Biography of famous writers of the 19th century. Great Russian writers and poets: names, portraits, creativity
"Truly, this was the Golden Age of our literature,
the period of her innocence and bliss!..”
M. A. Antonovich
M. Antonovich in his article called the beginning of the 19th century, the period of creativity of A. S. Pushkin and N. V. Gogol, the “golden age of literature.” Subsequently, this definition began to characterize the literature of the entire 19th century - right up to the works of A.P. Chekhov and L.N. Tolstoy.
What are the main features of Russian classical literature this period?
Sentimentalism, fashionable at the beginning of the century, gradually fades into the background - the formation of romanticism begins, and from the middle of the century realism rules the roost.
New types of heroes appear in literature: the “little man”, who most often dies under the pressure of the accepted foundations of society, and the “superfluous man” - this is a string of images, starting with Onegin and Pechorin.
Continuing the traditions of satirical depiction, proposed by M. Fonvizin, in the literature of the 19th century, satirical depiction of vices modern society becomes one of the central motives. Satire often takes grotesque forms. Vivid examples are Gogol’s “The Nose” or “The History of a City” by M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin.
Another distinctive feature of the literature of this period is its acute social orientation. Writers and poets are increasingly turning to socio-political topics, often plunging into the field of psychology. This leitmotif permeates the works of I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy. Appears new form- Russian realistic novel, with its deep psychologism, severe criticism of reality, irreconcilable hostility with existing foundations and loud calls for renewal.
Well main reason, which prompted many critics to call the 19th century the golden age of Russian culture: the literature of this period, despite a number of unfavorable factors, had a powerful influence on the development of world culture as a whole. Absorbing all the best that was offered world literature, Russian literature was able to remain original and unique.
Russian writers of the 19th century
V.A. Zhukovsky- Pushkin’s mentor and his Teacher. It is Vasily Andreevich who is considered the founder of Russian romanticism. We can say that Zhukovsky “prepared” the ground for Pushkin’s bold experiments, since he was the first to expand the scope of the poetic word. After Zhukovsky, the era of democratization of the Russian language began, which Pushkin so brilliantly continued.
Selected poems:
A.S. Griboyedov went down in history as the author of one work. But what! Masterpiece! Phrases and quotes from the comedy “Woe from Wit” have long become popular, and the work itself is considered the first realistic comedy in the history of Russian literature.
Analysis of the work:
A.S. Pushkin. He was called differently: A. Grigoriev argued that “Pushkin is our everything!”, F. Dostoevsky “a great and still incomprehensible Forerunner,” and Emperor Nicholas I admitted that, in his opinion, Pushkin is “the most clever man in Russia." Simply put, this is a Genius.
Pushkin’s greatest merit is that he radically changed the Russian literary language, ridding it of pretentious abbreviations like “mlad, breg, sweet”, from the absurd “zephyrs”, “Psyches”, “Cupids”, so revered in pompous elegies, from borrowings, which were so abundant in Russian poetry at that time. Pushkin brought colloquial vocabulary, craft slang, and elements of Russian folklore to the pages of printed publications.
A. N. Ostrovsky pointed out another important achievement of this genius poet. Before Pushkin, Russian literature was imitative, stubbornly imposing traditions and ideals alien to our people. Pushkin “gave the Russian writer the courage to be Russian,” “revealed the Russian soul.” In his stories and novels, for the first time the theme of the morality of social ideals of that time is raised so clearly. And with the light hand of Pushkin, the main character now becomes an ordinary “little man” - with his thoughts and hopes, desires and character.
Analysis of works:
M.Yu. Lermontov- bright, mysterious, with a touch of mysticism and an incredible thirst for will. All his work is a unique fusion of romanticism and realism. Moreover, both directions do not oppose at all, but rather complement each other. This man went down in history as a poet, writer, playwright and artist. He wrote 5 plays: the most famous is the drama “Masquerade”.
And among prose works, a real diamond of creativity was the novel “A Hero of Our Time” - the first realistic novel in prose in the history of Russian literature, where for the first time the writer tries to trace the “dialectic of the soul” of his hero, mercilessly subjecting him psychological analysis. This innovative creative method Lermontov will be used in the future by many Russian and foreign writers.
Selected works:
N.V. Gogol is known as a writer and playwright, but it is no coincidence that one of his most famous works, “Dead Souls,” is considered a poem. There is no other such Master of Words in world literature. Gogol's language is melodious, incredibly bright and imaginative. This was most clearly manifested in his collection “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka”.
On the other hand, N.V. Gogol is considered the founder of the “natural school”, with its satire bordering on the grotesque, accusatory motives and ridicule of human vices.
Selected works:
I.S. Turgenev- the greatest Russian novelist who established the canons classic novel. He continues the traditions established by Pushkin and Gogol. He often turns to the theme of the “extra person,” trying to convey the relevance and significance of social ideas through the fate of his hero.
Turgenev’s merit also lies in the fact that he became the first propagandist of Russian culture in Europe. This is a prose writer who opened the world of the Russian peasantry, intelligentsia and revolutionaries to foreign countries. And the string of female characters in his novels became the pinnacle of the writer’s skill.
Selected works:
A.N. Ostrovsky- outstanding Russian playwright. I. Goncharov most accurately expressed Ostrovsky’s merits, recognizing him as the creator of the Russian folk theater. The plays of this writer became a “school of life” for playwrights of the next generation. And the Moscow Maly Theater, where most of the plays of this talented writer were staged, proudly calls itself the “House of Ostrovsky.”
Selected works:
I.A.Goncharov continued to develop the traditions of Russian realistic novel. The author of the famous trilogy, who was able to describe like no other major vice Russian people are lazy. With the light hand of the writer, the term “Oblomovism” appeared.
Selected works:
L.N. Tolstoy- a real block of Russian literature. His novels are recognized as the pinnacle of the art of writing novels. L. Tolstoy's style of presentation and creative method are still considered the standard of the writer's skill. And his ideas of humanism had a huge influence on the development of humanistic ideas throughout the world.
