Eastern Slavs in ancient times: appearance, settlement, life. Eastern Slavs in the 6th–8th centuries

If in written sources the Wends left a memory of themselves in the form of several not very clear lines, then over time their number increases, information about the Slavs becomes more rich and distinct. And this circumstance is explained by the fact that the Slavs were involved in the great migration of peoples, approached the borders of the Eastern Roman Empire, crushed and broke through its defensive lines, invaded the territory of Byzantium and short term, having glorified it, they went to the shores of the Black, Adriatic and Aegean seas. Byzantium started talking about the Slavs because it had to fight with them and enter into alliances, invite them into its service and settle on its lands, cede entire regions to them and reflect their customary law in its legislation.

The time has come, and Slavic settlements appeared in the Peloponnese, penetrated into the northern part of the Apennine Peninsula and into Asia Minor and prompted the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus (Xv.) to sadly state that the entire country had become Slavic. The Slavs of Eastern Europe also took part in this grandiose process of resettlement and movement of the Slavs.

What do sources say about them?

“On their left (Carpathians - V.M.) slope, descending to the north, starting from the birthplace of the Vistula River, a populous Veneti tribe settled in vast spaces. Although their names now change according to different clans and localities, they are still predominantly called Sclaveni and Antes. The Sklavens live from the city of Novietuna and the lake called Mursian to Danastra, and north to Viskla; instead of cities they have swamps and forests. The Antes, the strongest of both (tribes), spread from Danaster to Danapra, where the Pontic Sea forms a bend; These rivers are distant from one another at a distance of many crossings.”1 This is what the 6th century writer, historian of the East Germans-Goths Jordanes says about the Wends, Slavs and Antes.

Where were the lands of the Slavs and Antes. About the settlement of the Slavs and Antes

The Jordan defines the boundaries of these lands: from the Danube lowland to the Dniester and Dnieper, and in the north to the Vistula. The Slavs and Ants are direct descendants of the ancient Wends.

By the way _ note that in the name of the sklavens there is a k-insert into Greek, unknown either in the language of the Slavs themselves or in the languages ​​of those who directly encountered the Slavs. So, among the Germans - Slav (slav, slave). Among the same peoples who became acquainted with the Slavs through the Greeks, k (sclavos)2 is found everywhere in the name of the Slavs. The Arabs called the Slavs Sakaliba.

Another writer of the 6th century. Procopius of Caesarea speaks of the Slavs and Antes, “who have their dwellings on the other side of the Danube, not far from its shore”, “live along the Ister”3. He also points out that further to the north they4 are occupied by “countless tribes of Antes”5.

About the settlement of the Slavs and Antes up to the lower reaches of the Danube, a third source of the same 6th century reports. This refers to the "Strategikon", usually attributed to the Emperor Mauritius. In the part of the “Strategikon” where we talk about the Slavs and Antes, it is indicated that “their rivers flow into the Danube”6.

Narrating about military clashes between the Goths and the Antes in the 4th century, Jordan connects all events with the Middle or Lower Dnieper7. Consequently, writers of the 6th century. are called the Antes of the Slavs who lived in eastern Europe from the Dniester to the Dnieper.

Do they call all Slavs of Eastern Europe Ants?

Judging by the fact that they were only interested in those Slavs whom the Byzantines or Goths encountered, only the Slavs who occupied the southwest of Eastern Europe were then called Antes. To the west of the Dniester lived the Slavs, who were no different or almost no different from the Antes, who were called “by their own name.” Who lived in the forests, how the Slavs lived in more northern lands, the Byzantines did not know and could not know. They were only interested in those Slavs and Antes whose blows the Byzantine Empire experienced.

Who were the antes?

Jordan points out that those who were once called Wends are now called Wends, Slavs and Ants. He adds that “these (Veneti), as we already said at the beginning of our presentation, precisely when listing the tribes, come from one root and are now known under three names: Veneti, Antes and Sclaveni”8.

There is no doubt that Jordan clearly understood the origin of his contemporary Slavic world and its division that took place in those days. Unlike a number of his contemporaries - Procopius of Caesarea, Menander, Theophylact Simokatta, who did not know the Wends, Jordan had good information and could trace the historical development and roots of all branches of the Slavs. Procopius echoes Jordan. Speaking about the common language and customs of the Slavs and Antes, he emphasizes that “once even the name of the Slavs and Antes was the same. In ancient times, both of these tribes were called spores (“scattered”), I think, because they lived, occupying the country “sporadena,” “scattered,” in separate villages.”9

We will return to this very interesting place in the “War with the Goths”, to the etymological exercises of Procopius, but now it is important for us to note that he considers it necessary to trace the Slavs and Antes from the same root, from the same ancestor and emphasizes their extreme closeness to each other.

“They both have the same language... And according to appearance they do not differ from each other...” “And in everything else, both of these barbarian tribes have the same life and laws...”, reports Procopius about the Slavs and Ants 10. “The tribes of the Slavs and Ants are similar in their own way way of life, according to their morals...,” we read in “Strategikon” and.

So, there can be no doubt that the division of the Slavs in the 6th century. into Sklavins (the Greek form of naming the Slavs) and Acts is by no means an ethnic division - the Slavic world is still one, and only some features are emerging that led over time to the separation of the Western, Southern and Eastern Slavs from the general Slavic world. Therefore, in relation to the beginning of intensive Slavic movements, migrations and resettlement, one should speak not about the Eastern or Western Slavs, but about the Slavs living to the west of the Dniester, and the Slavs living to the east of it, the Slavs of Eastern Europe.

As for the name of the Slavs and Antes according to Procopius of Caesarea by disputes, then, apparently, he was trying to comprehend some word that sounded so that for him it could turn into a dispute. This, it seemed to him, fully corresponds to the semantic meaning of this word in Greek, where it means absentmindedly, scattered. What was known about the Antes and Slavs to Procopius, and not to him alone, seemed to confirm his comments. Since they live “absent-mindedly,” “they need to occupy a lot of land”12.

According to Tacitus, the Wends carry out “robber raids” over a vast area from the Fenni to the Sarmatians. The Strategikon says about the Antes and Slavs that they “lead a wandering life”13.

