Ancient world. Japan. A Brief History of Japan. Spear, sword and ancient Japanese heroes

According to 1994 data, the oldest ceramic object is a “jug with a kvass-like ornament,” which was found in Japan in the dungeon of the Senpukuji Temple and marked with the eleventh millennium BC. It was from this moment that the Jomon era began and lasted ten thousand years. During this time, ceramic products began to be made throughout Japan. Compared to other Neolithic ceramic cultures of antiquity, this one became exclusive for Japan. Jomon ceramics are characterized by limited demarcation, extension in time, and similarity of styles. In other words, it can be divided into two regional groups, developing through evolution, and their ornamental motifs were similar. The Neolithic ceramics of Eastern Japan and Western Japan are most different. Although there are regional differences, all types of ceramics have similarities, this indicates a coherent archaeological culture. No one knows how many Jomon era sites there were. According to 1994 data there were one hundred thousand. This indicates a relatively high population density in Japan. Until the 90s, most of the sites were located in Eastern Japan, but archaeologists have made sure that the number of sites in the West and East will be approximately the same.

Ethnologist from Japan K. Shuji believes that with the onset of the era described above, twenty thousand people lived in Japan, in the middle of this period 260,000, at the end - 76,000.

Ancient Japanese economy

During the Jomon period, the Japanese economy was based on fishing, hunting, and food gathering. There is an opinion that the Neolithic settlement knew elementary slash-and-burn agriculture, in addition, wild boars were domesticated.

When hunting, the Japanese usually used an ordinary bow. Researchers were able to find the remains of this weapon in the swamp covers of sites located in a swampy lowland. As of 1994, archaeologists had found only thirty intact bows. They are most often made from capitate-yew types of wood and coated with dark varnish. At the end of the arrows there was a tip made of a powerful stone called obsidian. The spear was used quite rarely. Most often, various parts of copies were found in Hokkaido, but for Kanto this is an exception. And in Western Japan, spears were almost never found. When hunting, they took with them not only weapons, but also dogs and wolf pits. Usually hunting was carried out for deer, wild boars, and wild birds. Harpoons or fishing nets were used to catch fish, crabs, shrimp, and so on. Remains of nets, weights, and hooks were found in ancient landfills. Most of the instruments are made from deer bones. They are usually found in camps located on the shores of the sea and rivers. These tools were used according to the seasons and were aimed at specific fish: bonita, pike perch, and so on. Harpoons and fishing rods were used alone, nets were used collectively. Fishing developed especially well in the middle Jomon times.

Gathering was of great importance in the economy. Even at the beginning of Jomon times, various vegetation was used as food for food. Most often these were hard fruits, for example, nuts, chestnuts, and acorns. Gathering was carried out in the autumn months, the fruits were collected in baskets woven from willows. Acorns were used to make flour, which was ground on millstones, and used to make bread. Some products were stored in one meter deep pits during the winter. The pits were located outside the populated area. Similar pits are evidenced by the sites of the middle Sakanoshita period and the final Minami-Gatamaeike period. The population consumed not only solid foods, but also grapes, water chestnuts, dogwood, actinidia, and so on. Grains from such plants were found near the reserves of hard fruits at the Torihama site.

Most likely, the inhabitants were engaged in basic agricultural production. This is evidenced by traces of agricultural land that were discovered in the settlement area.

In addition, people mastered the skill of collecting urtica and Chinese nettles, which were used in the manufacture of textiles.

The oldest Japanese dwellings

Throughout the Jomon era, the population of the Japanese archipelago lived in dugouts, which were considered the classic shelter of the pre-ceramic period. The dwelling went deep into the soil, had a floor and walls made of earth, and the roof was supported by a base of wooden beams. The roof consisted of dead wood, vegetation and animal skins. There were different dugouts in different regions. There were more of them in the Eastern part of Japan, and fewer in the Western part.

At an early stage, the design of the dwelling was very primitive. It could be round or rectangular. In the middle of each dugout there was always a hearth, which was divided into: stone, jug or earthen. The earthen hearth was made in the following way: a small funnel was dug into which brushwood was placed and burned. To make a jug hearth, the lower part of the pot was used; it was dug into the soil. The stone hearth was made from small stones and pebbles, and they were used to cover the area where the hearth was built.

Dwellings in regions such as Tohoku and Hokuriku differed from others in that they had sufficient big sizes. From the middle period, these buildings began to be made according to complex system, which involved the use of more than one hearth in one dwelling. The home of that period was not only considered a place of peace, but also a space interconnected with beliefs and perception of the world.

On average, the total area of the dwelling ranged from twenty to thirty square meters. Most often, a family consisting of at least five people lived in such an area. The number of family members is proven by the discovery at the Ubayama site - a burial of a family consisting of several males, several females and one child was found in the dwelling.