Selected works:
N.S. Leskov- a talented successor to the traditions of N. Gogol. He made a huge contribution to the development of new genre forms in literature, such as pictures from life, rhapsodies, and incredible events.
Selected works:
N.G. Chernyshevsky — outstanding writer and a literary critic who proposed his theory about the aesthetics of the relationship between art and reality. This theory became the standard for the literature of the next several generations.
Selected works:
F.M. Dostoevsky- a brilliant writer whose psychological novels known all over the world. Dostoevsky is often called the forerunner of such cultural movements as existentialism and surrealism.
Selected works:
M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin- the greatest satirist who brought the art of denunciation, ridicule and parody to the heights of mastery.
Selected works:
A.P. Chekhov. With this name, historians traditionally end the era of the golden age of Russian literature. Chekhov was recognized throughout the world during his lifetime. His stories have become a standard for short story writers. A Chekhov's plays had a huge influence on the development of world drama.
Selected works:
By the end of the 19th century, the tradition of critical realism began to gradually fade away. In a society thoroughly permeated with pre-revolutionary sentiments, mystical, partly even decadent, sentiments came into fashion. They became the forerunner of the emergence of a new literary movement - symbolism and marked the beginning of a new period in the history of Russian literature - the Silver Age of poetry.
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Books
- Russian poets of the 19th century. Reader, . The proposed anthology aims to give students of historical and philological faculties and literature teachers the most complete understanding of the development of Russian poetry of the 19th century according to...
- Russian poets of the 19th century. The proposed anthology aims to give students of historical and philological faculties and literature teachers the most complete understanding of the development of Russian poetry of the 19th century according to...
Literature in the 19th century in Russia is associated with the rapid flowering of culture. Spiritual upliftment and importance are reflected in immortal works writers and poets. This article is dedicated to representatives of the Golden Age of Russian literature and the main trends of this period.
Historical events
Literature in the 19th century in Russia gave birth to such great names as Baratynsky, Batyushkov, Zhukovsky, Lermontov, Fet, Yazykov, Tyutchev. And above all Pushkin. A number of historical events marked this period. The development of Russian prose and poetry was influenced by the Patriotic War of 1812, the death of the great Napoleon, and the passing of Byron. The English poet, like the French commander, for a long time dominated the minds of revolutionary-minded people in Russia. And Russian-Turkish war, as well as echoes french revolution, heard in all corners of Europe - all these events turned into a powerful catalyst for advanced creative thought.
While in Western countries they carried out revolutionary movements and the spirit of freedom and equality began to emerge, Russia strengthened its monarchical power and suppressed uprisings. This could not go unnoticed by artists, writers and poets. Literature of the early 19th century in Russia is a reflection of the thoughts and experiences of the advanced strata of society.
Classicism
Underneath this aesthetic direction understand art style, which originated in European culture in the second half of the 18th century. Its main features are rationalism and adherence to strict canons. Classicism of the 19th century in Russia was also distinguished by its appeal to ancient forms and the principle of three unities. Literature, however, in this artistic style began to lose ground already at the beginning of the century. Classicism was gradually replaced by such movements as sentimentalism and romanticism.
Masters artistic word began to create their works in new genres. Works in the style of historical novels, romantic stories, ballads, odes, poems, landscape, philosophical and love lyrics gained popularity.
Realism
Literature in the 19th century in Russia is associated primarily with the name of Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. Closer to the thirties, realistic prose took a strong position in his work. It should be said that the founder of this literary movement in Russia is Pushkin.
Journalism and satire
Some features European culture The 18th century was inherited by the literature of the 19th century in Russia. We can briefly outline the main features of poetry and prose of this period - satirical nature and journalisticism. The tendency to depict human vices and shortcomings of society is observed in the works of writers who created their works in the forties. In literary criticism, it was later determined that the authors of satirical and journalistic prose were united. “Natural school” was the name of this artistic style, which, however, is also called “Gogol’s school.” Other representatives of this literary movement are Nekrasov, Dal, Herzen, Turgenev.
Criticism
The ideology of the “natural school” was substantiated by the critic Belinsky. The principles of the representatives of this literary movement became the denunciation and eradication of vices. Social issues became a characteristic feature of their work. The main genres are essay, socio-psychological novel and social story.
Literature in the 19th century in Russia developed under the influence of the activities of various associations. It was in the first quarter of this century that there was a significant rise in the journalistic field. Belinsky had a huge influence. This man had an extraordinary ability to sense the poetic gift. It was he who was the first to recognize the talent of Pushkin, Lermontov, Gogol, Turgenev, Dostoevsky.
Pushkin and Gogol
The literature of the 19th and 20th centuries in Russia would have been completely different and, of course, not so bright without these two authors. They had a huge influence on the development of prose. And many of the elements that they introduced into literature have become classical norms. Pushkin and Gogol not only developed such a direction as realism, but also created completely new artistic types. One of them is the image of the “little man”, which later received its development not only in the works of Russian authors, but also in foreign literature nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Lermontov
This poet also had a significant influence on the development of Russian literature. After all, it was he who created the concept of “hero of time.” With his light hand it entered not only literary criticism, but also public life. Lermontov also took part in the development of the psychological novel genre.
The entire period of the nineteenth century is famous for the names of talented great personalities who worked in the field of literature (both prose and poetry). Russian authors at the end of the eighteenth century adopted some of the merits of their Western colleagues. But due to a sharp leap in the development of culture and art, it eventually became an order of magnitude higher than the Western European one that existed at that time. The works of Pushkin, Turgenev, Dostoevsky and Gogol have become the property of world culture. The works of Russian writers became the model on which German, English and American authors later relied.