Apparently, the movements, settlements and resettlement of the Wends and their descendants - the Slavs and Antes, which covered a vast territory, as well as the sparseness of their villages, the large distances between them, which is quite natural, given the continuous expansion of the area of ​​​​settlement of the Slavs in those days, created such an idea at Procopius. It is possible that the name Serbs, Sorbs, widespread in different places of the Slavic world in those days and later and similar in sound to spores, served as the basis for this kind of guesswork by Procopius.

Where did the name anta come from, and was it a self-name?

The Slavs of Eastern Europe did not call themselves Antes. The term ant is absent in Slavic languages ​​from the time of Slavic written sources. In addition, one cannot help but pay attention to the disappearance of the name Antes in Byzantine sources since 602. This can be explained by the fact that some kind of turning point occurred in the life of the Ants. It was the defeat caused by the Turkic Avars, the “obra” of the “Tale of Bygone Years”, the anta, who more than once acted as allies of the Avars, and in the Turkic languages, anta meant an ally who “swore an oath of allegiance.” The Avars disappeared, they “perished like obras”, and their “allied” Slavs, who bore this Turkic name, also disappeared. Moreover, this union was forced and far from equal. The Avars “tortured” the Slavs and forced them to take an oath (“company”) and thus become antes. Perhaps some of the Slavs found themselves in this situation even earlier, during the Hun invasion. The term ant with approximately this meaning is found in Turkic, Mongolian, Altai languages, and the Huns spoke some ancient Turkic language 14.

After the Avars - "obry" - disappeared without a "heritage", the Slavs subordinate to them began to act under other names, their own. The name Slavs was undoubtedly the self-name of the Slavs. Moreover, it was called either the entire Slavic world, or some part of it, usually occupying the outskirts of the Slavic territory (Ilmen Slovenians, Slovaks, Slovenians, Slovinians on the Baltic Sea coast).

How did the name Slavs (ancient Slovene) come about? What did it mean?

The origin of the self-name of the Slavs goes back centuries, which excludes the possibility of an exact and unique answer to this question. There are many different assumptions about the origin of the name Slovene. Slovenians or Slavs are derived from the word, i.e. speaking, fluent in language, in contrast to those who cannot speak, dumb, Germans; from glory in the meaning of honorable, outstanding; from the area, the name of which had the root of words or slavs (by analogy with the Russian Volzhans or Volgars, Uralians, Pomors, Siberians). It is believed that in ancient times slav simply meant people, tribe. There are analogies in the Celtic languages, where slougas, sloug mean people, community, in a number of other languages, such as Koryak, Chukchi, Kamchadal, Eskimo, where the self-names Nymylan, Lourovetlan, Itelmen, Inuit literally mean real people, people. There are many more hypotheses about the origin of the name of the Slavs, but it is unlikely that at this level of development of science it will be possible to recognize one of the hypotheses, and only one, as the only correct one. It is important to note that the Slavs have an ethnonym, that is, a common name - Slavs. Consequently, the consciousness of the unity of all Slavs goes back to a very distant past. It should be noted that the neighbors of the Slavs - the Balts and Germans - did not know such a common ethnonym15.

If we have only fragmentary information about the Wends and the writers of antiquity say nothing about their economy or social structure, then the situation is different with information about the Ants. Political events the times of the great migration and settlement of the Slavs forced Byzantium to become interested in the Slavs and Antes. Ants are farmers. “They have a large number of various livestock and fruits of the earth, lying in heaps, especially millet and wheat,” reports “Strategikon” 16. “Instead of cities, they have swamps and forests,” Jordan writes about the Slavs and Ants 17. “They settle in forests, near inaccessible rivers, swamps and lakes, arranging in their homes (settlements - V.M.) many exits due to the dangers that naturally occur to them,” continues the author of “Strategikon”.

His story is complemented by Procopius of Caesarea: “They live in miserable huts, on long distance from each other, and they all often change places of residence” 18. This is confirmed by the “Strategikon”, which reports about the Slavs and Antes that they “lead a wandering life”19.

How to reconcile the references to the “wandering life” of the Slavs and Antes, to the constant change of “places of residence” of the Slavs and Antes, reminiscent of the “robber raids” of the Wends on the lands from the Fenni to the Sarmatians, with their settled agriculture and cattle breeding?

From the time they appeared in written sources under the name of Wends, the Slavs were in a state of constant and continuous settlement. Therefore, they lived “scatteredly” (“sporaden”), “at a great distance from each other,” and since they “often changed places of residence,” it seemed to the Byzantines that they were “leading a wandering life.” Slavic half-dugouts, which served as a dwelling for the Slavs and Antes, and they, as the Strategikon reports, “are similar in their way of life, in their morals,” which is confirmed by Procopius, who points out that among the Antes and Slavs “all life and laws are the same” , seemed to the Byzantines to be “miserable huts.”

Slavs and Antes They are not a people at all, but a collection of “countless tribes”. “These tribes, the Slavs and the Antes,” reports Procopius of Caesarea, “are not ruled by one person, but from ancient times they have lived in the rule of people, and therefore they consider happiness and misfortune in life to be a common matter”20. They do not have a “single boss,” and “since there is no unanimity among them, they do not gather together, and if they do gather, then what they decide is immediately violated by others, since they are all hostile to each other and at the same time no one wants yield to another"21.

Many small tribes, sometimes united, sometimes at war with each other, which, of course, weakened the Slavs in their struggle with Byzantium and the Avars - this is what the world of the Antes and Slavs was like during the times of Procopius of Caesarea, Mauritius the Strategist and Jordan.

The Antes, according to Procopius, “reason together about everything that is useful or harmful for them.” We are talking, apparently, about gatherings of clans or tribes, about clan and tribal veche meetings. But tribal unions are not durable. They either fold or fall apart. Tribal alliances, formed by mutual agreement at intertribal gatherings, are short-lived and unstable. The Ants do not recognize the authority of either foreigners or fellow tribesmen over themselves, and only for a while the interests of defense or joint military campaigns force them to unite under the rule of one leader. The large number of leaders among the Ants, whom the Strategikon calls “rixes”, and Theophylact Simokatta - “rexes”, declaring that “this is what the barbarians call in their language” leaders, dozens of “nobles”, about whom Jordan speaks, gave the Byzantines the opportunity bribe some of them and thereby increase hostility among them and prevent them from becoming “under the authority of one leader”22. True, in the middle of the 6th century. The Ants were united under the rule of one Ant family. Menander knows his father - Idar, his sons Mezhamir and Kelagast. Their authority, power and power made it possible for Mezhamir Idarich to hold himself proudly and independently at the headquarters of the Avar Kagan.23 They are freedom-loving, and “they cannot in any way be persuaded to slavery or submission”24.

