Genres of literature. What is a prose work

Origin

Despite the apparent obviousness, there is no clear distinction between the concepts of prose and poetry. There are works that do not have rhythm, but are divided into lines and relate to poetry, and vice versa, written in rhyme and with rhythm, but related to prose (see Rhythmic prose).

Story

Literary genres traditionally classified as prose include:

see also

• Intellectual prose
• Poetic prose

Notes

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See what “Prose” is in other dictionaries:

Prose writer... Russian word stress

URL: http://proza.ru ... Wikipedia

See Poetry and Prose. Literary encyclopedia. At 11 vol.; M.: Publishing House of the Communist Academy, Soviet Encyclopedia, Fiction. Edited by V. M. Fritsche, A. V. Lunacharsky. 1929 1939 … Literary encyclopedia

- (lat.). 1) a simple way of expression, simple speech, not measured, as opposed to poetry, verses. 2) boring, ordinary, everyday, everyday, in contrast to the ideal, the highest. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language.... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

- (vital, everyday, life); everyday life, fiction, everyday life, everyday life, everyday trifles Dictionary of Russian synonyms. prose see everyday life Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language. Practical guide. M.: Russian I... Synonym dictionary

PROSE, prose, many. no, female (lat. prosa). 1. Non-poetry literature; ant. poetry. Write in prose. “There are inscriptions above them both in prose and verse.” Pushkin. Modern prose. Pushkin's prose. || All practical, non-fiction literature (outdated).... ... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

Art * Author * Library * Newspaper * Painting * Book * Literature * Fashion * Music * Poetry * Prose * Public * Dance * Theater * Fantasy Prose Some novels are too bad to be worth printing... But it happens that others... Consolidated encyclopedia of aphorisms

prose- y, w. prose f. , lat. prosa. 1. Speech that is not rhythmically organized. ALS 1. Drunk men and excrement of various animals are found in nature; but I would not want to read a living description of them, either in poetry or in prose. 1787. A. A. Petrov to Karamzin. //... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language

- (Latin prosa), spoken or written speech without division into commensurate segments of poetry. Unlike poetry, it relies on the correlation of syntactic units (paragraphs, periods, sentences, columns). Initially, business,... ... Modern encyclopedia

In ancient Greek prose, prose genres flourished: philosophical prose (Plato, Aristotle, etc.), oratorical prose (Demosthenes), historical prose (Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon), biographical prose (Plutarch). Fiction is represented by the genre of adventure-love novel, or, as the Greeks called it, a “love story,” which appeared in the first centuries of our era. The first known Greek novel is “The Tale of the Love of Chaerea and Kaliroe” by Chariton (1st century AD), the most significant are “Ethiopica” by Heliodorus” and “Daphnis and Chloe” by Long.

Plato. In the literature of the 5th–4th centuries BC. e. Philosophical prose occupies a prominent place. The philosophical dialogues of Plato (427–347 BC) are especially significant in literary terms. 41 works of Plato have reached us, of which 13 are recognized as inauthentic (some of them were written by his students as part of the activities of the Academy he created). "The Apology of Socrates" (the speech allegedly delivered by Socrates at the trial) is the only one of the works not written in the form of dialogue. 13 letters of Plato also survived. In relation to the collection “Definitions,” also included in the corpus of Plato’s works, Plato’s authorship is now rejected. Disputes about the authenticity and chronology of Plato's works gave rise to the so-called. Plato's question.

Being a student of Socrates (c. 470–399 BC), who did not write down his philosophical thoughts and presented them in skillfully constructed conversations with students, as if independently coming to the right conclusions (the so-called Socratic conversation method), Plato brought out in his works the image of Socrates, moving from one dialogue to another, striking with the power of his intellect in a conversation with any interlocutor.

In small “Socratic dialogues” Plato examines individual issues: friendship (“Lysias”), truthfulness and deceit (“Hippias the Lesser”), justice (“Alcibiades I”), etc. They depict the situation in which the conversation unfolds, the dialogues imitate colloquial speech with its interruptions, repetitions, etc. In dialogues of the second type (“Phaedo”, “Phaedrus”, “Feast” and a number of others), the content becomes more generalized, here the doctrine of ideas, the material world as a reflection of ideas, and the immortality of the soul is developed , about its three parts - rational, volitional (or passionate) and sensual (or lustful), about the transmigration of souls - metempsychosis, about knowledge as recollection - anamnesis, etc. He widely uses artistic means to present philosophical ideas. Thus, in order to explain the difference between ideas and things, Plato in Book VII of the Republic draws an image of a cave on the wall of which one can see shadows from objects outside it. He presents the emergence of love as the result of the division of a bisexual androgyne into two halves, which must look for each other in order to reunite (“Phaedrus”). Instead of a free conversation of dialogues of the first type, in these works Socrates' thought develops strictly logically, less attention is paid to refuting opponents and more to the very essence of philosophical teaching. In dialogues of the third type (Theaetetus, Parmenides, Sophist, Politician) artistic imagery gives way to the interpretation of basic philosophical categories. Everyday details and artistic depictions of the characters of the speakers disappear. In dialogues of the fourth type, Plato, setting out a changed view of the basic philosophical problems, again resorts to artistic means, to mythological imagery, etc. In the dialogue “Critias,” Plato is the first to present the legend of Atlantis in the form of a historical narrative, reminiscent of a fantastic utopian novel.