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Presentation on the topic: Writers and poets of the 19th century
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Writers and poets of the 19th century 1. Aksakov S.T. 2. Ershov P.P. 3. Zhukovsky V.A. 4. Koltsov A.V. 5. Krylov I.A. 6. Lermontov M.Yu. 7. Marshak S.Ya. 8. Nekrasov N.A. 9. Nikitin I.S. 10. Prishvin M.M. 11. Pushkin A.S. 12. Tolstoy L.N. 13. Tolstoy A.K. 14. Tyutchev F.I. 15. Ushinsky K.D. 16. Fet A.A. 17. Chekhov A.P. Svetlana Aleksandrovna Lyalina, primary school teacher, Kulebaki, Nizhny Novgorod region
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Sergei Trofimovich Aksakov Famous Russian writer. Born into a noble family of the famous Shimon family. Love for nature - future writer inherited from his father. Peasant labor aroused in him not only compassion, but also respect. His book "Family Chronicle" was continued in "The Childhood Years of Bagrov's Grandson."
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Pyotr Pavlovich Ershov Born on March 6, 1815 in the Tobolsk province into the family of an official. Russian poet, writer, playwright. He was the initiator of the creation of an amateur gymnasium theater. He worked as a director in the theatre. He wrote several plays for the theater: “ Rural holiday", "Suvorov and the stationmaster". Ershov became famous thanks to his fairy tale “ The Little Humpbacked Horse»
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Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky Born on January 29 in the village of Mishenskoye, Tula province. Father, Afanasy Ivanovich Bunin, landowner, owner of the village. Mishensky; his mother, Turkish Salha, was taken to Russia as a prisoner. At the age of 14, she was taken to Moscow and sent to the Noble boarding school. I lived and studied there for 3 years. Studied Russian and foreign literature. In 1812 he was in Borodino and wrote about the heroes of the battle. His books: Little Thumb, There is no dearer sky, The Lark.
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Alexey Vasilievich Koltsov A.V. Koltsov is a Russian poet. Born on October 15, 1809 in Voronezh, into a merchant family. Father was a merchant. Alexey Koltsov delved into the various economic concerns of a villager from the inside: gardening and arable farming, cattle breeding and forestry. In the boy’s gifted, empathetic nature, such a life fostered a breadth of soul and versatility of interests, direct knowledge of village life, peasant labor and folk culture. From the age of nine, Koltsov studied reading and writing at home and showed such extraordinary abilities that in 1820 he was able to enter the district school, bypassing the parish school. Started writing at the age of 16. He wrote a lot about work, about the land, about nature: Mower, Harvest, etc.
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Ivan Andreevich Krylov I.A. Krylov is a great fabulist. Born on February 2, 1769 in Moscow in the family of a poor army captain, who received the rank of officer only after thirteen years of military service. Krylov was 10 years old when his father died and he had to work. Russian writer, fabulist, academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. In St. Petersburg in Summer Garden there is a bronze monument where the fabulist is surrounded by animals. His works: Swan, Pike and Cancer. Siskin and Dove. A Crow and a fox.
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Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov was born in Moscow in the family of captain Yuri Petrovich Lermontov and Maria Mikhailovna Lermontova, the only daughter and heiress of the Penza landowner E.A. Arsenyeva. Lermontov spent his childhood on Arsenyeva’s estate “Tarkhany” in the Penza province. The boy received a home education in the capital, and since childhood he was fluent in French and German languages. In the summer of 1825, my grandmother took Lermontov to the Caucasus; childhood impressions of the Caucasian nature and life of the mountain peoples remained in his early work. Then the family moves to Moscow and Lermontov is enrolled in the 4th grade of the Moscow University Noble Boarding School, where he receives a liberal arts education.
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Samuil Yakovlevich Marshak S.Ya. Marshak is a Russian poet. Born on October 22, 1887 in Voronezh in the family of a factory technician and a talented inventor. At the age of 4 he wrote poetry himself. A good translator from English, Russian poet. Marshak knew M. Gorky. Studied in England at the University of London. During the holidays, I traveled a lot on foot around England, listening to English folk songs. Even then he began working on translations of English works.
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Nikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov Nikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov is a famous Russian poet. Descended from the nobility, once rich family. Born on November 22, 1821 in Podolsk province. Nekrasov had 13 brothers and sisters. The poet spent his entire childhood and youth on Nekrasov’s family estate, the village of Greshneva, Yaroslavl province, on the banks of the Volga. He saw people's hard work. They pulled barges across the water. He dedicated many poems to the lives of people in Tsarist Russia: Green noise, Nightingales, Peasant children, Grandfather Mazai and the hares, Motherland, etc.
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Ivan Savvich Nikitin Russian poet, born in Voronezh to the sons of a wealthy merchant, owner of a candle factory. Nikitin studied at a theological school and seminary. I dreamed of graduating from university, but my family went bankrupt. Ivan Savvich continued his education himself. He composed poems: Rus', Morning, Meeting Winter, Swallow's Nest, Grandfather.
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Mikhail Mikhailovich Prishvin Mikhail Mikhailovich Prishvin was born on January 23, 1873 in the Oryol province near Yelets. Prishvin's father is from a native merchant family of the city of Yelets. Mikhail Mikhailovich is educated as an agronomist and writes a scientific book about potatoes. Later he leaves for the North to collect folklore from folk life. He loved nature very much. He knew the life of the forest and its inhabitants well. He knew how to convey his feelings to readers. He wrote: Protecting nature means protecting the Motherland! His books: Guys and Ducklings, Pantry of the Sun, Nature Calendar, etc.
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Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy Lev Nikolaevich is a great Russian writer. He wrote the first ABC and four Russian books for reading for children. IN Yasnaya Polyana opened a school and taught the children himself. He worked hard and loved work. He plowed the land himself, cut the grass, sewed boots, and built huts. His works: Stories about children, Kids, Filipok, Shark, Kitten, Lion and dog, Swans, old grandfather and granddaughters.
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Alexey Konstantinovich Tolstoy A.K. Tolstoy was born in St. Petersburg, and the future poet spent his childhood in Ukraine, on the estate of his uncle. While still a teenager, Tolstoy traveled abroad, to Germany and Italy. In 1834, Tolstoy was assigned as a “student” to the Moscow archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Since 1837 he served in the Russian mission in Germany in 1840. received service in St. Petersburg at the royal court. In 1843 - the court rank of chamber cadet. During Tolstoy's lifetime, the only collection of his poems was published (1867). Poems: The last snow is melting, Cranes, Forest Lake, autumn, etc.