Ants are characterized by exceptional hospitality and cordiality towards foreigners. They have a blood feud, and it extends to foreigners. If an ant receives a foreigner, then he protects him on his further journey, and if one of the ants causes him any damage, inflicts any offense, then the first ant will take revenge on the offender for the foreigner25. Ants have property. “They bury the things they need in secret places and do not openly possess anything unnecessary,” we read in the Strategikon. The appearance of the very concept of superfluity, that is, not representing an essential item, is evidence of the accumulation of wealth. And since it arouses envy and aggressiveness, they trust it to hiding places, to the ground, afraid to expose it openly. Wars and raids on Byzantium, during which the Slavs and Antes collected monetary indemnities, captured a lot of booty and took away prisoners, enriched the Antes and, first of all, their top - the “Rexes”, or “Rixes”26. John of Ephesus speaks about this, reporting that as a result of the campaigns against Byzantium, they became rich, had many horses, weapons, gold and silver27.

The Antes had slavery, but it was very different from the slavery that took place in Byzantium. Its source was captivity and only captivity. Ant could not be Ant's slave. Ant, who fell into slavery in foreign lands, “coming to his native lands... in the future, according to the law, will already be free”28.

But even a captive foreigner, turned into a slave, does not remain in this state for long among the Ants. The period of servitude of captive slaves is limited to a certain time, and then the antes “offer them a choice: do they want to return home for a certain ransom or remain there (where they are) in the position of freemen and friends?”29.

Byzantine sources about the ancient Slavs

The Byzantines were struck family relationships ants. “The modesty of their women exceeds all human nature, so that most of them consider the death of their husband to be their death and voluntarily strangle themselves, not counting being a widow for life.”30 This instruction from the Strategikon is evidence of the dominance of a strong patriarchal family among the Antes.

In Byzantine sources we find fragmentary but valuable information about the religion of the Antes. They don't believe in fate, but difficult moment they turn to God, and if they are saved, they make a sacrifice to him, believing that their duty to God has been fulfilled. The Ants consider the “Lord over all” to be God, the creator of lightning, in whom it is not difficult to see the ancient Russian god Perun. They sacrifice bulls to him “and perform other sacred rites.” “They worship rivers, and nymphs, and all sorts of other deities, make sacrifices to all of them, and with the help of these sacrifices perform fortune-telling.”31

And here we are presented with the pagan beliefs of Russian pre-Christian times, who performed prayers (eating) near the water, near the well, who worshiped the beregins (mermaids), ghouls, patrons Chur, Rod and Rozhanits, etc., and made sacrifices to them.

Having known the full force of the blows of the Slavs and Antes, the Byzantines, naturally, were primarily interested in their military art. The author of the Strategikon paid special attention to these qualities of the Slavs and Antes. He reports that the Slavs and Antes “are hardy, easily tolerate heat, cold, rain, nakedness, and lack of food.” They are armed with small spears (each warrior has two or three of these spears), bows and small arrows poisoned with a potent poison. Poisoned arrows were widely used by the Scythians, from whom, apparently, these weapons passed on to the Ants. Many have strong but heavy shields. They did not know armor32.

The Byzantines emphasized the fundamental difference between their military system and the military art of the Slavs and Antes. “Having no leader over them...” reports the Strategikon, “they do not recognize the military system, they are not able to fight in the right battle”33. This judgment is quite understandable. Feudal Byzantium had an army that had gone through centuries of development, was built on certain principles, obeyed established rules, and adhered to certain tactics, strategy, and military doctrine. The Slavs and Antes were an armed people. Therefore, naturally, they preferred to fight in forests, gorges, ravines, “to use (ambushes), surprise attacks, tricks, and day and night inventing many (various) ways” (“Strategikon”) of combat. The Slavs and Antes do not like to fight “in open and level places”; “they know how to fight very well” in forests and “among gorges” (“Strategikon”). “They are also experienced in crossing rivers, surpassing all people in this regard” (“Strategikon”). Taken by surprise, the Antes hid in the reeds and, sinking to the bottom near the bank of a river or lake, breathed through the hollowed out reeds, courageously enduring being in the water for hours and hiding from the eyes of the enemy34.

There is no doubt that in the Byzantine sources of the 6th century - and who, if not the Byzantines, was interested in the military qualities of the Slavs and Antes - they appear as an armed people. The Ants did not know either the “riks” squads or the squad organization as a military-political force that stood above the people. The only division among this armed people is an age division: into those who are older and for this reason more experienced, experienced in battle, and youth. This division survived until the times of Kievan Rus, when there was a front, father's (father's), senior squad and a younger squad: children's, youths, young (uny), parobki; Moreover, the very terms elder and younger at that time, as a rule, already meant social division, although they went back to the times of the Antes, when they marked only an age division. Thus began the military path of the Antes and Slavs in the fight against Byzantium, which writers of the 6th century talk about.

In continuous campaigns and wars, the “rude barbarians” - the Slavs and Antes, who went into battle with the “Remei” (Byzantines), at the beginning of their invasions of Byzantium with simple weapons, without a “military system”, learned the art of war from their own opponents, armed them with weapons, and the time came when “thanks to their valor” (Procopius), the Antes, “the strongest of both (tribes)” (Jordan), “learned to wage war better than the Romans” (John of Ephesus)35. It is no wonder that they became rich, had gold and silver, “herds of horses and many weapons” (John of Ephesus).