The genre of philosophical dialogue, developed by Plato, had a huge influence on the literature and philosophy of subsequent centuries (we can talk about Plato’s “personal model”).

LITERATURE OF ANCIENT ROME

Ancient Roman literature is literature based on Latin, the first monuments of which have reached us date back to the 3rd century BC. e. (earlier ones are known only from indirect evidence). At an early stage, determining the formation of culture Ancient Rome there was influence Greek culture, although even during this period some Romans (for example, Cato the Elder), in contrast to the individualization characteristic of the Greeks and the well-known hedonism, put forward the demand for loyalty to the “morals of their ancestors,” harsh and heroic.

Development of the comedy genre

Although after the translations of Homer's poems into Latin, their own epic creativity arose on Roman soil (the poems of Naevius and Ennius), the first major achievement of the literature of Ancient Rome is associated with the activities of the comedians Plautus and Terence.

Plautus. Titus Maccius Plautus (c. 250–184) was possibly a mime dancer in the atellan - Italian folk comedy (Plautus - translated as “flat-footed”, i.e. dancing in flat shoes). Of the 21 comedies, which in ancient times were recognized as indisputably belonging to Plautus, 20 have survived and one in fragments. The genre that Plautus developed was palliata (i.e., comedy from Greek life), which grew out of imitation of Middle and New Attic comedy, primarily Menander, in combination with Italian atellana. Plautus wrote for the plebs, his task was to captivate and make the common people laugh, hence the crude humor, the source of the comic - many funny episodes associated with dressing up (including men as women in Kasina), peeping, brawls, etc. Plautus represents the slave is more resourceful and successful than his master (in the spirit of folk culture of laughter), brings out a whole gallery of characters endowed with vices: boasting (“The Boastful Warrior”), stinginess (“The Pot”), parasite (“Curculion”). In his works, Plautus, to increase the intensity of the intrigue, resorts to contamination (combines the plots of several Greek comedies), composes neologisms from Latin and Greek morphemes, widely uses proverbs and sayings, instead of the iambic 6-foot and trochaic 8-meter used by Menander, he introduces variety meters, making the verse dependent on the content of a particular scene.

Terence. Publius Terentius Afr (195–159) was a slave, then a freedman, wrote 6 comedies in the palliata genre. In four of them, the primary sources were the plays of Menander. To find new texts of this idol of his, Terence went to Greece, but on the way back he died in a shipwreck. Terence moved away from the vulgar laughter of Plautus; his comedy was softer in tone, more psychological. His favorite motive is accidental recognition (“Mother-in-law”). Terence's comedies are written in a simple and correct style, which is why the Latin language was studied from them in the Middle Ages.

"Golden Age" of Ancient Roman Literature

This is what is commonly called the 1st century BC. e., which includes the highest achievements in the field of poetry (Catullus, Virgil, Ovid, Horace) and prose (Cicero, Julius Caesar), the formation of “golden Latin”.

Poetry. Neoterics (lat. youthful, young) are the most notable poetic group led by Gaius Valerius Catullus. Neoterics, suspicious of the establishment of the sole power of Julius Caesar, went into the sphere of intimate feelings, from large epic genres they moved to small forms of poetry - epillia (small epic poems), elegies, epigrams.

Catullus(c. 87–54 BC) in a collection of 116 poems appears primarily as a lyricist praising his beloved Claudia, sister of the tribune Clodius Palchre, under the name Lesbia, reminiscent of Sappho:

Let us, Lesbia, live as long as we live,

And love as long as the soul loves;

Old gossips murmur grumpily

Let it not cost us a penny. (Translation by A. Fet)

Poems about Lesbia tell about all the vicissitudes of the poet’s love feelings, about the rapprochement and quarrels of lovers. But in his epigrams directed against Julius Caesar and his supporters (especially against a certain Mamurra from the city of Formia), Catullus can show high citizenship, be exceptionally, indecently, harsh, use the technique of invective (lat. “abusive speech”).