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Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky was born on February 19, 1824 in Tula in the family of Dmitry Grigorievich Ushinsky, a retired officer, a small nobleman. Konstantin Dmitrievich's mother, Lyubov Stepanovna, died when he was 12 years old. Konstantin Dmitrievich was a teacher, he created books himself. He called them " Child's world" and "Native Word". Taught to love native people and nature. His works: The Scientist Bear, Four Wishes, Geese and Cranes, Eagle, How a Shirt Grew in a Field.
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Afanasy Afanasyevich Fet Afanasy Afanasyevich - Russian lyric poet, translator. Born in the Novoselki estate in the Oryol province. Since childhood I loved the poems of A.S. Pushkin. At the age of 14 he was taken to St. Petersburg to study. He showed his poems to Gogol. The first book was published in 1840. His poems: A Wonderful Picture, The Swallows Are Missing, Spring Rain. For the last 19 years of his life, he officially bore the surname Shenshin.
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Anton Pavlovich Chekhov Anton Pavlovich Chekhov is an outstanding Russian writer, playwright, and doctor by profession. Born on January 17, 1860 in Taganrog, Ekaterinoslav province. Early childhood Anton proceeded in endless church holidays, name day. On weekdays after school, he guarded his father’s shop, and at 5 am every day he got up to sing in the church choir. At first, Chekhov studied at a Greek school in Taganrog. At the age of 8, after two years of study, Chekhov entered the Taganrog gymnasium. In 1879 he graduated from high school in Taganrog. In the same year, he moved to Moscow and entered the medical faculty of Moscow University, where he studied with famous professors: Nikolai Sklifosovsky, Grigory Zakharyin and others. His works: White-fronted, Kashtanka, In Spring, Spring Waters, etc.
The 19th century is called the “Golden Age” of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. We should not forget that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin.
At the beginning of the 19th century, such a movement as classicism began to gradually fade away. Classicism – literary direction XVII – early XIX
centuries, based on imitation of ancient images. The main features of Russian classicism: appeal to images and forms ancient art ; heroes are clearly divided into positive and negative; The plot is usually based on love triangle
: heroine – hero-lover, second lover; At the end of the classical comedy, vice is always punished, and good triumphs; the principle of three unities is observed: time (the action lasts no more than a day), place, action. For example, we can cite Fonvizin’s comedy “The Minor.” In this comedy, Fonvizin tries to implement the main idea classicism – to re-educate the world with rational words. Positive heroes They talk a lot about morality, life at court, and the duty of a nobleman. Negative characters
become an illustration of inappropriate behavior. Behind the clash of personal interests, the social positions of the heroes are visible. The 19th century began with a flourishing sentimentalism and formation romanticism
● . These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. Sentimentalism − In the second half of the 18th century. V European literature a movement arises called sentimentalism (from French word sentimentalism, which means sensitivity). The name itself gives a clear idea of the essence and nature of the new phenomenon. The main feature, the leading quality human personality
● What was proclaimed was not reason, as was the case in classicism and the Enlightenment, but feeling, not mind, but heart... Romanticism − direction in European and American literature of the late 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. The epithet "romantic" in the 17th century served to characterize adventurous and heroic stories
The poetic works of poets E.A. come to the fore. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykova. The creativity of F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. However, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
A.S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila” in 1920. And his novel in verse “Eugene Onegin” was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin " Bronze Horseman"(1833), "Bakhchisarai Fountain", "Gypsies" ushered in the era of Russian romanticism.
Many poets and writers considered A. S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. His romantic poem “Mtsyri”, the poetic story “Demon”, and many romantic poems are known.
Along with poetry, prose began to develop. Prose writers at the beginning of the century were influenced by the English historical novels of W. Scott, the translations of which were extremely popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, under the influence of English historical novels, creates the story “The Captain's Daughter”, where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events: during the Pugachev rebellion. A.S. A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol outlined the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of “superfluous man”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called “little man” type, which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story “The Overcoat”, as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story “ Stationmaster».
Literature inherited its journalistic and satirical character from the 18th century. In the prose poem by N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls" the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys dead Souls, Various types landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices (the influence of classicism is evident). The comedy “The Inspector General” is based on the same plan. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict the vices and shortcomings of Russian society is a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical tendency in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol “The Nose”, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin “Gentlemen Golovlevs”, “The History of a City”. Since the middle of the 19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which was created against the backdrop of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I.
● Realism- In any work of fine literature, we distinguish two necessary elements: objective - the reproduction of phenomena given in addition to the artist, and subjective - something put into the work by the artist on his own. Focusing on a comparative assessment of these two elements, the theory in different eras- in connection not only with the course of development of art, but also with other various circumstances - gives higher value first one, then the other of them.
A crisis is brewing in the feudal system; there are strong contradictions between the authorities and common people. There is an urgent need to create realistic literature that is acutely responsive to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky denotes a new realistic direction in literature. His position is developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westerners and Slavophiles about the ways historical development Russia. Writers turn to socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. His works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. The socio-political, philosophical issues
. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism. The development of poetry subsides somewhat. It is worth noting the poetic works of Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce social issues into poetry. His poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'?” is known, as well as many poems that reflect on the difficult and hopeless life of the people. Literary process literary genre- a storyteller, as well as an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky.
The end of the 19th century was marked by the emergence of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realistic tradition began to fade away. It was replaced by so-called decadent literature, distinctive features which included mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence developed into symbolism. This opens new page in the history of Russian literature.
35) Creativity A.S. Pushkin.
Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin is the greatest Russian poet, rightfully considered as the creator of the modern Russian literary language, and his works as the standard of the language.
Even during his lifetime, the poet was called a genius, including in print; from the second half of the 1820s, he began to be considered “the first Russian poet” (not only among his contemporaries, but also among Russian poets of all times), and a real cult.
Childhood
In his childhood, Pushkin was greatly influenced by his uncle, Vasily Lvovich Pushkin, who knew several languages, was familiar with poets, and was himself no stranger to literary pursuits. Little 851513 Alexander was raised by French tutors, he learned to read early and already in childhood began to write poetry in French.
