysis purposes, methods of institutional, technological, structural and functional analysis were used, as well as individual methods, ideas and principles developed by political science and sociology: the method of collecting and analyzing documentary and statistical material, the observation method, the comparative method. At the same time, the theoretical basis of the study was the basic concepts and constructs contained in the works of leading domestic and foreign scientists.

The object of the study is social interest in the space of society as a complex dynamic system.

The subject of the study is social interest as a macrosystem in relation to interests arising at other levels of society.

The purpose of the dissertation is a socio-philosophical analysis of the specifics of social interest in relation to its manifestation in the political space.

The goal was specified in the following tasks:

1. Carry out a conceptual analysis of social interest as an object of interdisciplinary research

2. Reveal the specifics of the content of social interest as a macrosystem in relation to microsystems of interests at other levels.

3. Analyze the forms and mechanisms of manifestation of social interests in the political system of society.

4. Identify areas and features of the influence of political interests on the social sphere, in particular on the stratification structure of Russian society.

1. It is shown that the scientific and theoretical understanding of the content of the concept of social interest, achieved when studying it at an interdisciplinary level, allows us to define it as a multidimensional social-personal phenomenon, motivational-evaluative, subject-active and referent-oriented in nature.

2. It has been established that the specificity of social interest is a social-personal system implemented at various levels

4. It has been revealed that political interest, being a specific macrosystem, is in a relationship of transformation and modification with other social interests

Provisions for defense:

1. Social interest, being a complex and multi-dimensional social and personal phenomenon, from the point of view of the activity approach, is the result of objective activity and interaction with other people in various forms of referentially significant activity, determining the internal guidelines for a person’s choice of interesting objects and social circle , reference groups, relations of socialization and cooperation, and are the subject of interdisciplinary research that reveals additional compensatory characteristics that express evaluative and satisfactory needs for power and control over events and people and are the basis for social differentiation of society.

2. The essence of social interest is that it is a personal and social macrosystem that determines the content and structure of micro- and macrosystems of interests at other levels, personal and social interaction of society. At the same time, the interests on the basis of which the subjects act, determined by their social, economic, political, religious, spiritual nature, are at the same time determined by the entire set of cultural value and worldview positions of the subjects. Social interests are a socio-dynamic system that changes depending on the transformation of the social subjects themselves, the variability of the social environment and forms of social interaction.

Theoretical and practical significance of the research.

The conclusions and proposals formulated in the dissertation are of interest both from the point of view of theoretical understanding of the described phenomenon, and from the point of view of practical significance in predicting and modeling the development of social processes in society, developing decisions in the field of social policy, and organizing the work of socio-political organizations.

The dissertation material can be used in the process of teaching theoretical and applied sociology, applied political science, conflict studies, as well as in practical activities in forecasting and planning socio-political development in the country and region.

Approbation of work. The dissertation materials were presented at the scientific and practical conference “Violence in Modern Russia” (Rostov n/D., 1999); at the All-Russian scientific conference “Teaching comparative political science and world politics in Russian universities” (Novorossiysk, 2000); at the interuniversity scientific and theoretical conference “Political and Legal Institutions” (Rostov-on-Don, 2000); at the regional scientific and theoretical conference “Political and legal culture and spirituality” (Rostov n/D., 2001); at the scientific and practical conference “Globalization and regionalization in the modern world” (Rostov-on-Don, 2001); 3rd Russian Philosophical Congress “Rationalism and Culture on the Threshold of the Third Millennium” (Rostov-on-Don, 2002).

Implementation of research results. The dissertation materials were used in the educational process when delivering the special course “Political Interests in the Modern Political Process” to 3rd year students of the Department of Political Science at Rostov State University.

The category “interest” in the context of social sciences and humanities

To determine the diversity of the content of the category “interest”, it is advisable to consider, on the one hand, the genesis of the concept in the humanitarian fields of knowledge, and on the other hand, to identify the specific semantic plans of the concept in each of the disciplines under consideration.