Lucretius. The philosophical poem of Lucretius (c. 94–55 BC) “On the Nature of Things” dates back to the same period, which sets out the materialistic philosophy of the Greek thinker Epicurus (IV–III centuries BC). Lucretius is confident that knowledge of the nature of things frees a person from superstitions and fear of death. Therefore, in the first three books of the poem, he sets out the doctrine of the atoms that make up the world, according to the ideas of Democritus and Epicurus, and then he talks in detail about astronomy, geology, the history of human culture (highlighting the Stone, Bronze, Iron Ages, which was confirmed by archaeologists of the 19th century) centuries, taking these names from Lucretius to scientifically designate eras in the development of mankind). The poem is written in hexameter, similar to the poems of Hesiod, but demonstrates enormous progress in human knowledge.

Caesar. Gaius Julius Caesar (100–44 BC) an outstanding politician and commander of Ancient Rome, the first to receive the title of emperor from the Senate, one of the founders of the Latin literary prose language. His “Notes on the Gallic War” (52/51 BC) in 7 books and “Notes on civil war"(44 BC) in 3 books - wonderful monuments of a simple and noble literary style. His tragedy “Oedipus” and a number of other works (pamphlets, the poem “The Path,” letters, speeches, aphorisms, the treatise “On Analogy,” dedicated to Cicero, etc.) have not reached us.

Cicero. Marcus Tullius Cicero (106–43 BC) - greatest speaker antiquities. We have reached 58 speeches by Cicero (and excerpts from another 17 speeches), treatises and dialogues of philosophical, didactic, political content (of particular importance are his works on oratory, where the fundamentals of rhetoric are systematically set out), about 900 letters.

Virgil. The highest achievement in the field of poetic creativity in the “age of Augustus” (second half of the 1st century BC) was the work of Publius Virgil Maron (70–19 BC). The collection "Bucolics" includes eclogues (shepherd poems consisting of dialogues of shepherds, set out in hexameter, written under the influence ancient Greek poet Theocritus, the creator of this genre). The 4th Eclogue later turned out to be particularly significant, which in the Middle Ages was considered as a prediction of the coming of Jesus Christ. Therefore, Virgil was considered as one of the forerunners of Christ (that’s why in “ Divine Comedy"Dante Virgil accompanies the poet on his journey not only through hell, but also through purgatory and parts with him in earthly paradise). “Bucolics” brought Virgil fame; he became the head of a literary circle, which was patronized by Maecenas, a noble and wealthy supporter of Octavian, the future Emperor Augustus.

“Georgics” is a didactic poem about the work of a farmer, written in the 30s. In its character and form (use of hexameter, etc.) it resembles Hesiod's Works and Days. Virgil's ideal, embodied in the poem, is patriarchal, associated with rural rather than urban life.

The Aeneid is the greatest work of Virgil and, in a sense, of all Roman literature. It was written over a number of years and was completed by the poet in the year of his death. Taking Homer’s “Iliad” and “Odyssey” as a model, Virgil chooses as a hero not one of the Greeks, but their opponent - the Trojan Aeneas, after the defeat, like Odysseus, making a journey and finding shelter in Italy. The use of this myth was of a political nature: Emperor Augustus traced his family from Aeneas’ son Iulus. Despite all the similarities with the Homeric epic, “The Aeneid” is an author’s work, which is reflected in the composition (the calculated introduction of inserted epillia, a kind of poetic short story), in the demonstration of the author’s high education, in the refinement of the hexameter, the appearance of psychological motivation for the heroes’ activities (especially in the description of love for Aeneas and the death of Dido, the Carthaginian queen). For centuries, the Aeneid has been a role model in the field of epic poetry.

Horace. The circle patronized by the Maecenas also included another great poet of Ancient Rome - Quintus Horace Flaccus (65–8 BC). For the first time, Horace attracted attention with his epics, written in imitation of Archilochus. Epode - a work written in an alternating rhythm (for example, with alternating dactylic and iambic dimeters). In Horace, these are poems dedicated to modern times, in which one can find both praise (Maecenas, Augustus) and harsh criticism(for example, freedmen who gained power through cunning).

The collection of 17 epics was followed by two books of satires, written in hexameter and in a number of ways similar to diatribe, a genre developed by Cynic philosophers (live conversation in philosophical themes). The satires not only criticize various vices that afflicted Roman society (greed and envy, extravagance and lust for power), but also affirm a certain author’s ideal: withdrawal into private life, communication with nature, which cannot be found in the city, patriarchal way of life.

In 23 BC. e. three books of “Odes” by Horace are published (38 odes in the 1st, 20 in the 2nd, 30 in the 3rd), in 13 BC. e. Horace added to them the 4th book (15 odes), where, obeying Emperor Augustus, he sang the exploits of his stepsons - Tiberius and Drusus. The odes use 12 meters, borrowed by Horace from Alcaeus, Sappho, Anacreon and other ancient Greek lyricists. The odes are structured as an appeal (to a person, a muse, some object). The odes brought Horace the greatest fame over the centuries, especially the 30th ode from the 3rd book “To Melpomene”. Already Ovid in the finale of “Metamorphoses” expresses the same thoughts very close to the text of Horace. Pushkin chose the first words of this ode (“Exegi monument(um)” - “I erected a monument”) as the epigraph to his “Monument.” The source for Horace was the elegy of Theognis, addressed to Cyrn, but there is also a more ancient prototype of this ode - the ancient Egyptian poem “Praise to the Scribes”, from where the image of the pyramids came to Horace: creativity preserves the memory of the poet stronger than the pyramids.