There are extensive facilities located in North Central and Northern Japan. To be more precise, a dugout consisting of four hearths was excavated at the Fudodo site.

The design is similar to an ellipse, having a length of seventeen meters and a radius of eight meters. At the Sugisawadai site, a dwelling of the same shape was excavated, but the length was 31 meters and the radius was 8.8 meters. It has not been established exactly what the premises of this size were intended for. If we talk hypothetically, we can assume that these were storerooms, public workshops, and so on.

Ancient settlements

A settlement was formed from several dwellings. At the beginning of the Jomon era, one settlement included two or three houses. In the early period, the number of dugouts became more and more. This proves that people began to lead a sedentary life. Housing structures were built around the area at approximately the same distance. This territory was the center of the religious and collective life of the population. This type of settlement was called “round” or “horseshoe-shaped”. Since the middle times of the Jomon era, such settlements became widespread throughout Japan.

Settlements were divided into: permanent and temporary, but in both the first and second cases people lived on the same territory for quite a long time. This proves the connection between the ceramic cultural styles of the village and the layering of settlements from the early era to the late one.

The settlements consisted not only of dwellings, but also of buildings supported by supports. The basis of such buildings had the shape of a hexagon, rectangle, or ellipse. They did not have walls or floors made of earth, the buildings were located on support pillars, and there was also no hearth. The room had a width of five to fifteen meters. No one knows what the buildings on supports were intended for.

Burials

The Japanese of the Jomon era most often buried the dead in mushlev mounds, which were located near the dwellings and were at the same time not only a cemetery, but also a landfill. In the first millennium BC, common cemeteries were created. For example, at the Yoshigo site, researchers discovered more than three hundred remains. This indicated that the population began to lead a sedentary life and the number of residents of Japan was growing.

Most human burials can be called a crumpled masonry of corpses: the limbs of the deceased person were folded in such a way that he looked like an embryo, he was simply placed in a dug hole and covered with earth.

In the third millennium BC, special cases appeared when corpses were laid out in an elongated form. At the end of this period, the tradition of burning the dead was introduced: a triangle was made from the burnt limbs of the dead, with the skull and other bones placed in the center. Typically, burials were single, but there were also common graves, for example, family graves. The largest grave of the Jomon era was two meters long. About fifteen remains were found in it. Such a burial ground was found in the mound of the Miyamotodai site.

Mushlev mounds contained not only pit burials. Researchers discovered a cemetery where the dead lay in a recess with a base of stone or in huge coffins made of stone. Such burials were frequent finds at the end of the era in the northern part of Japan.

In Hokkaido, the dead were buried in vast special cemeteries with lavish funeral decorations. In addition, in Ancient Japan there was a tradition of burying children born stillborn, as well as children up to the age of six, in ceramic vessels. There were cases when older people were buried in pots. After burning the bodies, the remains were washed with water and stored in such a container.

Japanese beliefs and rituals

Funeral decorations acted as an information source about the religion of the Japanese of the Jomon era. If there was an interior, it means that people believed that there was life after death and a soul. Together with the deceased, objects that the deceased person used during his lifetime were most often placed in the grave. These could be rings, a chain and other jewelry. Usually one had to find belts made of deer antler, which were covered with a beautiful intricate pattern, and bracelets made from voluminous Rappanie shells or glycimeris. An opening for the hand was made inside and polished to a shiny state. Jewelry had both an aesthetic and ritual function. As a rule, bracelets were found in the graves of women, and belts in the graves of men. The number of interior items and their luxury spoke of social, physiological and age division.

In later times, a tradition arose of pulling out or filing teeth. Even during their lifetime, people had some of their incisors removed - this indicated that they were moving into the adult group. The methods and order of tooth extraction differed depending on the place and time. In addition, there was a tradition of filing the four upper incisors in the form of two or tridents.

There is another monument related to the religion of that period - these are female dogu figurines made of ceramics. They are also called Jomon Venus.

Clay figurine made during the Jomon period

These ancient figurines were discovered at the Hanawadai site and are believed to date back to the early Jomon era. Figurines are divided, depending on the manner of manufacture, into the following types: cylindrical, flat, relief with legs, with a triangle-shaped face, with ocular-shaped eyes. Almost all dogu depict, most likely, a pregnant woman with a bulging belly. Usually the figurines are found broken. There is an opinion that such figurines are a symbol of femininity, family, and the birth of offspring. Dogu was used in rituals related to the cult of fertility. The same cult used symbols such as swords and knives made of stone, sekibo sticks, which represented power, masculinity, and influence. Figurines were made from stone and wood. Dogus were a kind of amulets. In addition, the ancient Japanese made masks from ceramics, but where they were used remains a mystery to this day.

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A real Japanese home simply attracts with its minimalism, lightness and simplicity of lines. Only natural materials are welcome. The room should have a lot of light and air and little furniture.