Among scientists in the humanities there is no consensus in understanding the problem of the nature and genesis of interest. This, in our opinion, is due to the fact that this issue was not a priority until recently. Research into the philosophical, sociological and political content of interest is practically absent in the specialized literature. We believe that social processes in modern Russia and the world as a whole, including multidirectional and sometimes contradictory trends, have clearly formed a social order for the development of this issue. In this regard, the reasons for the intensive development of special areas are obvious. social sciences, using the category of “interest” and giving it one or another specific meaning. Most authors working in the field of humanities, one way or another, operate with this category. And this circumstance testifies both to the capacity and globality of the category, and to the relevance of theoretical research aimed at understanding and systematizing the content of the concept of “interest” as a philosophical category.

Interest (from the Latin interest) - matters, important - in scientific vocabulary it is used in various meanings. The main meanings can be identified as follows: attention shown to something; entertaining, exciting; importance, meaning; benefit, benefit; aspirations, needs, requests1.

All pre-Marxist sociology derived interest, like other categories of philosophy, from the ideas of people, from reason and spirit. Sociologists of that time argued that society develops not according to objective laws, but according to the will of people. Some statements and guesses regarding the interdependence of individuals in society and causal relationships can also be found among ancient thinkers. For the first time in ancient philosophy, Democritus had the idea that driving force human history there was a need, that is, the material needs and interests of people.

Representatives of philosophical and socio-political thought interpreted the concept of “interest” differently, sometimes extremely broadly. Thus, the author of the pamphlet “Leaves of the Tree of Life”, published in 1648, W. Sedwick attributed a unifying meaning to interest.

The prominent French philosopher C.L. Helvetius called interest “an omnipotent wizard that changes the appearance of every object in the eyes of all beings”3. In this book (“On the Mind”) he tried to create a theory of interest as driving force human actions. In the figurative expression of Helvetius: “Rivers do not flow, and people do not go against the rapid flow of their interests”4.

Interest, according to Helvetius, is selfishness. The author believed that interest is a natural feeling. It can be transformed into both a vice and a virtue. It all depends on the tastes and passions of the person.

Since ancient times, thinkers have distinguished the concepts of general interest and private interest, often contrasting one with the other. But if in theology the idea of the “common good” is considered irreducible to accidental manifestations of this good (according to the scholastic definition, where this idea comes from), then the concept of common interest, by definition, is under constant pressure from numerous external manifestations through which it is perceived by individuals.

There is no doubt that the problem of clarifying in practice what the common interest is also arises when turning to the idea of the “common good.” A particular difficulty encountered in trying to articulate different ideas about the common interest arises from the need to recognize the possibility of synthesizing multiple and conflicting particular interests while preserving their specificity.

IN modern era It was not so much Hobbes, for whom the problem of the transfer of interests was, in general, secondary in comparison with the urgent need to establish political order, but Rousseau who formulated the problem in socio-political terms, defining it as the “general will.” In its deepest premises, this definition of Rousseau has many points of contact with the theological concept of the common good.

The problem of conflict of individual or private interests takes on special significance for a scientist. Rousseau appeals directly to it in order to justify defining the nature of politics as an “art”, and not as a pure science or technique of government. Thus, in “The Social Contract” (1761) he writes that “If there were no different interests, it would be difficult to feel a common interest that would not meet obstacles; it would go by itself and politics would cease to be an art” (Book II, Chapter III). However, according to the thinker, it is impossible to derive a common interest from a simple sum of individual expressions of will (from this the will of all or the will of the majority is obtained). Therefore, Rousseau constantly emphasizes that it is necessary that what is intended to express a general interest should always and in any case concern only general objects. One can thus assume the opposite: that the “general will” is in conflict with the wishes of the numerical majority of individuals making up society. In this case, as Rousseau writes in the spirit of Hobbes in Chapter XI of the third book of the Social Contract, we find ourselves witnessing the “death of the political body” due to measures of a particularistic nature and decrees that have no overall impact.