Of the messages of Horace, written in hexameter (20 messages in the 1st book, 3 in the 2nd), the last one is especially important - “Epistle to the Pisons,” otherwise called “On the Art of Poetry,” which sets out the normative poetics of Horace, which played a significant role in development of the poetics of classicism. Horace demands that the unity of form and content be observed, the simplicity and integrity of the chosen style, which cannot be mixed with other styles, and demands high professionalism from the poet.

Ovid. Publius Ovid Naso (c. 43 BC - 18 AD) became famous for his “Love Elegies”, where he imitated the Roman poets Catullus, Tibullus, Propertius and others. The heroine of the elegies, named Corinna ancient Greek poetess, who won the poetry competitions of Pindar himself, whose mentor she was, differs from Lesbia of Catullus in the complete absence of individual traits. With his characteristic poetic brilliance, but coldly and sometimes ironically, Ovid describes the “science of tender passion,” continuing this theme in the parody-didactic poems “The Science of Love” and “The Cure for Love.” A completely different, sincere tone marked his last works, written in exile (Tomy, now Constanta in Romania), where Emperor Augustus sent him - “Mournful Elegies” and “Letters from Pontus.”

Ovid's most outstanding work is the poem in 15 books “Metamorphoses”. Ovid chose the motif of transformations, which he traced in the myths about gods and heroes from the emergence of the cosmos from chaos to the transformation of Julius Caesar into a star, based on the idea of ​​​​the transmigration of souls - metempsychosis, coming from Pythagoras. Songs of the poem setting out the myths about the transformation of Narcissus into a flower, the statues of Pygmalion Galatea in living woman etc., became a source of inspiration for many writers, artists, and composers of subsequent eras. Ovid, who isolated the idea of ​​variability from myths, seemed to predict the onset of a new - transitional - phase in the development of culture, marked by a loss of stability both in reality and in people’s feelings.

Roman literature of the 1st–2nd centuries AD. e.

Of the works of this period, the tragedies of Lucius Annaeus are of particular importance. Seneca Younger (4 BC - 64 AD) “Medea”, Oedipus”, “Phaedra”, etc., in which a new understanding of catharsis is realized (the separation of fear and compassion, fixing the source of these feelings is not behind one character, and behind the villains, on the one hand, and behind the innocent victims, on the other); his “Moral Letters to Lucillius”, which sets out a program for the Stoic acceptance of life, which is still relevant today; witty and evil “Epigrams” by Mark Valery Martiala(approx. 40 - between 101 and 104) in 12 books; 16 satyrs in hexameters of Decimus Junius Juvenal(c. 60 - c. 140), one of the most perfect in form and significant examples of the genre in terms of its critical attitude towards the vices of the nobility; novel Petronia Arbitra (d. 66) "Satyricon", extant in fragments; "History" and "Annals" Cornelius Tacita(c. 55 - c. 120) - one of the greatest historians of antiquity; novel by Lucius Apuleius(born ca. 124) “Metamorphoses” (“The Golden Ass”), which reveals a combination of an entertaining form and esoteric (hidden) religious and philosophical content.

LITERATURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES

The concept of “Middle Ages” arose in the 15th century, when Italian humanists (L. Bruni and others), realizing the past as history divided into periods, identified the era of antiquity (antiquity) and their era - “modern time”, and the millennium lying between these two eras, called "medium aevum" ( lat. Middle Ages, later they began to say “Middle Ages”). From the point of view of the humanists of the Renaissance, and later the enlighteners of the 18th century, the Middle Ages were a dark era of the death of high ancient culture, an era of barbarism and the dominance of the church, a real failure in European history. Only at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century, largely under the influence of I. G. Herder and the romantics, did scientists see in the Middle Ages a logical stage in the development of society; a unique depth and beauty was discovered in medieval literature and art.

It is traditionally believed that the Middle Ages began in 476, when the Western Roman Empire fell to the onslaught of barbarians. The modern point of view is completely different: the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages took several centuries, from approximately the 3rd to the 6th. In the light of the historical-theoretical approach, it became obvious that Late Antiquity should be considered as a transitional period in the development of literature.