In a Japanese home, everything is adapted to life on the floor. The main attribute of such a house is a tatami mat, which has the smell of dry hay. It is made from straw ribbons, and the edges are lined with fabric.

The finished product has a certain size - about 2 square meters. Tatami mats are usually replaced once every few years.

In the bedroom, a futon is placed on such a mat. This is a traditional mattress that is made from pure cotton. This creates an environmentally friendly bed. It is worth noting that this bed is quickly removed. This point is relevant for small rooms. Tatami is upholstered furniture that does not leave marks on the floor.

Japanese furniture is thought out to the smallest detail. Screens zone the space, decorating the room. Low tables coated with varnish can be used for eating and for practicing calligraphy. Women will love a chest with many drawers, boxes for writing and toiletries, and book stands.

The varnish that is used to cover Japanese furniture lasts almost forever, does not fade and does not require careful maintenance.

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Ancient Japan - Wiki

The history of ancient Japan covers the time period from the Paleolithic to the Heian period. During this era, the settlement of the Japanese islands, the formation of the foundations of the economy and religious ideas, as well as the formation and establishment of Japanese statehood took place. Subsequently, the rulers of ancient Japan made their first contacts with outside world, carried out government reforms and formed a state ideology. The entire history of ancient Japan was accompanied by the assimilation of the peoples of the Japanese archipelago, changes in land relations, the separation of classes and aristocracy, internecine wars, as well as the development of crafts and culture.

At the final stage of the history of ancient Japan, during the Heian period, the people of Yamato gained their national identity. Almost all areas of life have created their own analogues based on achievements Chinese culture. In the system of power, this is a dual system of government, initially built on maternal relationships, and then on the relationship between father and son. In religion, this is the emergence of Japanese forms of Buddhism, which organically combined with Shintoism. In culture, this means the creation of our own written language, the flourishing of local literature, fine arts and architecture. At the same time, the internal integrity of the ruling elite was violated, the principles of the legal system of Japanese statehood collapsed, private forms of land ownership arose, which ultimately led to dramatic changes in society.

The history of ancient Japan is divided into three large stages, which in turn are divided into smaller historical periods (jidai). The first stage is known as “Prehistoric Japan” and includes three periods - the Japanese Paleolithic, Jomon and Yayoi (conventionally, this stage can be correlated with primitive society). The second stage involved the formation of Japanese statehood, it

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The decoration of the room and the entire house is usually only a single tokonoma or view that opens onto the garden adjacent to the house.

Without a doubt, nowhere in the world, except Japan, are those forms of art considered fundamental and those considered decorative so intertwined. The simplicity of the material and the restraint in its use do not raise doubts about the artist’s creative talent and the power of this talent. The most ordinary cup (even a single cup) is quite capable of expressing the talent of artists of an entire era. This country, in the art of which emotional embodiment takes precedence over design, has, paradoxically, always shown much more attention to the abstract beauty of material and line than to the specificity of the material and usefulness, but it has never made sacrifices on the altar of useless, “pure” art . On the contrary, works of art easily become (and always have become) household objects: a traditional painting, for example, was originally a scroll that the amateur had to unroll with his hands.

Subject matter in Japan has never been static. Whether it opens or closes, whether it can be viewed from all sides, it, in its entirety and volume (which can be extremely small), retains the power of aesthetic and emotional impact that dominates form, material and craftsmanship. The decoration of the room and the entire house is usually only a single tokonoma or view that opens onto the garden adjacent to the house. This type of lighting depends on the movement of the sun and requires the change and mobility of objects. Everything is strictly correlated with the rhythm of the seasons and reminds, despite the simplicity of existence, of the transitory time and eternity of the nature of the process of changing seasons. The religious customs characteristic of the Japanese and the penchant for allegory, combined with the undoubted mastery of manual techniques, favored the development of interest in sculpture and the creation of works of small forms. A garden, a smaller copy in a cramped space, is a kind of symbol, it concentrates the very idea of nature, it represents a kind of microcosm that one constantly strives for, it becomes possible and accessible: the garden turns into a link in an unbreakable chain that leads from the organization of space to the concept of an object.