Byzantine sources, although very sparingly, still talk about clothing and the appearance of the Slavs and Antes. They go into battle in shirts and trousers, but “others wear neither shirts nor cloaks, but only trousers, pulled up by a wide belt on the hips”36. "They are very tall and enormous strength. Their skin and hair color is very white or golden, and not quite black, but they are all dark red (light brown. - V. L1)”37. “Their way of life is rough, without any amenities... but essentially they are not bad and not at all evil,” Procopius of Caesarea concludes his description of the Slavs and Antes38. In the "Strategikon" the Slavs also appear as a "yellow people", that is, fair-haired, fair-haired. It is interesting to note that Ibrahim ibn Yaqub (10th century), like all Arabs, who called the Slavs “Sakalibs,” which means “fair-haired,” writes: “It is interesting that the inhabitants of the Czech Republic are dark-skinned.” Consequently, in his mind, all Slavs are fair-haired, and the dark-skinned inhabitants of the Czech Republic, also Slavs, surprised him. Theophylact Simokatta writes about three Slavs from the shores of the “Western Ocean” that they were tall, slender, and beautiful39.

What was the social system of the Antes in the 6th-7th centuries. What are the social relations that Byzantine sources depict?

The armed people, the rule of people, meetings of tribes and their unions, patriarchal hospitality and patriarchal slavery, the accumulation of wealth as a result of wars - all this indicates that the social system of the Antes should be characterized as a “military democracy” developing from the tribal system. "Military" "because war and organization for war are now becoming normal functions folk life"(F. Engels), "democracy" because before us is an armed people, governed by a people's assembly, a council of elders - "ricks", not yet aware of not only the power that opposes itself to the people, but is even organically separated from them.

Let's turn to archaeology. In contrast to the previous chapter, in which we pointed out the extreme complexity of classifying certain cultures as Slavic, defining this or that culture as proto- and proto-Slavic, the archaeological culture of the Slavs of the 6th-7th centuries, the times of the Antes, is now well known to us , although not so long ago we were lost among the many definitions and assumptions put forward by archaeologists.

In recent years, the works of Soviet archaeologists and their colleagues from Poland, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and Romania have significantly advanced the study of Slavic antiquities of that time. As a result of these studies, a certain unity of the culture of the Slavs of the 6th-7th centuries was established. throughout the territory occupied by the Slavs and acts. This area of ​​unity material culture Slavs (taking into account, of course, the local characteristics of their archaeological culture) a vast territory appeared, covering the Dnieper Right and Left banks, Podesenie, Posemye, the upper Oka, Pripyat, Polesie, Dniester, Western Bug, Eastern and Southern Poland, Danube Bulgaria, Eastern Romania (Prut, Seret, Lower Danube), Czechoslovakia from the border with the USSR to South Moravia (the so-called “Prague-type ceramic culture”). This is the territory that is defined as the area inhabited by the Slavs and Antes in the sources of the 6th-7th centuries, the territory of ancient Slavic toponymy, which was continuously expanding. Indicating that in the VI century. the forward movement of the Germans stopped, F. Engels notes that we're talking about about participation in the great migration of peoples, namely the Germans, “and not the Slavs, who were still on the move for a long time after them”40. F. Engels emphasizes that these were genuine migrations of peoples. Entire nationalities or at least significant parts of them set off on the road with their wives and children, with all their property.

The presence of the same tribal names in different parts of the Slavic world - East Slavic and Czech Dulebs, Severa or Northerners on the Danube, in Poland (in the upper reaches of the Warta, north-west of Krakow) and on the Left Bank of the Dnieper (Severskaya Zemlya, Severskaya Ukraine, Seversky Donets), glades “Lash-> and “Russian”, Carpathian and Adriatic Croats, Drevans of the Elbe and Drevlyans of the Dnieper Right Bank, Dregovichi of Polesie, who received their name from its swamps, “dryagv”, and Dregovichi in the mountains (!) of the Rhodopes on Balkans, Krivichi of the upper reaches of the Dnieper and Krivichi in Dobrudzha, etc. - is evidence of the settlement of the Slavs in different directions in a certain territory. The Slavs advanced, and quite quickly, in all directions: to the south, where in the 6th-7th centuries, having crossed the Danube, they populated the entire Balkan Peninsula, appear on the islands of the Aegean archipelago and the Ionian Sea, in Asia Minor; to the west, where in the V-VI centuries. moved to Laba (Elbe), and by the 9th century. south of Hamburg, in southern Denmark, they occupy Rana (Rügen), reach the lower reaches of the Rhine, the coast of the North Sea, and settle even in southeastern England. In the IV-V centuries. The Slavs cross the Carpathians, populate the territories of modern Czechoslovakia, Austria, Bavaria, and Hungary.

As already mentioned, Priscus of Pania, who visited the headquarters of the leader of the Huns Attila in Pannonia, reports that the Huns used “honey” and “kamos”, and celebrated “strava” for the deceased. Honey and strava are Slavic words. They indicate that in the 5th century. in Pannonia there were Slavs among the Huns41.

Already in the first centuries of our era in Dacia and Pannonia, clearly Slavic toponymy is found (Patissus - Potissier, Pelso-Pelso, Pleso, Bistra - Bystra, Bystritsa, Tsierna - Black), a Slavic word in inscriptions (dzoapan - zhupan).

Frontier 5-6 centuries - the time of the beginning of contact with the Roman Empire of the Slavs, which is divided into two periods and continues until 10 century. The entire 6th century passed under the sign of Slavic pressure on Byzantium. During this period, the Slavic invasion of the Roman Empire was equivalent in its consequences to the invasion of Germanic tribes. During this period, defensive structures were built on the borders of the Byzantine Empire and around Constantinople, separating it from the lands inhabited by the Slavs, but this did not stop their onslaught. In this century, the Slavs made a breakthrough on the Danube and penetrated the Balkan Peninsula into Macedonia, Istria, Dalmatia, and occupied part of Greece.

IN 6-8 centuries, the Eastern Slavs penetrated into the southern Russian steppes, reached the Don, and colonized the area between the Volga and Oka rivers, …
approach Lake Ladoga, Neva, Narva. The indigenous population of these areas: Turkic, Finno-Ugric, Baltic tribes are assimilated by the Eastern Slavs and bring their spiritual and cultural contribution to their way of life.

Until the first centuries of our era, the Slavs were a single whole. TO 6 century they were divided into three parts: Venedov( living northeast of the Carpathians in the upper reaches of the river . Vistula), Sklavins(living to the West of the Dniester River and in the Carpathian region) and ants(living between the Dniester and Dnieper north of the Sea of ​​Azov).