Literature of Late Antiquity as a transitional period

In the first centuries of our era, there were descending and ascending lines in literature. The first was associated with ancient tradition, based on pagan mythology and ancient philosophy, which during this period experienced a severe crisis. In the literature of late antiquity, this crisis is also clearly revealed, primarily in such manifestations as escapism (escape from socially important content), formalism (an unconditional preference for formal experiments in the development of new literary content), rhetoricism (subordination of literature to rhetorical rules, consideration of poetic activity How academic work when mastering rhetoric), complementarity (a reflection of writers’ dependence on rulers and wealthy patrons in compliments addressed to powerful of the world this, with which the literature of this period is saturated, i.e., a departure from the strictly aesthetic function of writing).

Ausonius. As confirmation of these characteristics, we will choose the famous poet of the 4th century, when literature reached a new height (the period of “Silver Latin”, which reminded the Romans of the “Golden Latin” of Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Cicero and other writers of the 1st century BC), - Decima Magna Ausonius (c. 310 - 394). The most famous work Ausonia - poem "Mosella". The poet moves away from the places where “poor corpses lie unmourned across the plain,” and sails on a ship along the Moselle River (Moselle, a tributary of the Rhine), describing in excellent hexameter (verse of Homeric poems) everything he sees around him: river turns, vineyards , belated villagers, mustacheless rowers. He devotes several pages to describing the fish swimming in the river, not forgetting to report on their gastronomic qualities. Before us is one of the first examples of the genre of descriptive poem, which will be revived only in the 18th century, and from this point of view, Ausonius is an undoubted innovator and a great master. But the lack of deep content in this famous poem, not only answers, but even raising questions about the most pressing issues of our time, is obvious. Ausonius was also fond of formalistic delights. So, he sent Proconsul Pacat, hoping to please this nobleman, a collection of “Technopegia” (“Jokes of the Craft”) - “the useless fruit of my idleness,” as he himself humiliatingly wrote, which contains “Poems that begin and end with monosyllables, always the same and the same”, “Poems that only end in monosyllables”, “Ropalic prayer” (in which the line consists successively of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 syllable words, for example in the Russian translation: “God the Father, giver of immortal existence , // Incline your hearing to the purity of vigilant prayers”), “Wedding centon” (centon is a genre of formal poetry: composing a new poem from the lines of another poet’s work; Ausonius composes from the lines of the “Aeneid” of the chaste and highly moral Virgil an unbridled narrative about intercourse on the wedding night ) - all these are examples of formalism in poetry.

Porfiry: genre of poetic square. The 4th century poet Porphyry Optatian, who wrote poetic squares, was even more sophisticated. In poems of this genre, the number of lines corresponds to the number of letters in the line. Palindromes (texts that read equally in both directions) were used in poetry squares. Most early example poetic square dates back to the 4th century:

(Translated: “The sower of Arepo holds the wheels with difficulty”). A palindrome is used here: the text is read equally in four directions (from the beginning and from the end horizontally, from the beginning and from the end vertically). This poetic square apparently seemed so amazing that it was considered as some kind of talisman, according to at least, two centuries later he was still remembered and even written on the walls of Christian churches. Porphyry's poetic squares, which he presented to Emperor Constantine in 325, are much more complex: the line is several times longer, so it was much more difficult to compose a palindrome. Porfiry painted some letters with red paint, making up a picture (a peacock in the poem “Peacock”, a fountain in the poem “Fountain”, etc.), and if you read only the red letters, you got another poem, often in Greek. With such formal complexity, the content actually could not be serious at all.

Early Christian Literature. Along with the descending line, during the transition period between antiquity and the Middle Ages, an ascending line of literature developed, which did not have the above-mentioned features of the crisis. This is the literature of early Christianity.

"New Testament" tells the story of the birth, death and resurrection of a son God's Jesus Christ, who with his death on the cross atoned for the sins of the human race and established a new union (“covenant”) with the God of all mankind (and not just the Jewish people, as in the “Old Testament”).

The “New Testament” in canonical form, approved (like the canon of the “Old Testament”) by the Alexandrian bishop Athanasius the Great (295–373), who thus played an outstanding role in world culture and literature, includes four gospels (good news): Matthew , from Mark, from Luke (synoptic - i.e. similar in text) and from John, as well as the “Acts of the Apostles” (primarily Paul), 21 letters (epistolary form of teaching): 14 from Paul, 2 from Peter, 3 John, 1 James, 1 Jude (not to be confused with the traitor Judas); The final work of the canon is “Apocalypse (revelation) of John the Theologian.” The “New Testament” was formed in the 2nd half of the 1st century - the first half of the 2nd century mainly in Greek and reached only in this language, although an artificial translation into the spoken language of Palestine of the 1st century - Aramaic - revealed the disappearance in Greek translation rhythmic organization of the text, alliteration, assonance, rhyme, wordplay, and other features that reveal the folklore nature of the original text of a number of sections.