Thus, Rousseau’s theory of the social contract anticipates the “dilemma” that manifests itself in various forms in modern theory games in various versions about the “prisoner” or about “collective action”: it is difficult to combine private interests that are irreducible and opposed to each other, which also compete with each other, and their consistent implementation can lead to damage for everyone. Take the example of “common water”: the owners of two pieces of land bordering each other might use a common water source in a way that satisfies their own interests exclusively, but thereby acting to the detriment of their mutual interests, albeit distant in time and not so obvious. Even when the common interest is easily identifiable, there may be insurmountable difficulties in achieving it through a social contract.

Consequently, for Rousseau, in contrast to supporters of utilitarianism, starting with Hume, the problem is not to harmoniously combine private and public interest, but also to understand that the general interest is not reducible to individual benefit.

Interests as a source of social dynamics

It is obvious that the social significance of interests as a source of social dynamics manifests itself most acutely during the transition period of the development of society in social, ethnic conflicts, deep economic and political transformations in society, when questions are raised about the ways and methods of its transformation. It is interests that act as incentives for the activities of people, social communities, and activate the life of classes, peoples, religious and other social groups. “A closer examination of history convinces us,” Hegel notes, “that the actions of people follow from their needs, their passions, their interests... and only they play the main significance”16.

In conditions of sustainable dynamic development, both the political system and society as a whole depend on the skillful consideration and coordination of the interests of various subjects.

The essence of interest lies in the need to realize the needs of the subject through his objective inclusion in social relations. A scientific examination of social interest reveals its following elements: needs and the subject’s awareness of the need to satisfy them, social living conditions and the choice of specific practical actions that allow the subject to realize the need.

Social subjects are in constant interaction, their life situation is strongly influenced by society, which is twofold. Either the situation of people is endangered, that is, it worsens, destabilizes, or, on the contrary, it opens up new opportunities for them to improve their lives, increase their prestige, etc. From this interaction interest is born. It can be defined as the desire of the subject to change, improve or maintain, strengthen his living conditions and position with the help of social means. Specifically, interest manifests itself as the desire of people and social groups for certain values, institutions, processes, connections, norms, and for a specific attitude towards reality17.

Interests express certain needs and are aimed at certain goals of people or their groups. Bearers of personal needs and interests unite into groups in order to express their interests within groups and more effectively represent them in relations with the state and other groups, which is hardly possible for one person. The process of interest formation lies in the fact that first, the most diverse social interests and needs of members of a social group, their personal, emotionally charged opinions, judgments, in the course of communication and exchange, are translated into specific forms or requirements of a particular association or institution. In order to identify and make obvious often still little realized interests, so that common views become collective aspirations, a sense of community and the concept of “we” must arise (“we are miners”, “we are Yakuts”, “we are patriots”, “ we are Cossacks”, etc.). As L.G. Zdravomyslov notes, interests, like needs, represent a special kind of social relations; they do not exist on their own, abstractly, outside those individuals, social groups, classes and other forces that act as their bearers. This is one of the grounds for classifying interests. The other side of the matter is that interest, like need, is directed towards a specific object. The objects of interest are material and spiritual values, social institutions and social relations, established customs and orders. If a need is focused, first of all, on the subject of its satisfaction, then interest is directed to those social relations, institutions, institutions on which the distribution of objects, values, and benefits that ensure the satisfaction of needs depends. Interests are especially closely related to distribution relations in society, being aimed either at changing or at consolidating existing distribution relations.

Because of this, interests are in in a certain sense more significant, important from the point of view of ensuring actual living conditions. They are aimed primarily at rational means of subsistence. When a certain level of satisfaction of needs is achieved, interests come to the fore. For some, these are “legitimate claims” to the current level of consumption; for others, this is a desire for a qualitative change in living conditions. What needs and interests have in common is that in both cases we are dealing with people's aspirations that directly affect their social and economic behavior. However, if needs orient people's behavior towards the possession of those goods that turn out to be vitally necessary or stimulate vital ways of human activity, then interests are those incentives for action that stem from the mutual attitude of people towards each other.