Later based on these tribal groups O formed western and eastern Slavs. Core of Western Slavs made up Sklavins and Wends, eastern – antes. Antes disappear from the historical arena towards the end 6 century. There are no mentions of the Eastern Slavs in the sources until 9 no century. However, the development of the Eastern Slavs was not interrupted; the Antes were only part of the Eastern Slavic tribes.

By the end of the 6th century, the leadership role of the Eastern Slavs passed into rosam (Russians ). The first mention of them dates back to the 6th century. They lived in Transnistria in the river basin. Roshi. IN 6-7 centuries, the name “Rus” displaces other tribal names and spreads to the entire territory of the forest-steppe zone of Eastern Europe, inhabited by Slavic tribes.

IN 6-8 centuries, the Eastern Slavs penetrated into the southern Russian steppes and Narva.

IN "Tales of Bygone Years" are mentioned 13 East Slavic tribes:

1. Polyane (Rus) — district of Kyiv;

2. Northerners – to the east of the glades in the basins of the Desna, Seim, Sura, and St. Donets rivers;

3.Ulichi – south of the clearings in the area between the Dnieper and Bug rivers;

4. D Revlyans– west of the glades in Pripyat Polesie;

5. Duleby(Volynians) – even further west in Volyn and Galician land;

6. Croats – extreme in the West, Transcarpathia;

7. Tvertsy – from the Dniester to the lower reaches of the Danube;

8. Dregovichi - in the north of the Drevlyans and glades along the river. Soju;

9. Rodimichi – east of Dregovichi;

10. Vyatichi - east of Dregovichi in dense forests along the river. Oke and beyond; 11. Krivichi – in the northern regions of the East Slavic territory in the upper reaches of the Dnieper, Volga, West. Dvina;

12. Polotsk residents - along the river Dvina;

13. Slovenians – river basin Dvina, Volkhov, Ilmen lakes.

Description of the ethnic appearance of the Rus preserved in texts in Byzantine and Arabic texts 6-10 centuries.

Christianization of the Eastern Slavs begins after their penetration into Balkan Peninsula and the seizure of Greek territories and the establishment of fairly close contacts with Byzantium. They were carried out through constant trade relations with Byzantium and the East, as well as through the service of Slavic warriors in the Byzantine troops, where they were distinguished by a high level of military art, bravery, courage and cruelty. It becomes active in 9 century under the Byzantine Patriarch Photius. By this time, the constant conflicts between Byzantium and the Slavic tribes were replaced by the desire of the Byzantine emperors to establish a relationship of mutually beneficial cooperation and even attract the Slavs to colonize the uninhabited territories of the Greek world. During this period, the Slavs penetrated not only into northern, but also into central and southern Greece, Crete and southern Italy. In the mid-8th century in texts medieval Europe Macedonia is called “Sclavinia”, and the south of the Peloponnese is called “Slavic land” (slavinia terra).

In the 9th century – begins simultaneously for Western and Eastern Slavs Christianization of the Slavic world. In 863, under the patronage of Photius, the mission of the “first teachers” of the Slavs, the Byzantine monks Cyril (Constantine) and Methodius, to Great Moravia was carried out. They created a Slavic charter and translated it into Slavic language a number of sacred books. IN 865 was implemented baptism of Bulgaria.

IN 864-866 – The first baptism of Rus' .

IN 869 – baptism of Serbs

In the 7th-8th centuries . The main occupation of the Slavs was primitive (slash-and-burn) agriculture. Crafts are developed everywhere (production of agricultural implements, weapons, carpentry). In the 9th century Cities with a permanent population, consisting mainly of merchants, artisans, and warriors of the prince (Kyiv, Novgorod, Beloozero, Rostov, Izborsk, Ladoga, Lyubech, Murom, Smolensk) appeared in the territories inhabited by Slavic tribes. IN 9-12 centuries, the two oldest government centers Eastern Slavs: Kievan Rus Kujava) Slavic tribes of middle Transnistria - Polyans, Northerners, Vyatichi) with a center in Kyiv and Novgorod Rus'(its core was the political union ( Slavia), it included the tribes Chud, Slovene, Merya, Krivichi) with their center in Novgorod.

Slavs- one of the largest groups European population, having indigenous (autochthonous) origin. The Slavs formed as a separate ethnic community at the turn of the century new era. The first written mentions can be found in the works of Roman chroniclers of the 1st-2nd centuries. - Pliny the Elder, Tacitus, Ptolemy.

Settlement of the Slavs

Many modern scientists believe that the first Slavic tribes occupied the territory between the Vistula and the Dnieper. During the period of the Great Migration of Peoples (II-VI centuries), they populated a significant territory of Europe, dividing into three branches:

• Western (Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Lusatian Serbs, Kashubians);
• southern (Bulgarians, Croats, Serbs, Slovenes, Macedonians, Bosnians, Montenegrins);
• Eastern (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians).

Great Migration- a term denoting a set of movements European peoples in the IV-VII centuries, most which was due to the pressure of the Huns, who came to Europe from the Asian steppes in the middle of the 4th century.

They occupied the territory from Lake Ilmen in the north to the Black Sea steppes in the south, and from the Carpathian Mountains in the west to the Volga in the east. In the chronicles there are references to 13 different tribal groups of the Eastern Slavs (Polyans, Northerners, Radimichi, Krivichi, Ilmen Slovenes, Dregovichi, Tivertsy, Dulebs, White Croats, Volynians, Buzhans, Ulichs, Polo-chans). They all had common ethnic features.

Neighbors of the Slavs

The formation of the East Slavic ethnic group and its culture was significantly influenced by the neighbors of the Slavs. Ethnic contacts of the Eastern Slavs in the VI-VIII centuries. were: in Northern Europe - Finno-Ugrians(chud, all, muroma, etc.); in Eastern Europe - Balts(ancestors of Latvians, Lithuanians); in Asia - Iranian tribes(Scythians, Sarmatians). Contacts with Avars, Bulgarians, Khazars, Vikings. From the 5th century Relations between the Eastern Slavs and the Byzantine Empire are established.