Even in the 2nd century, Bishop Irenaeus asserted the divine origin of the Gospels. The text of the New Testament, separated from the apocryphal gospels and other non-canonized sources, became sacred to millions of Christians beginning in the fourth century and remains so to this day. were perceived as sacred different peoples and translations of the “New Testament” into Syriac (II–III centuries, the so-called Peshishta), Latin (collective, the so-called Itala, then St. Jerome, the end of the 4th century, the so-called Vulgate), Armenian, Georgian (V century), Old Slavonic (Cyril and Methodius, IX century, and subsequent Slavic translations), German (M. Luther and the Reformed “Zurich Bible”, XVI century), English (“Bible of James I”, XVII century), Russian ( Synodal translation, 1876) and other languages ​​of the world. Biblical texts were memorized from early childhood and formed the very center of the thesaurus. Through the prism of the “New Testament” the whole the world. Therefore, the influence of the Bible on literature is unprecedented. The “New Testament” gave the writers ideas (Christ’s love for one’s neighbor, non-resistance to evil through violence), a system of images (Jesus Christ, the Mother of God, the apostles, John the Baptist, Pontius Pilate, Judas, the cross, Mary Magdalene, the Star of Bethlehem, the “animal number” 666 and etc.), genre samples (parable, life, vision, sermon, epistle), plots (birth, baptism, crucifixion, resurrection, appearance of Christ, the fate of the apostles, etc.), way of thinking, language, which was not imitated only religious, but also secular writers. The authors of the “New Testament” are Matthew, who included Christ’s “Sermon on the Mount” in his Gospel, Mark, Luke with his deep knowledge of Greek culture, John as the creator of the fourth Gospel and the “Apocalypse”, the Apostle Paul and, above all (judging by the above statements) himself Jesus Christ - possessed a great literary and oratorical gift.

Apologists. Tertullian. Apologists were writers who defended Christianity during the period of persecution in the 2nd–3rd centuries. The most famous of them is Quintus Septimius Florence Tertullian, nicknamed the Furious (160 - after 220). 31 of his works have survived, including “Defense from the Pagans,” which denies all ancient philosophy, literature, and, in general, culture based on paganism. The treatise “Against the Gnostic Hermogenes” rejects the basic ideas of Gnosticism, which affirmed the dual unity of the world, the struggle of the forces of Good with the equally powerful forces of Evil. In the “Refutation of Heretics,” the wrongness of the heresiarchs is justified by the fact that they are younger than the apostles and, therefore, further from Christ, the source of truth. This argument played huge role in the history of literature: to prove that they were right, many authors attributed their works to the contemporaries of Christ and the apostles.

In the treatise “On the Body of Christ,” we read: “The son of God being crucified is not shameful, for it is shameful. And the son of God died - this is quite reliable, because it is absurd. And having been buried, he rose again - this is true, because it is impossible.” This fragment of Chapter V, which in the Middle Ages received the name “Credo,” presents a special type of paradox - an illogical paradox that cannot be resolved at the level of human thinking. This literary device used by Tertullian to prove the primacy of faith. In the Middle Ages, Tertullian was credited with a phrase that very succinctly expresses this idea: “I believe, because it is absurd.”

Augustine the Blessed. Aurelius Augustine, nicknamed the Blessed (354–430), is the most authoritative of the Western church fathers. The transition of the era in which he lived was reflected in his life in the most direct way. His father was a pagan, his mother a Christian. In his youth, Augustine became interested in ancient rhetoric and philosophy, and Cicero became his idol. For many years, Augustine was a supporter of Manichaeism and studied astrology. Having moved to Mediolanum (Milan), in 387 he converted to Christianity. His godfather became Saint Ambrose of Milan, who combined Christianity and Neoplatonism in his views. Under his influence, Augustine condemned Manichaeism, rejected the idea of ​​Evil as an independent substance and viewed it as the absence of Good. He also rejected astrology with its idea of ​​predestination, and opposed Pelagianism - one of the early Christian heresies. Pelagius believed that there is no original sin, that God endowed man with free will, and each person is free to choose the path he wants, but in the next world God will reward everyone with justice, while original sin was denied. In contrast to the Pelagians and astrologers, Augustine put forward the idea of ​​grace: God, at his own discretion, elevates some (sends them grace) and overthrows others, regardless of the good or evil deeds of men. In a certain contradiction with this idea is Augustine’s teaching on asceticism, which he outlined in his main treatise “On the City of God” in 22 books, where the earthly city (empire) and the heavenly city (the souls of people united by the Christian church) are contrasted. In the human duality of body (earthly) and soul (heavenly), one must get rid of the body and soar to the heavenly city. In 397–401 Augustine wrote the Confessions in 13 books - a story about his life addressed to God. He writes this book for believers, showing on his by example that you can be a big sinner, break many commandments, but, having sincerely surrendered to God, get rid of sinful thoughts. The path of salvation lies through repentance, from here character traits the genre of confession introduced into literature by Augustine. His work combines vivid descriptions of events in his personal life and their philosophical and religious understanding. Subsequently, the genre of confession developed (including in secular literature) and gave the world such outstanding works as “Confession” by J.-J. Rousseau and “Confession” of L.N. Tolstoy. Augustine discovers the very principle of confession, which testifies to the strengthening of the author’s principle in art and later, in connection with the development of the principle of psychologism, forms a whole system of well-developed artistic means to describe the inner world of a person. Augustine was recognized as one of the main authorities in Christianity, which explains the enormous role of his ideas and style in the subsequent development of literature.