The immediate subject of social interest is not the good itself, but those positions of the individual or social layer that provide the opportunity to obtain this good. But these positions are unequal, to the extent that interests are, in a certain sense, more conflict-prone than needs. Both in everyday speech and in theoretical analysis interests are much more often connected with social position, which fixes for a certain time the totality of opportunities provided to an actor by society. It is social position that outlines the boundaries of what is accessible and possible for an individual and a social group. Through the possible and, in principle, accessible, it also influences the formation of realistic desires and aspirations. The situation, reflected in desires, feelings, attitudes and life plans, turns into a set of complex stimuli for activity - into interests, which act as the direct cause of social behavior.

Interests appear in the form of feelings, desires, moods and aspirations to satisfy needs, which are reflected, comprehended and realized in the individual and collective consciousness. The process of awareness is manifested in the selectivity and directed activity of the subjects of interest, which emphasizes its subjectivity.

Most supporters of sociological and psychological interpretations see the nature of interest as dialectical, viewing it through the prism of the unity of objective and subjective components. In particular, a number of authors highlight a three-member structure of interest: the need to satisfy a need (which in turn presupposes the presence of the need itself); the ability to satisfy a need (this requires the availability of conditions and means to satisfy it); awareness of the need to meet needs and opportunities to meet them19.

Interests directly reflect the relations of inequality that have developed in society; they constantly contain an element of comparison of person to person, one social group to another. This is precisely the basis of that effectiveness, that real power that lies in interests. They directly reflect the social position of individuals, which determines their role as the most important incentive for social development.

The role of social interest in the formation of a system of political participation

One of the most important characteristics of political processes is the participation of people in political life. Individuals, groups, social strata are involved in the political process, constantly interact with the political environment and perform various roles.

Political participation is the involvement of ordinary citizens in the formation of government bodies, in the recognition of the legitimacy of power, in the formation of policies pursued by the ruling group and control over its implementation, in the development and establishment of political culture, and, finally, in monitoring the behavior of elites. We are talking about the involvement in one form or another of members of society in the process of forming a system of political participation. If citizens take part in the political life of a society, then the political system of that society can be considered participatory. However, individuals and social groups are not equally involved in the political process, and this largely depends on the political regime.

Thus, in a democratic political regime, political participation is universal and free. It acts as a means for citizens to achieve their goals and realize their interests. Political participation makes it possible to identify the real role of the citizen, individual layers, and groups in the political process.

Difficulties in forming a system of political participation may be caused by a lack of trust among various groups in relation to each other, their desire to take a maximalist position, as well as the weakness of political institutions.

Resolving this problem is possible by identifying, firstly, the potential for equity participation in power, mitigating the causes of various conflicts; secondly, the difficulties of transition to democracy, since it tends to intensify rather than mitigate the various causes of conflict; thirdly, differences in systems of political participation.

Citizens' engaged political participation is a fundamental component of democratic governance and the development of civil society. According to the theories of democracy, all citizens of the country should not only have the chance to participate in making socially important decisions, but also use it from time to time. This is exactly what the theory of “civic culture” suggests, proposed by G. Lloyd and S. Verba1 to describe the political culture of democratic countries. Civic culture consists of elements of an activist political culture, balanced by elements of a more passive subject culture and an apathetic, apolitical patriarchal culture. The activist element ensures innovation and rational involvement of the population in solving important public problems. But for stability, it must be balanced by other elements, more passive, traditional, emphasizing the individual’s loyalty to the political system. Therefore, the idea of a “reserve of influence” appears, which all citizens of a democratic state have. Using their reserve of influence, they can from time to time actively engage in political activities in order to satisfy their interests.

Despite the fact that the topic of political participation is of interest to researchers from different countries, it must be noted that in our country this topic has not yet found adequate coverage.

If a democratic system functions successfully, it provides group members with the opportunity to choose political leaders, achieve economic success and social status without political restrictions. Individuals and groups can use the electoral system to gain official support and respect for their local institutions by voting for sympathetic candidates.

If electoral system properly organized, it reduces tensions by preventing some radicals from coming to power. Working with elected representatives can help a group build a voting coalition, change controversial legislation, or defend the group's prerogatives. Successful collaboration, in turn, helps future relationships by demonstrating that groups can work together and have common interests.