Summer months 1805-1810 the future poet usually spent time with his maternal grandmother, Maria Alekseevna Hannibal, in the village of Zakharovo near Moscow, near Zvenigorod. Early childhood impressions were reflected in Pushkin’s first works: the poems “The Monk”, 1813; "Bova", 1814; and in the Lyceum poems “Message to Yudin”, 1815, “Dream”, 1816.
At the age of 12, having received the rudiments of home education, Alexander was taken to study at a new educational institution that had just opened on October 19, 1811 - the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum near St. Petersburg, the place where the summer residence of the Russian tsars was located. The program of classes at the Lyceum was extensive, but not so deeply thought out. The students, however, were destined for a high government career and had the rights of graduates of a higher educational institution
The small number of students (30 people), the youth of a number of professors, the humane nature of their pedagogical ideas, oriented, at least among the best part of them, towards attention and respect for the personality of students, the absence of corporal punishment, a spirit of honor and camaraderie - all this created special atmosphere. Pushkin retained the Lyceum friendship and the cult of the Lyceum throughout his life. Lyceum students published handwritten journals and paid a lot of attention to their own literary creativity. Here the young poet experienced the events Patriotic War 1812, and also for the first time his poetic gift was discovered and highly appreciated.
In July 1814, Pushkin made his first appearance in print, in the journal Vestnik Evropy, published in Moscow. In the thirteenth issue the poem “To a Poet Friend” was published, signed under the pseudonym Alexander N.k.sh.p.
At the beginning of 1815, Pushkin reads his patriotic poem “Memoirs in Tsarskoe Selo” in the presence of Gabriel Derzhavin.
While still at the Lyceum, Pushkin was accepted into the Arzamas literary society, which opposed routine and archaism in literary matters. The atmosphere of free thought and revolutionary ideas largely determined later civil position poet.
Pushkin's early poetry conveyed a sense of the transience of life, which dictated the thirst for pleasure.
In 1816, the nature of Pushkin's lyrics underwent significant changes. Elegy becomes his main genre.
Youth
Pushkin was released from the Lyceum in June 1817 with the rank of collegiate secretary and assigned to the College of Foreign Affairs. However, the bureaucratic service is of little interest to the poet, and he plunges into the turbulent life of St. Petersburg: he becomes a regular visitor to the theater, takes part in meetings of the Arzamas literary society, and in 1819 becomes a member of the literary and theatrical community " Green lamp" Without taking part in the activities of the first secret organizations, Pushkin nevertheless had friendly ties with many img_127active members of the Decembrist societies, wrote sharp political epigrams and composed poems “To Chaadaev” (“To Chaadaev” (“Love, hope, quiet glory…”, 1818) imbued with the ideals of freedom) , “Liberty” (1818), “N. Ya. Pluskova" (1818), "Village" (1819). During these years, he was busy working on the poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila”, begun at the Lyceum and meeting the program guidelines of the literary society “Arzamas” on the need to create a national heroic poem. The poem was completed in May 1820 and upon publication provoked fierce responses from critics outraged by the decline of the high canon.
In the South (1820-1824)
In the spring of 1820, Pushkin was summoned to the military governor-general of St. Petersburg, Count M.A. Miloradovich, to explain the content of his poems, which were incompatible with the status of a government official. He was transferred from the capital to the south to the Chisinau office of I. N. Inzov.
On the way to his new duty station, Alexander Sergeevich falls ill with pneumonia after swimming in the Dnieper. To improve his health, the Raevskys took the sick poet with them to the Caucasus and Crimea at the end of May 1820. Only in September does he arrive in Chisinau. The new boss treated Pushkin’s service leniently, allowing him to be away for a long time and visit friends in Kamenka (winter 1820-1821), go to Kyiv, travel with I.P. Liprandi in Moldova and visiting Odessa (end of 1821). In Chisinau, Pushkin joined the Ovid Masonic lodge, which he himself wrote about in his diary.
In the meantime, in July 1823, Pushkin sought a transfer from service to Odessa in the office of Count Vorontsov. It was at this time that he recognized himself as a professional writer, which was predetermined by the rapid reading success of his works. An affair with the boss's wife and inability to perform public service leads to the poet submitting his resignation. As a result, in July 1824, he was removed from service and sent to the Pskov estate of Mikhailovskoye under the supervision of his parents.
Mikhailovskoe
While in the village, Pushkin often visits his nanny Arina Rodionovna, who tells him fairy tales. He wrote to his brother Lev: “I write notes before lunch, have lunch late... In the evening I listen to fairy tales.” The first Mikhailovsky autumn was fruitful for the poet. Pushkin completes the poems he began in Odessa, “A Conversation between a Bookseller and a Poet,” where he formulates his professional credo, “To the Sea,” a lyrical reflection on the fate of a man in the era of Napoleon and Byron, on the cruel power of historical circumstances over an individual, the poem “Gypsies” (1827), continues to write a novel in verse. In the fall of 1824, he resumed work on autobiographical notes, abandoned at the very beginning in the Kishinev era, and pondered the plot folk drama"Boris Godunov" (finished on November 7, 1825 (separate edition in 1831)), writes the comic poem "Count Nulin".
In 1825, Pushkin met Anna Kern in the neighboring Trigorsky estate, to whom he dedicated the poem “I Remember.” wonderful moment..." At the end of 1825 - beginning of 1826, he completed the fifth and sixth chapters of the novel “Eugene Onegin”, which at that time seemed to him as the end of the first part of the work. IN last days During Mikhailovsky exile, the poet writes the poem “Prophet”.
On the night of September 3-4, 1826, a messenger from the Pskov governor B.A. arrived in Mikhailovskoye. Aderkasa: Pushkin, accompanied by a courier, must appear in Moscow, where the new emperor, Nicholas I, was awaiting his coronation.
On September 8, immediately after his arrival, Pushkin was taken to the Tsar for a personal audience. Upon his return from exile, the poet was guaranteed the highest personal patronage and exemption from ordinary censorship.