Settlement of the Eastern Slavs

Polyana and Ilmen Slovenes - the largest East Slavic tribes early Middle Ages. Kiev (II-V centuries) and Penkovskaya (VI - early VIII centuries) archaeological cultures are the first archaeological cultures of the Eastern Slavs.

Slavic occupations

The economic system of the Eastern Slavs was based on agriculture(slash-and-burn and fallow) and cattle breeding. Two-field and three-field crop rotations in agriculture became common in the Slavic lands of the 7th-8th centuries, replacing slash-and-burn, in which the land was cleared from under the forest, used until exhaustion, and then abandoned. There is also information about the occupation of the Slavs fishing, beekeeping(collecting honey from wild bees), there were various types crafts(blacksmithing, weaving, pottery), intensively developed trade.

Social order

The development of society occurred in the direction from the primitive community in the first centuries of our era to the neighboring community. Initially, the Eastern Slavs were united on the basis consanguinity. At the head of the clan was elder. Clan ties are being replaced by territorial ones. Consanguinity changed neighborhood community - rope(world). Private property already existed, but land, forests and livestock remained in common ownership.

Gradually increased the role of nobility and leaders who enriched themselves during the wars. This caused property stratification. Period VIII - early IX centuries. V historical science called military democracy - This is a transitional period from primitiveness to statehood. Her signs: participation of all members of the tribal union (men) in solving public problems; national assembly (veche) as the highest authority; availability people's militia. Ruling layer: old tribal aristocracy ( leaders, priests, elders) and members of the community who got rich from the exploitation of slaves and neighbors. Patriarchal slavery took place (when slaves were part of the family that owned them).

Beliefs

Played a significant role in the life of the East Slavic tribes paganism, which for a long time acted as the basis of their spiritual and material culture. Most modern experts attribute the pagan beliefs of the Slavs to animism, since Slavic deities, as a rule, personified different forces nature. The main gods of the Slavs include:

• Perun - god of thunder, lightning, war;
• Svarog - god of fire;
• Veles is the patron of cattle breeding;
• Mokosh is a goddess who protected the female part of the tribe;
• Dazhdbog (Yarilo) - god of the sun.

Paganism- polytheism, belief in many gods. The gods of paganism personified the forces of nature; at the same time, spirits, demons, etc. were revered. The Magi were ministers of the pagan religious cult of the pre-Christian period. It was believed that the Magi could influence the forces of nature, predict the future and heal people. Animism is the belief in the existence of souls and spirits, the animation of all nature.

Origin and settlement of the Slavs. IN modern science There are several points of view on the origin of the Eastern Slavs. According to the first, the Slavs are the indigenous population of Eastern Europe. They come from the creators of the Zarubinets and Chernyakhov archaeological cultures who lived here in the early Iron Age. According to the second point of view (now more widespread), the Slavs moved to the East European Plain from Central Europe, and more specifically - from the upper reaches of the Vistula, Oder, Elbe and Danube. From this territory, which was the ancient ancestral home of the Slavs, they settled throughout Europe. The Eastern Slavs moved from the Danube to the Carpathians, and from there to the Dnieper.

The first written evidence about the Slavs dates back to the 1st-2nd centuries. AD They were reported by Roman, Arab, and Byzantine sources. Ancient authors (Roman writer and statesman Pliny the Elder, historian Tacitus, geographer Ptolemy) mention the Slavs under the name of the Wends.

First information about political history Slavs date back to the 4th century. AD From the Baltic coast, the German tribes of the Goths made their way to the Northern Black Sea region. The Gothic leader Germanarich was defeated by the Slavs. His successor Vinithar deceived 70 Slavic elders led by Bus and crucified them (8 centuries later, unknown author "Tales about Igor's Campaign" mentioned "Busovo time").

A special place in the life of the Slavs was occupied by relations with nomadic peoples steppes. At the end of the 4th century. the Gothic tribal union was defeated by the Turkic-speaking tribes of the Huns, who came from Central Asia. In their advance to the west, the Huns also carried away some of the Slavs.

In sources of the 6th century. Slavs for the first time perform under their own name. According to the Gothic historian Jordan and the Byzantine historical writer Procopius of Caesarea, the Wends at that time were divided into two main groups: (eastern) and Slavins (western). It was in the VI century. the Slavs declared themselves as strong and warlike people. They fought with Byzantium and played a major role in breaking the Danube border of the Byzantine Empire, settling in the VI-VIII centuries. the entire Balkan Peninsula. During the resettlement, the Slavs mixed with the local population (Baltic, Finno-Ugric, later Sarmatian and other tribes); as a result of assimilation, they developed linguistic and cultural characteristics.

- the ancestors of Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians - occupied the territory from the Carpathian Mountains in the west to the Middle Oka and the upper reaches of the Don in the east, from the Neva and Lake Ladoga in the north to the Middle Dnieper region in the south. In the VI-IX centuries. The Slavs united into communities that had not only a tribal, but also a territorial and political character. Tribal unions are a stage on the path to formation. The chronicle story names one and a half dozen associations of Eastern Slavs (Polyans, Northerners, Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Vyatichi, Krivichi, etc.). These unions included 120-150 separate tribes, whose names have already been lost. Each tribe, in turn, consisted of many clans. The Slavs were forced to unite into alliances by the need to protect themselves from attacks by nomadic tribes and to establish trade relations.

Economic activities of the Eastern Slavs. The main occupation of the Slavs was agriculture. However, it was not arable, but slash-and-burn and fallow.

Slash-and-burn farming was common in the forest belt. Trees were cut down, they withered on the roots, and they were burned. After this, the stumps were uprooted, the ground was fertilized with ash, loosened (without plowing) and used until exhaustion. The area was fallow for 25-30 years.

Shifting farming was practiced in the forest-steppe zone. The grass was burned, the resulting ash was fertilized, then loosened and used until exhaustion. Since burning grass cover produced less ash than burning forest, the sites had to be changed after 6-8 years.

The Slavs were also engaged in animal husbandry, beekeeping (collecting honey from wild bees), and fishing, which had auxiliary significance. Hunting for squirrel, marten, and sable played an important role; its purpose was the extraction of furs. Furs, honey, and wax were exchanged for fabrics and jewelry mainly in Byzantium. Main trade road Ancient Rus' became the path “from the Varangians to the Greeks”: Neva - Lake Ladoga - Volkhov - Ilmen Lake - Lovat - Dnieper - Black Sea.