In rare cases, a system of political participation can satisfy the ambitions of leadership groups. When one group controls the state (or can take control of the state due to a threat to its privileged position), then the core ambitions of the leadership group are secure. Thus, when a democratic system guarantees one group control over the process, it reduces conflict based on satisfying the ambitions of the leadership group. Under these conditions, the less democracy there is, the greater the effectiveness of peacekeeping efforts, since a more equitable democratic system allows any group to have unfettered access to political power.

Some forms of democracy can successfully provide shared power in divided societies. Liberal democracy is based on the principle of a variable majority to avoid the tyranny of the majority. This means that individuals can temporarily form various coalitions, based on economic, social interests, uniting on a regional basis or on other grounds, which guarantees that diversity of opinions is taken into account. A majoritarian system is effective when the majority changes from election to election, as happens in the United States and other Western democracies.

§ 7. Social interests and forms of social interaction

we nod today - this is the result, first of all, of the spiritual misery of individual people, as well as the purposeful activities of unscrupulous politicians pursuing selfish goals. From history (and not only from it) you know well the catastrophic consequences of attempts to introduce racist and Nazi ideas. Any racism, nationalism, anti-Semitism is a lie, and a criminal lie, because along with moral norms, constitutional human rights are violated.

NI Basic concepts: ethnicity, nation.

YANNTerms: nationality, national mentality, national traditions and values.

Test yourself

1) In what meaning is the concept of “ethnicity” used in our science? 2) How do the definitions of the concept “ethnicity” differ? 3) What feature of an ethnic group is considered the main one? 4) Why is the concept of “nation,” according to many scientists, not a strictly scientific category? 5) Why do they say that the national mentality is a kind of memory of the past that determines people’s behavior? 6) What, according to Ilyin, are the main values of the Russian people? Why did the philosopher call them supernational? 7) What confirms the ethnic diversity of modern humanity?

Think, discuss, do

1. Persian poet and philosopher Saadi (1210 -1292) wrote:

The whole tribe of Adam is one body,

Created from the dust of one.

If only one part of the body is wounded,

Then the whole body will fall into trembling.

You never cried over human grief, -

So will people say that you are human? How do you understand the meaning of these lines written in the 13th century? Why do they say that they are still relevant today? Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Explain your position.

You are familiar with the wording: national
traditions, national cuisine, national income,
howl national product, national characteristics,
National Philharmonic Orchestra of Russia, multi-stage
national people of Russia. The concept of “national” information
is used here in different senses, since different tracks
The very concept of “nation” has a similar meaning. Explain in what
Each of these formulations must be understood in a sense.
Experts include customs as part of tradition, ri
toile, ritual. Each of these types of tradition has its own

peculiarities. Try to draw them yourself. Give examples to be convincing.

4. In the USSR, nationality was determined and recorded in the passport. IN public opinion a rigid norm of a single, obligatory and blood-born nationality also prevailed. And if the state wrote it down in your passport, then you are exactly what is written down. Ethnologist V. A. Tishkov calls this situation “forced identity” and notes that there are not thousands, but millions of similar examples in the territory of the former USSR. He gives an example close to his heart. His son’s friend Felix Khachaturian, who lived his entire life in Moscow, didn’t know a word of Armenian, and had never been to Armenia, was listed as an Armenian on his Soviet passport, although he was Russian not only in culture, but also in identity.

The scientist poses the question: does such a person have the right to consider himself Russian? Or the main determinants of ethnic identity are the sound of the surname and appearance? The scientist has a clear, reasoned answer. What is your opinion? Explain.

Work with the source

The Russian historian V. O. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911) in his famous “Course of Russian History” noted that living conditions convinced the Russian people that “one must value a clear summer working day, that nature allows him little convenient time for agricultural work. And that the short Great Russian summer can still be shortened by untimely, unexpected bad weather. This forces the Great Russian peasant to hurry. Working hard to get a lot done in a short time and get out of the field in time, and then remain idle throughout the fall and winter. Thus, the Great Russian became accustomed to excessive short-term strain on his strength, got used to working quickly, feverishly and quickly, and then resting during the forced autumn and winter idleness.”