It was during these years that interest in the personality of Peter I, the transforming tsar, arose in Pushkin’s work. He becomes the hero of a novel about the poet’s great-grandfather, Abram Hannibal, and a new poem “Poltava”.
Without starting his own home, Pushkin stops in Moscow and St. Petersburg for a short time, rushes between them, sometimes stopping at Mikhailovskoye, rushing either to the theater of military operations with the beginning of the Turkish campaign of 1828, or to the Chinese embassy; left without permission for the Caucasus in 1829.
By this time, the poet’s work had become new turn. A sober historical and social analysis of reality is combined with an awareness of the complexity of the surrounding world that often eludes rational explanation, which fills his work with a sense of anxious foreboding, leads to a widespread invasion of fantasy, gives rise to sad, sometimes painful memories and intense interest in death.
In 1827, an investigation began into the poem “Andrei Chenier” (written in Mikhailovsky in 1825), which was seen as a response to the events of December 14, 1825, and in 1828 the Kishinev poem “Gavriiliada” became known to the government. These cases were stopped by the highest order after Pushkin’s explanations, but secret police surveillance was established over the poet.
Pushkin feels the need for everyday changes. In 1830, his repeated wooing to Natalya Nikolaevna Goncharova, an 18-year-old Moscow beauty, was accepted, and in the fall he went to the Nizhny Novgorod estate of his father Boldino to take possession of the nearby village of Kistenevo, donated by his father for the wedding. Cholera quarantines detained the poet for three months, and this time was destined to become the famous Boldin autumn, the highest point of Pushkin’s creativity, when a whole library of works poured out from under his pen: “The Stories of the Late Ivan Petrovich Belkin” (“Belkin’s Stories”, “The Experience of Dramatic studies", "Little tragedies"), last chapters“Eugene Onegin”, “House in Kolomna”, “History of the village of Goryukhin”, “The Tale of the Priest and his worker Balda”, several sketches critical articles and about 30 poems.
“Belkin’s Tales” was the first completed work of Pushkin’s prose that has come down to us, the creation of which he undertook several times. In 1821, he formulated the basic law of his prose narrative: “Accuracy and brevity are the first advantages of prose. It requires thoughts and thoughts - without them brilliant expressions serve no purpose.” These stories are also kind of memoirs an ordinary person, who, not finding anything significant in his life, fills his notes with a retelling of stories he heard that struck his imagination with their unusualness.
February 18 (March 2), 1831 Pushkin marries Natalya Goncharova in the Moscow Church of the Great Ascension at the Nikitsky Gate.
In the spring of the same year, he moved with his wife to St. Petersburg, renting a dacha in Tsarskoe Selo for the summer. Here Pushkin writes “Onegin’s Letter,” thereby finally completing work on the novel in verse, which became his “faithful companion” for eight years of his life.
The new perception of reality, which emerged in his work at the end of the 1820s, required in-depth studies of history: the origins of the fundamental issues of our time should be found in it. In 1831, he received permission to work in the archives and re-enlisted as a “historiographer,” receiving the highest assignment to write “The History of Peter.” The cholera riots, terrible in their cruelty, and the Polish events that brought Russia to the brink of war with Europe, appear to the poet as a threat Russian statehood. Strong power in these conditions seems to him the key to the salvation of Russia - this idea inspired his poems “Before the Holy Tomb...”, “Slanderers of Russia”, “Borodin Anniversary”: the last two, together with the poem by V. A. Zhukovsky, were published in a special brochure “To take Warsaw” and caused accusations of political renegade, causing a decline in Pushkin’s popularity in the West and, to some extent, in Russia. At the same time, F.V. Bulgarin, associated with the III department, accused the poet of adherence to liberal ideas.
From the beginning of the 1830s, prose in Pushkin’s work began to prevail over poetic genres. "Belkin's Tales" were not successful. Pushkin is planning a broad epic canvas, a novel from the era of Pugachevism with a hero-nobleman who went over to the side of the rebels. This idea was abandoned for a while due to insufficient knowledge of that era, and work began on the novel “Dubrovsky” (1832-33), its hero, avenging his father, from whom the family estate was unjustly taken away, becomes a robber. Although the plot basis of the work was drawn by Pushkin from modern life, as the work progressed, the novel increasingly acquired the features of a traditional adventure narrative with a collision that was generally atypical for Russian reality. Perhaps, also foreseeing insurmountable censorship difficulties with the publication of the novel, Pushkin left work on it, although the novel was close to completion. The idea of a work about the Pugachev rebellion again attracts him, and true to historical accuracy, he interrupts his studies of the Peter the Great era for a while, studies printed sources about Pugachev, and seeks to familiarize himself with documents on the suppression peasant uprising(the “Pugachev Case” itself, strictly classified, turns out to be inaccessible), and in 1833 he made a trip to the Volga and the Urals to see with his own eyes the places of terrible events and hear living legends about Pugachevism. Pushkin travels through Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan and Simbirsk to Orenburg, and from there to Uralsk, along the ancient Yaik River, renamed after the peasant uprising to the Ural.
On January 7, 1833, Pushkin was elected a member Russian Academy simultaneously with P. A. Katenin, M. N. Zagoskin, D. I. Yazykov and A. I. Malov.
In the autumn of 1833 he returned to Boldino. Now Pushkin’s Boldino Autumn is half as long as it was three years ago, but in significance it is comparable to the Boldino Autumn of 1830. In a month and a half, Pushkin completes work on “The History of Pugachev” and “Songs of the Western Slavs”, begins work on the story “The Queen of Spades”, creates the poems “Angelo” and “The Bronze Horseman”, “The Tale of the Fisherman and the Fish” and “The Tale of dead princess and about the seven heroes", a poem in octaves "Autumn".
Petersburg
In November 1833, Pushkin returned to St. Petersburg, feeling the need to radically change his life and, first of all, get out from under the tutelage of the court.