State of the Eastern Slavs in the 6th-8th century

Social structure of the Eastern Slavs. In the VII-IX centuries. among the Eastern Slavs there was a process of decomposition of the tribal system: the transition from tribal community to the neighbor's. The community members lived in half-dugouts designed for one family. Private property already existed, but land, forests and livestock remained in common ownership.

At this time, tribal nobility emerged - leaders and elders. They surrounded themselves with squads, i.e. armed force, independent of the will of the people's assembly (veche) and capable of forcing ordinary community members to obey. Each tribe had its own prince. Word "prince" comes from common Slavic "knez", meaning "leader". (V century), reigning among the Polyan tribe. The Russian chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years” called him the founder of Kyiv. Thus, the first signs of statehood were already appearing in Slavic society.

Artist Vasnetsov. "Prince's Court".

Religion, life and customs of the Eastern Slavs. The ancient Slavs were pagans. They believed in evil and good spirits. A pantheon has emerged Slavic gods, each of which personified various forces of nature or reflected social relations of that time. The most important gods of the Slavs were Perun - the god of thunder, lightning, war, Svarog - the god of fire, Veles - the patron of cattle breeding, Mokosh - the goddess who protected the female part of the tribe. The sun god was especially revered, who was called differently by different tribes: Dazhd-bog, Yarilo, Khoros, which indicates the absence of stable Slavic inter-tribal unity.

Unknown artist. "The Slavs tell fortunes before the battle."

The Slavs lived in small villages along the banks of rivers. In some places, to protect themselves from the enemy, villages were fenced with a wall around which a ditch was dug. This place was called a city.

Eastern Slavs in ancient times

The Slavs were hospitable and good-natured. Each wanderer was considered a dear guest. According to Slavic customs, it was possible to have several wives, but only the rich had more than one, because... For each wife, a ransom had to be paid to the bride's parents. Often, when a husband died, the wife, proving her fidelity, killed herself. The custom of burning the dead and erecting large earthen mounds - mounds - over funeral pyres was widespread. The more noble the deceased, the higher the hill was built. After the burial, a “funeral funeral” was celebrated, i.e. they organized feasts, war games and horse races in honor of the deceased.

Birth, wedding, death - all these events in a person’s life were accompanied by spell rituals. The Slavs had an annual cycle of agricultural holidays in honor of the sun and various seasons. The purpose of all rituals was to ensure the harvest and health of people, as well as livestock. In the villages there were idols depicting deities to whom “the whole world” (that is, the whole community) made sacrifices. Groves, rivers, and lakes were considered sacred. Each tribe had a common sanctuary, where members of the tribe gathered for especially solemn holidays and to resolve important matters.

Artist Ivanov S.V. - “Housing of the Eastern Slavs.”

Religion, life and social and economic system of the Eastern Slavs (diagram-table):

In the VII-IX centuries. among the Eastern Slavs there was a process of decomposition of the tribal system: a transition from a tribal community to a neighboring one. The community members lived in half-dugouts designed for one family. Private property already existed, but land, forests and livestock remained in common ownership.
At this time, tribal nobility emerged - leaders and elders. They surrounded themselves with squads, i.e. armed force, independent of the will of the people's assembly (veche) and capable of forcing ordinary community members to obey. Each tribe had its own prince. The word "prince" comes from the common Slavic " knez" meaning "leader"». One of these tribal princes was Kiy (5th century), who reigned among the Polyan tribe. The Russian chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years” called him the founder of Kyiv. Thus, the first signs of statehood were already appearing in Slavic society.

Religion, life and customs of the Eastern Slavs. The ancient Slavs were pagans. They believed in evil and good spirits. A pantheon of Slavic gods emerged, each of which personified various forces of nature or reflected the social relations of that time. The most important gods of the Slavs were Perun - the god of thunder, lightning, war, Svarog - the god of fire, Veles - the patron of cattle breeding, Mokosh - the goddess who protected the female part of the tribe. The sun god was especially revered, who was called differently by different tribes: Dazhd-bog, Yarilo, Khoros, which indicates the absence of stable Slavic inter-tribal unity.

The Slavs lived in small villages along the banks of rivers. In some places, to protect themselves from the enemy, villages were fenced with a wall around which a ditch was dug. This place was called a city.

The Slavs were hospitable and good-natured. Each wanderer was considered a dear guest. According to Slavic customs, it was possible to have several wives, but only the rich had more than one, because... For each wife, a ransom had to be paid to the bride's parents. Often, when a husband died, the wife, proving her fidelity, killed herself. The custom of burning the dead and erecting large earthen mounds over funeral pyres was widespread - mounds. The more noble the deceased, the higher the hill was built. After the burial, a “funeral funeral” was celebrated, i.e. they organized feasts, war games and horse races in honor of the deceased.
Birth, wedding, death- all these events in a person’s life were accompanied by spell rituals. The Slavs had an annual cycle of agricultural holidays in honor of the sun and various seasons. The purpose of all rituals was to ensure the harvest and health of people, as well as livestock. In the villages there were idols depicting deities to whom “the whole world” (that is, the whole community) made sacrifices. Groves, rivers, and lakes were considered sacred. Each tribe had a common sanctuary, where members of the tribe gathered for especially solemn holidays and to resolve important matters.

On the settlement of East Slavic tribes The ancient Russian chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years” can tell a lot. She tells us about the Polyans who lived in the Middle Dnieper region in the Kyiv region, their neighbors - the Drevlyans, who settled in the swampy and wooded Pripyat Polesie. At the northern end of the East Slavic world lived the Ilmen Slovenes, who settled along the shores of Lake Ilmen; the Dregovichi lived between Pripyat and the Western Dvina; their neighbors were Krivichi, a huge array of which over time split into three branches: the Krivichi of Smolensk, Polotsk and Pskov; the neighbors of the clearings on the side of the steppe were northerners; the Radimichi lived in the Sozh River basin, and the Vyatichi lived in the Oka basin. At the southernmost tip of the East Slavic territory, almost on the Black Sea coast, the Ulichs and Tivertsy settled.