Medieval literature in Latin

The Latin language, having turned into a dead language, nevertheless became the connecting thread between Antiquity and the Middle Ages. It was the language of the church, interstate relations, jurisprudence, science, education, and one of the main languages ​​of literature. The maxims of ancient authors were used as material studied in medieval schools.

In medieval literature in Latin, it is customary to distinguish three lines of development: the first (actually medieval, official, church) is represented in clerical literature, the second (associated with the appeal to the ancient heritage) most clearly manifested itself in the Carolingian Renaissance, the third (arising at the junction of Latin scholarship and folk laughter culture) was reflected in the poetry of the vagants.

Clerical literature. A significant layer of medieval literature is clerical (church, religious, spiritual) literature. In a number of cases it is represented by outstanding names, such as: John Scotus Eriugena, Abelard, Francis of Assisi, Bonaventure, Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas. But often the names of the writers have not been preserved, since the principle laid down by Tertullian, according to which the older the text, the closer it is to the truth, forced them to attribute their writings to authoritative figures from the times of the first Christians. This is, for example, what the brilliant author of the 5th - early 6th century (possibly Peter Iver) did, in the treatise “On the Heavenly Hierarchy” for the first time presenting the heavenly powers as located along the hierarchical ladder (and transferred this idea to the priests in the treatise “On the Church Hierarchy”: hierarchy like the transmission of pure light by pure mirrors). In the treatises “On Divine Names” and “Mysterious Theology” he developed the doctrine of the Great Analogy, the symbol, and laid the foundations for the doctrine of the Single Chain of Being. In an effort to give his writings authority, he passed them off as the works of the Greek Dionysius, baptized by the Apostle Paul himself. This author is now called Pseudo-Dionysius.

Medieval clerical literature in Latin developed new genres: vision (a narrative about the journey of the soul during sleep through the afterlife), life (the story of the birth of a saint, the first deeds of holiness, miracles during life and after death), a religious hymn, a message, a commentary on the Holy Scriptures, a confession, etc. They were based on samples of texts included in New Testament. Clerical literature is characterized by rhetoric, didacticism, parables, and exaltation.

A typical example is the “Vision of Tnugdal” written in the 12th century in Ireland in Latin. The soul of the knight Tnugdal, who did not respect God’s church, during a three-day sleep travels through hell, where he sees the torment of sinners, and through the Silver City, where the souls of the righteous live. Having received a good lesson, she returns to the body of the knight, and he becomes the most conscientious parishioner of the church. “The Vision of Tnugdal” is a prototype of Dante’s “Divine Comedy”.

Carolingian Renaissance. The king of the Franks, and from 800 the emperor of the medieval Roman Empire, Charlemagne (768–814), set himself the goal of “renovatio Romani imperii” (“revival of the Roman Empire”), for which, in particular, he gathered at his court in Aachen the most educated people Europe and founded the Academy following the example of the ancients. The Academy was headed by the Anglo-Saxon from York Alcuin (730–804), the Visigoth from Spain Theodulf, Frank Einhard (author of one of the best biographies) worked in it early Middle Ages- “The Life of Charlemagne”), the Lombard Paul the Deacon (creator of the “History of the Lombards”), Archbishop Muadwin of Augustus and other outstanding writers. They abandoned their “barbarian” names and called themselves by the names of the great ancient authors: Alcuin became Horace, Anguilbert - Homer, Muadwin - Nazon (that is, Ovid), etc. They revived ancient meters (hexameter, elegiac distich, iambic dimeter, etc. . etc.), stanzas (Archilochovo, sapphic, Alcaeus, etc.), genres of eclogue (“Winter’s Controversy with Spring” by Alcuin), epitaph (“Epitaph of the Niece Sophia” by Paul the Deacon), panegyric, epistle (“Albinus to Corydon” by Alcuin, “To Liutger the Cleric” by Walachfrid Strabo), fables (“On the Lost Horse” by Theodulf, attributed to Paul the Deacon “Fable of the Lion and the Fox”), etc., pagan imagery (Phoebus, Cupid, Bacchus, Acheron, etc.), literary characters (for example, Palemon and Daphnis from Virgil’s III and VIII eclogues in Alcuin’s “The Controversy of Spring and Winter”), descriptiveness in the spirit of Ausonius (“In the Glory of Lake Lara” by Paul the Deacon, “On the Care of Gardens” by Walachfrid Strabo). But the content of their works is already purely medieval: issues of the Christian faith, the fight against the Arian heresy, loyalty to Christian rulers, the lives and exploits of saints, etc. It is no coincidence that the theme of carnal love, so characteristic of antiquity, is replaced by the theme of friendship (for example, in the message of Alcuin "Albin to Corydon", the message of Walachfrid Strabo "To Liutger the Cleric"). A late representative of the Carolingian Renaissance, Walachfrid, educator of Charlemagne's grandson, Charles the Bald, revised a prose vision written by Abbot Gaito, and his “Vision of Wettin” became the first example of the medieval genre of vision, the prototype of Dante’s “Divine Comedy”. The very short-lived Carolingian Renaissance was the first example of "small revivals" in medieval culture Europe.