On the eve of 1834, Nicholas I promoted his historiographer to the junior court rank of chamber cadet. The only way out of the ambiguous situation in which Pushkin found himself was to achieve immediate resignation. But the family grew (the Pushkins had four children: Maria, Alexander, Grigory and Natalya), Savor required large expenses, Pushkin’s last books were published more than a year ago and did not bring in much income, historical studies consumed more and more time, the historiographer’s salary was insignificant, and only the tsar could authorize the publication of new works by Pushkin that could strengthen him financial situation. At the same time, the poem “The Bronze Horseman” was banned.
In order to somehow get out of urgent debts, Pushkin at the beginning of 1834 quickly completed another, prosaic St. Petersburg story, “The Queen of Spades” and published it in the magazine “Library for Reading,” which paid Pushkin immediately and at the highest rates. It was started in Boldin and was then, apparently, intended for the almanac “Troichatka”, jointly with V.F. Odoevsky and N.V. Gogol.
In 1834, Pushkin resigned with a request to retain the right to work in the archives, necessary for the execution of “The History of Peter”. His resignation was accepted, but he was prohibited from working in the archives. Pushkin was forced to resort to the mediation of Zhukovsky to resolve the conflict. For his loyalty, he was given the previously requested cash loan against a five-year salary. This amount did not cover even half of Pushkin’s debts; with the cessation of salary payments, one had to rely only on literary income. But a professional writer in Russia was too unusual a figure. His income depended on reader demand for his works. At the end of 1834 - beginning of 1835, several final editions of Pushkin’s works were published: full text“Eugene Onegin” (in 1825-32 the novel was published in separate chapters), collections of poems, stories, poems - all these books were sold with difficulty. Criticism is already in full voice spoke about the erosion of Pushkin's talent, about the end of his era in Russian literature. Two autumns - 1834 (in Boldin) and 1835 (in Mikhailovsky) were less fruitful. The poet came to Boldino for the third time in the fall of 1834 on complicated matters of the estate and lived there for a month, writing only “The Tale of the Golden Cockerel.” In Mikhailovskoe, Pushkin continued to work on “Scenes from the Times of Knights”, “Egyptian Nights”, and created the poem “I Visited Again”.
The general public, lamenting the decline of Pushkin’s talent, did not know that his best works were not published, that in those years there was constant, intense work on extensive plans: “The History of Peter”, a novel about Pugachevism. Fundamental changes were ripe in the poet's work. Pushkin the lyricist during these years became primarily “a poet for himself.” He is now persistently experimenting with prose genres, which do not completely satisfy him, remain in plans, sketches, drafts, looking for new forms of literature.
"Contemporary"
Under these conditions, he finds a way out that solves many problems at once. He founded a magazine called Sovremennik. It published works by Nikolai Gogol, Alexander Turgenev, V. A. Zhukovsky, P. A. Vyazemsky.
Nevertheless, the magazine did not have reader success: towards a new type of serious periodical dedicated to current problems, interpreted as necessary by hints, the Russian public still had to get used to. The magazine had only 600 subscribers, which made it ruinous for the publisher, since neither printing costs nor staff fees were covered. Pushkin fills more than half of the last two volumes of Sovremennik with his works, mostly anonymous.
The novel “The Captain's Daughter” was finally published in the fourth volume of Sovremennik.
The same aspiration for future generations inspired Pushkin’s final poem, going back to Horace, “I erected a monument to myself not made by hands...” (August 1836).
Duel and death of the poet
In the winter of 1837, a conflict arose between the poet and Georges Dantes, who was accepted into service in the Russian guard thanks to the patronage of the Dutch envoy Baron Louis Heeckeren, who adopted him. A quarrel, the cause of which was Pushkin’s insulted honor, led to a duel.
On January 27, the poet was mortally wounded in the thigh. The bullet broke the neck of the thigh and entered the stomach. For that time the wound was fatal. He knew the end was approaching and endured the suffering steadfastly.
Before his death, Pushkin, putting his affairs in order, exchanged notes with Emperor Nicholas I. The notes were conveyed by two outstanding people:
V. A. Zhukovsky is a poet, at that time the teacher of the heir to the throne, the future Emperor Alexander II.
N. F. Arendt - personal physician of Emperor Nicholas I, physician to Pushkin.
The poet asked for forgiveness for violating the royal ban on dueling: “... I’m waiting for the king’s word so that I can die in peace...”
Sovereign: “If God does not order us to meet again in this world, I send you my forgiveness and my last advice to die as a Christian. Don’t worry about your wife and children, I take them into my arms.”
Nikolai saw in Pushkin a dangerous “leader of freethinkers” and subsequently assured that he “forcibly brought Pushkin to the death of a Christian,” which was not true: even before receiving the royal note, the poet, having learned from the doctors that his wound was mortal, sent for a priest to take communion. On January 29 (February 10) at 14:45, Pushkin died of peritonitis. Nicholas I fulfilled his promises to the poet.
Order of the Sovereign: Pay debts, clear the mortgaged estate of the father from debt, pension for the widow and daughters upon marriage, sons as pages and 1,500 rubles for the education of each upon entry into the service, publish essays to the public account in favor of the widow and children, pay a lump sum of 10 000 rubles.
Alexander Pushkin is buried in the cemetery of the Svyatogorsk Monastery in the Pskov province.
36) Creativity M.Yu. Lermontov.
Lermontov’s creative development is unique not only because he died at the very beginning of his “great career.” The first poems by Lermontov that have reached us are dated 1828 (then he was 14 years old). Most of Lermontov’s works were written in 1826-1836, but the poet Lermontov actually appeared in literature only in 1837, after he responded to the death of Pushkin with an angry poem “The Death of a Poet.” The public reaction to this poem, the expulsion of Lermontov - exile to the Caucasus, the change in the problematics and style of his poetry, the publication of poems that were previously written “on the table” - all this allowed us to say that a new poet had appeared in Russia.
Lermontov's creativity is a forward movement, the essence of which is the rise to a new level and at the same time the return to what has already been discovered. At each new turn of the creative spiral, a rethinking of the figurative “drawings” created in the previous one took place. Given the "spiral" nature creative development Lermontov, three periods can be distinguished in it.
The youthful period (1828-1831) is the time of the first literary experiments.