For a long time, historians did not trust this chronicle geographical scheme, but archeology at the beginning of the 20th century confirmed it. Helped here... women's jewelry. It turned out that one of the most common types of female jewelry among the Eastern Slavs - temple rings - varies throughout the Russian Plain. It turned out that certain varieties of these decorations correspond to a certain settlement of one or another East Slavic “tribe”. Later, these observations were confirmed by the study of other elements of the material culture of the Eastern Slavs.

Spread over such a vast space, the Eastern Slavs encountered and entered into one relationship or another with the peoples who inhabited Eastern Europe before them or came here at the same time. It is known that the Balts lived right up to the area of ​​modern Moscow, as evidenced by the study of toponymy ( geographical names), which turn out to be very stable, persisting for centuries. The regions of the northeast were inhabited by Finno-Ugric peoples, and the south has long been inhabited by Iranian-speaking tribes - descendants of the Sarmatians already known to us. Military clashes gave way to periods of peaceful relations, assimilation processes took place: the Slavs seemed to draw these peoples into themselves, but they themselves changed, acquiring new skills, new elements of material culture. The synthesis and interaction of cultures is the most important phenomenon during the settlement of the Slavs across the Russian Plain, perfectly illustrated by data from archaeological excavations.

Relations with those ethnic groups were more complex, who were able to create quite strong tribal unions or even early state formations. One of these formations in the middle of the 7th century. was created by the Bulgarians. As a result of internal turmoil and external pressure, part of the Bulgarians, led by Khan Asparuh, migrated to the Danube, where they subjugated the local South Slavic tribes. Another part of the Bulgarians, led by Khan Batbai, moved to the northeast and settled in the middle reaches of the Volga and on the lower Kama, creating the state of Bulgaria. This state has long posed a real threat to the Eastern Slavs.

The Khazars were also Turkic tribes, which in the second half of the 7th century. began to press the Bulgarians. Over time, they also settled on the earth, creating their own early state formation, which covered vast territories of the Northern Caucasus, the Lower Volga region, the Northern Black Sea region and part of the Crimea. Center Khazar Khaganate, as this formation came to be called (the Khazar ruler was called the kagan), was located in the lower reaches of the Volga. There were not many ethnic Khazars-Turks, but the main population consisted of representatives of the so-called Saltovo-Mayak culture, which consisted of representatives of the multi-ethnic population of Eastern Europe, including the Slavs. Basically, the population of the Kaganate was pagan, but the Khazar elite adopted Judaism. Part of the East Slavic tribes, adjacent to the (very vague) borders of the Kaganate, had, according to the chronicle, to pay tribute to the Khazars.

A terrible danger for the Eastern Slavs also hung from the northwest. The meager land of the Scandinavian Peninsula pushed large detachments of “seekers of glory and prey, drinkers of the seas” into Europe - the Normans, who were called in Rus' Varangians. The troops were led by Vikings, who mostly came from noble families. Seasoned in battles and sea voyages, armed with an effective weapon - an ax with a pointed bayonet, the Normans were a terrible danger for many European countries. The peak of Varangian raids on Slavic territories occurred in the 9th century.

In the fight against enemies The military organization of the Slavic population, whose roots go back centuries, strengthened. Like many other peoples, this is a system of hundreds, when each tribe fielded a hundred warriors led by a “sotsky,” and the union of tribes was, apparently, supposed to field a thousand, which is where the position of “thousand” comes from. The prince was one of the military leaders. The word “prince” is a common Slavic word, borrowed, according to linguists, from the ancient German language. This word originally meant the head of a clan, an elder. From sources we know about tribal leaders-princes. Over time, with the growth of the population, the tribe, divided into several clans, split into a number of related tribes, which formed a tribal union. Such tribal unions most likely were the chronicle “tribes” of the Polyans, Drevlyans, Dregovichi, etc. At the head of these unions were leaders towering above the leaders of the individual tribes that were part of the union.

Historical evidence The chronicle legend about Kiy and his descendants contains information about such princes. The chronicle says: “And to this day the brothers (Kiy, Shchek and Khoriv. - Author) often kept their reign in the fields, and in ancient times, theirs, and the Dregovichi, theirs, and their slavs in Novgorod, and the other in Polot, etc. Polotsk residents."

The Arab historian Masudi reports about the ancient Slavic prince Majak, and the Gothic historian Jordan, already known to us, about Prince God. Thus, in addition to the leaders of the tribes, there were also leaders of the tribal unions. These princes had different functions. The prince of the tribe could be elected for a time, during the period of hostilities. His power is small compared to the power of the leader of the tribal union. The power of the latter is constant, the functions are more varied. Such a prince had to deal with the internal construction of the union, collect, organize and lead the army, and generally be in charge of foreign policy. These princes performed some religious and judicial functions. In this they were helped by the council of elders, or, as ancient Russian monuments often call it, the city elders (chronicles use the terms “elders” and “city elders” as equivalent). In chronicle reports, the city elders act as authorized leaders of society, with whom the princes were forced to reckon. Even in the second half of the 10th century. - the turning point of Vladimir’s reign - they still participated in governance and influenced the course of events. The elders-advisers took part in the princely Duma, princely feasts, which performed important social function- communication between the population and the prince. The elders of the city were the tribal nobility who dealt with civil affairs.

The prince was assisted in military affairs by his squad. It also originates in the depths of the primitive communal system, without in any way violating the pre-class social structure. The squad grew together with the prince and, like the prince, performed certain socially useful functions. The prince among the warriors was not a master, but the first among equals.

Another important element the socio-political structure was stronger. Tribal veche - people's assemblies - originate in ancient times. The Byzantine writer-historian Procopius of Caesarea (VI century) wrote about them, telling about the Antes and Sklavens. The study of the oldest documents about the veche indicates that the entire population, including the nobility, took part in it. The People's Assembly functioned continuously throughout the 9th-11th centuries, but over time, as tribal ties disintegrated, it became more active. The fact is that clan ties fetter a person; clan protection, which in ancient times was a blessing for any member of the clan, over time becomes an obstacle to the development of democratic government.

This triad - prince, council of elders and popular assembly - can be found in many societies that experienced an archaic stage of development.