Poetry of the Vagants. In Latin, the poetry of vagantes (vagantes - Latin tramps), or goliards, developed - one of the few examples of written recording of the laughter culture of the Middle Ages. Initially, the authors of the songs were students moving from university to university (teaching in all European universities was conducted in Latin), fugitive monks, etc., but during the heyday of Vagant poetry (XII-XIII centuries), major figures can be found among them churches. The most remarkable

We all studied prose at school in literature classes, but who can now answer the question of what prose is? Perhaps you remember that oral or written speech is called prose, but you probably forgot that works in prose are not divided into commensurate segments (in other words, poetry). Unlike poetry, the rhythm of prose works is the relationship of syntactic structures (sentences, periods).

Prose arose during the times ancient literature. Since the 19th century, prose began to lead in literature.

Let us explain what applies to prose. Prose is ordinary speech, simple, unmeasured, without dimensions. However, there is measured prose, similar in sound to ancient Russian songs.

Prose also has forms. So, journalistic, business, scientific, religious-preaching, memoir-confessional forms initially developed.

Stories, novels and novels belong to artistic prose and differ from lyrics in their emotional restraint, intellectuality, and philosophical principles.

From the definition at the beginning of the article it is easy to understand that prose is the opposite of poetry. But then what is a prose poem? This text is very complex, but without rhyme, almost always romantic content. I. S. Turgenev wrote many prose poems.

Prose genres

Traditionally, the literary genres related to prose include:

• Novel. A novel is a narrative work that is large in volume and has a complex, developed plot.
• Tale. This is a kind of epic poetry, similar to a novel, which tells about some episode from life. The story, to a lesser extent than the novel, talks about the life and character of the heroes; it is shorter and more restrained.
• Novella. A short story is a short literary narrative genre. In terms of volume, it is comparable to a short story, but its distinctive feature is the presence of genesis, history and structure.
• Epic. Epic work, monumental in form, touching on national issues.
• Story. Is a small form fiction. The volume of text is small, since the story does not cover a large period of time and describes a specific event in a specific time period.
• Essay. This is a prose composition on any topic. The volume is small, the composition is not strictly designated. In an essay, the author expresses his individual impression and opinion on a specific issue.
• Biography is a well-known form of presenting the history of a person’s life and activity.

Each literary genre is divided into genres, which are characterized by common features for a group of works. There are epic, lyrical, lyric epic, and drama genres.

Epic genres

Prose - Prose! The world of prose. History of the emergence and development of prose. Prose genres.

Prose - Prose!

Prose!

Prose in its broadest sense, surrounds us everywhere.

Prose- this is a simple, ordinary dimensionless speech, exactly the one that we use every day.

With the help of prose, we can confess our love and express any of our feelings.

The more we read literary prose, the richer our experience will be and the more beautiful our speech will be.

Other articles in this section:

• Language communication systems! Languages ​​as the main factor in the system of knowledge development!
• Traditions. What is tradition? Tradition in the dialectical development of society.
• Space and time. Laws of space. Open space. Movement. Space of worlds.
• Evolution and coevolution. Evolution and co-evolution in the system of modern knowledge. Principles of evolution and coevolution. Biological evolution and coevolution of living nature.
• Synergetics and laws of nature. Synergetics as a science. Synergetics as a scientific approach and method. The universal theory of evolution is synergetics.
• It is possible or it is not! A kaleidoscope of events and actions through the prism is impossible and possible!
• World of religion! Religion as a form of human consciousness in awareness of the surrounding world!
• Art - Art! Art is a skill that can inspire admiration!
• Realism! Realism in art! Realistic art!
• Abstract art! Abstraction in art! Abstract painting! Abstractionism!
• Unofficial art! Unofficial art of the USSR!
• Thrash - Thrash! Trash in art! Trash in creativity! Trash in literature! Cinema trash! Cybertrash! Thrash metal! Teletrash!