Lermontov's parents - retired infantry captain Yuri Petrovich Lermontov and Maria Mikhailovna, nee Arsenyeva, did not have their own home in Moscow. Their place of permanent residence was the village of Tarkhany, Penza province, which belonged to the poet’s grandmother Elizaveta Alekseevna Arsenyeva. The family returned to Tarkhany in the spring of 1815, when Maria Mikhailovna recovered from a difficult birth. In 1816, the parents separated. In the winter of 1817, Maria Mikhailovna began to experience an exacerbation of her illness - “either consumption or tabes.” She died on February 24 of the same year. Lermontov practically did not remember the face of his living mother; it was replaced by a portrait, which his grandmother never parted with. But he remembered the day of her funeral, although he was not even three years old, describing it in the poem “Sashka”:
He was a child when he was in a plank coffin
His family was killed with a bang.
He remembered that there was a black priest above her
Read big book that they burned incense
And so on... and what, covering the entire forehead
With a large handkerchief, the father stood in silence...
In 1828-1830 the young man studied at the Noble boarding school at Moscow University, and from 1830 to 1832 - at the moral and political department of Moscow University.
The peak of the first period of creativity is 1830-1831. - a time of intense creative activity of the poet, when about 200 poems were written. Over the same two years, Lermontov created 6 poems - “The Last Son of Liberty”, “Angel of Death”, “People and Passions” and others. Most of Lermontov's works were student-made and artistically imperfect. That is why he was in no hurry to publish them. The first publication - the poem "Spring" in the magazine "Athenaeus" - went unnoticed and had no significance for the young author. But from his first steps in literature, Lermontov did not limit himself to “studying” with his eminent predecessors. In his attitude towards any literary authorities, be it Byron, Pushkin or Ryleev, a position of attraction and repulsion was manifested. Lermontov not only assimilated, but also transformed and rethought poetic traditions.
Lermontov's creativity 1828-1831. had a pronounced autobiographical character. The lyrics reflected childhood impressions, first friendships, love interests. Autobiography was the most important creative principle Lermontov, although this principle contradicted another - the desire of the romantic poet to include his “genuine”, “reliable” thoughts and feelings in the context of general romantic literary motifs.
Transitional period (1832-1836) - from youthful creativity to mature one.
The poet himself assessed this period as a time of shake-up, “action.” In biographical terms, the beginning of a new stage of creativity coincided with Lermontov’s departure from Moscow University, moving with his grandmother to St. Petersburg, where he entered the School of Guards Ensigns and Cavalry Junkers. His two-year stay in a closed military educational institution ended in 1835. Lermontov was released as a cornet in the Life Guards Hussar Regiment. The sharp change in life, the military career that Lermontov chose, largely determined his future fate and influenced the nature of his development.
Over four years, Lermontov wrote relatively few lyric poems: they gave way to epic genres, as well as drama. In Lermontov's poetry there are motifs of spiritual restlessness, a passionate thirst for change, movement, and new impressions. Images of a stormy sea, a thunderstorm, a rebellious sail were created in many poems of 1832. These are not only echoes of the romantic tradition of Byron - they expressed Lermontov’s impulse to action, to transform his human and creative destiny. The antithesis of rebellion and peace, freedom and bondage determine the meaning of the poems “Sail”, “I want to live!” I want sadness...", "Sailor" (1832).
Autobiographicalism in lyrics is weakened. Lermontov is looking for new ways to express his state lyrical hero. One of the fruitful ways found by the poet is the creation of an objective parallel image that correlates with the inner world of the lyrical hero. For example, in “Sail,” a psychological parallel underlies the image of the symbol of a lonely sail sailing on the sea of life. The subject image, saturated with psychological content, absorbs the movement of the poet’s thoughts. The image of the sail unfolds as an act of self-awareness of the “rebellious” lyrical hero: rejecting traditional life values, he chooses restlessness, storm, rebellion. The poetic principle of psychologization in the lyrics of the mature period of creativity (poems “Three Palms”, “Dispute”, “Cliff”, etc.)
In 1832-1836. Lermontov the romantic was the first to touch upon the problem of the relationship between the individual and the social environment. In the unfinished novel “Vadim” (1832-1834) and in the poem “Izmail Bey” (1832-1833), he reflects on the connection between the fate of an individual, “private” person and the course of history. In 1835-1836 The question of depicting a person in everyday life becomes relevant. Artistic result creative searches Lermontov in 1832-1836. - drama “Masquerade” (1835-1836).
The period of creative maturity (1837-1841) is the time of the creation of lyrical masterpieces, the highest achievements in the genre of poetry and prose.
In February 1837, for the poem “The Death of a Poet,” which was distributed in lists, Lermontov was arrested and placed in a garrison guardhouse. After the end of the investigation in March 1837, by order of Nicholas I, he was transferred from the guard to the Nizhny Novgorod Dragoon Regiment and sent to the Caucasus to a new duty station. However, the first Caucasian exile, during which Lermontov met and became close to the exiled Decembrists, was short-lived. Already in January 1838, thanks to the efforts of his grandmother and the personal intercession of A.H. Benkendorf, the poet returned to St. Petersburg to continue serving in the Life Guards Grodno Regiment.
A complex of themes, motifs and images that had arisen earlier developed in Lermontov’s work, but the romantic writer was worried acute crisis. He became increasingly aware of the limitations of romantic individualism and sought to understand his connection with historical activity: in 1837-1841. the topic came to the fore modern generation in his specific Lermontov interpretation. In 1837-1841 the best romantic poems “Mtsyri” and “Demon” were created. The poems “Tambov Treasurer” and “Fairy Tale for Children” were written in a different key: they showed Lermontov’s movement towards realism. "Song…. about the merchant Kalashnikov" amazed contemporaries not only with its perfect mastery of the forms of folk poetry, but also with an understanding of its very spirit. The highest achievement of Lermontov’s prose, a kind of “encyclopedia of favorite themes and motifs of his work,” was the novel “A Hero of Our Time” (1838-1839). Work on the individual stories that made up the work and the formation of its general concept were intertwined with lyrical creativity and the creation of the best poems.