Klyuchevsky V. O. Works: In 9 volumes - M., 1987. - T. 1. - P. 315.

^H Questions and assignments to the source. 1) What is the main idea of the passage? 2) What features of the Russian mentality were formed under the influence of the described living conditions? 3) What impact do you think modern living conditions have on the mentality of Russians?

Interest socially th(from Latin socialis - public and interest - important) - this interest any socially Wow subject (person, socially oh group, class, nation), associated with its position in a certain system of social relations. These are perceived needs real reasons for actions, events, accomplishments behind the immediate internal motivations (motives, thoughts, ideas, etc.) participating in these actions individuals, socially s groups, classes. According to A. Adler's definition socially th interest- an element of the motivational-need sphere, it acts as the basis for integration into society and the elimination of feelings of inferiority. It is characterized by a willingness to be imperfect, to contribute to the common well-being, to show trust, care, compassion, a willingness to make responsible choices, to creativity, intimacy, cooperation and inclusion.
Class is of paramount importance interests, which are determined by the position of classes in the system of industrial relations. However, any socially s interests, incl. and class, are not limited to the sphere of industrial relations. They cover the entire system of social relations and are associated with various aspects of the position of their subject. A generalized expression of all interests socially Wow the subject becomes his political interest, which expresses the attitude of a given subject to political power in society. Social group, trying to realize
mine interest, may come into conflict with others in groups. Therefore, it is often private interest takes on a social or even universal form. Then it takes on the appearance of legal, legitimate interest and is not negotiable. Any socially and I the transformation of society is accompanied by a sharp change in the balance interests. Conflict of class, national, state interests underlies socially s revolutions, wars and other upheavals in world history.
Socio-economic interests- system socially o-economic needs of the subject (individual, team, socially oh group, society, state). Interest expresses the integrity of the system socially O- economic needs and in this capacity is a stimulus for the activity of the subject, determining its behavior. Awareness of one's own socially o-economic interests the subject is the historical process. Thus, commodity producers’ awareness of their interests leads to their implementation and, accordingly, is the basis of the mechanism of a market economy. Implementation socially o-economic interests the working class contributes to the creation of a system socially s guarantees for the whole society.
In society there is a complex dialectic between actions private, collective and general interests. Yes, private socially o-economic interests, being an incentive to action individuals, thereby ensuring the implementation of the common interest. Interdependence and interdependence interests is even more evident in the dialectic of the collective and the general interest, interests socially s groups and national interest. However, in such a complex socially ohm body, How society as a whole, not always and not in everything collective, and especially private interest coincides with the general interest. State in interests everyone socially s groups and layers, as well as individuals, regulates and controls How private and group(collective) interests, forming and protecting state interests.
The purpose of any legal norm comes from socially wow interest. In this sense, it is the main component of the state will. Social interest refers to the fundamental categories of sociology. You can imagine him How a concept that characterizes what is objectively significant and necessary for an individual, family, team, class, nation, society as a whole. Interest and need are not identical. Objective socially O- economic needs act as incentives reasons volitional activity of people, but determine it only by manifesting itself in socially s interests.
Society is characterized by the meaningful nature of all actions its members. Interest is what binds members of civil society together. Social interests determine the goals of people's activities. As a result, certain relationships are established, a certain social system, political and legal organization of society, culture, morality, etc., which ultimately correspond to the economic conditions of society. Hence, socially th interest- the starting point of people’s purposeful activity and its determinant socially Ouch significance. This category property interest due to its role in the formation of law How the main criterion for identifying the objective basis of the content of law, its socially Ouch essence.
Social interest, being conscious and enshrined in the rules of law, predetermines action rights. Relationship between socially them interests How objective reality And interest in law is explained by the relationship between the objective and the subjective in the interest. There are three points of view on this issue in the legal literature. Some authors believe interest an objective phenomenon; others - subjective; still others - by the unity of objective and subjective. Depending on the basis of classification, economic, political, spiritual, class, national, group, personal interests. In its turn
Each sphere of society's life has its own groups the most important socially s interests.