For several centuries, since the establishment of the Tokugawa regime, art was usually the preserve of artisans. Peaceful life, an increase in wealth, the expansion of cities and the development of industry, the penchant for luxury inherent in feudal lords who became courtiers and wealthy merchants - all favored the development of artistic craft. In almost all directions it haphazardly used ancient techniques adopted from the past, but their original spirit is gradually losing its significance. That is why fancy jewelry, in the creation of which talent is replaced by brilliant technical skill, is becoming popular among new social strata. A manifestation of this trend were the famous netsuke, small clasps carved from ivory. These products turned out to be the most famous in the West. The modern era has seen a return to simplicity, but the mixing of genres is more triumphant than ever, and the pursuit of pattern works wonders: Teshigahara Sofu creates bouquets whose color effects recall the brilliant painting of the Sotatsu-Korin schools, while his vases acquire sculptural volumes, and his sculptures themselves are already turning into elements of architecture:

For me, ikebana is, first of all, a way to create some beautiful form, and flowers are used for this purpose, even if they have faded. Meanwhile, I do not believe that flowers will be the only material, using which it would be possible to produce such a form, and I myself have used other materials from time to time... I consider myself, first of all, a creator of forms, who uses in my craft mainly flowers, not a pure compiler flower arrangements(Teshigahara Sofu. His endless world of colors and shapes). What is valued most in art is form and beauty, much more than belonging to schools and genres. This trend remained unchanged throughout Japanese history and is of particular importance today. In the holistic ensemble of contemporary art, which has acquired global significance, the contrasting styles and motifs allow for countless variations depending on whether they interpenetrate each other to a greater or lesser extent. Just as European decorative art, from the day when the ships of the East India Company brought porcelain from China, fully borrowed these new forms and colors, so in the same way today the artistic phenomena accompanying Japanese life are nourished from numerous sources related to the traditions of both Asia and Europe.

Since form is largely determined by the nature of the substance, in Japan the quality of the material has always been the object of the most careful study. To our modern materials - metals and plastics - there is added a rich range that has been given nobility over hundreds of years: the velvety of softly shimmering varnishes, the smooth or expressive texture of wood, the fine grain or delicate roughness of casting, ceramic mass, thin or thick, but always pleasing to the touch, the light or heavy luxury of silk, the cheerful colors of porcelain. Of all Japanese works art, it is precisely porcelain products, thanks to their precious qualities and splendor, that acquire a pomp that is little compatible with the natural simplicity of the Japanese home. On the contrary, these products, which have become famous in the West and are usually widespread there, are the best fit for worthy decoration of a rich interior.

The most famous fine examples of the Japanese craft tradition are tea trays and cups, which are just beginning to be appreciated in Europe: the simplicity of their forms, the warm and often dark color, the restraint corresponding to their purpose, in fact, hardly find their place in the pretentious and pretentious decor . Extravaganza " East India Company"has not yet lost its attractiveness. It is possible that the modern Evan collection (designed by Deguchi Onisaburo), combining the squat shapes and dense texture of traditional tea cups with a bold, bright coloring in keeping with the direction once pioneered by Ka-kemon, has a chance to achieve (like the expressiveness of other Japanese products) new success abroad.

Japanese samurai warriors (bushi) were skilled warriors of medieval Japan. As a rule, they were secular feudal lords, princes and small-class nobility. The term bushi means "warrior" and has a broader meaning, it should not always be referred to as samurai. The term samurai comes from the verb “saberu,” which meant “to serve.” Japanese warriors were fluent in sword, bow and hand-to-hand combat, and followed the strictest code of bushido or “the way of the warrior.”

The occupation of Japanese warriors was not only waging war, they were often the personal bodyguards of their master - the daimyo, which literally translates as “big name”, and in peacetime the samurai were ordinary servants. The samurai have always been considered the elite in Japanese society, and the daimyo has been considered the elite among the samurai.

In this article we have collected for you the most interesting facts about samurai.

10. About samurai women. When we say the word samurai, the image of a male warrior immediately comes to mind, however, in ancient Japanese chronicles there are many references to female samurai, who were called onna-bugeisha. Women and samurai girls took part in bloody battles on an equal basis with male warriors. The naginata (long sword) was the weapon they used most often. An ancient Japanese bladed weapon with a long handle (about 2 meters) had a curved blade with a one-sided sharpening (about 30 centimeters long), almost an analogue of a melee weapon - a glaive.

There are practically no mentions of female samurai in historical chronicles, which is why historians assumed that there were very few of them, but the latest research into historical chronicles has shown that female warriors contributed to battles much more often than is commonly believed. In 1580, a battle took place in the town of Senbon Matsubaru. According to the results of excavations, out of 105 bodies discovered at the battle site, according to the results of the DNA analysis, 35 belonged to the female gender. Excavations at other sites of ancient battles yielded approximately the same results.

9. Samurai armor. Unlike the knightly armor of medieval Europe, samurai armor was created with mobility in mind; it must be very strong, but at the same time remain flexible enough so as not to restrict the warrior’s movements. Samurai armor was made of metal or durable leather plates coated with varnish. The plates were neatly tied together with leather laces. The hands were protected by shoulder pads - small rectangular shields, as well as armored sleeves.

An interesting detail of a samurai's armor is a bowl-shaped helmet assembled from metal plates fastened together with rivets. The warrior's face was protected by armor attached to the back of the head, under the helmet. An interesting detail of the samurai headdress is the balaclava, very reminiscent of Darth Vader's mask ( interesting fact: the design of the helmet shape of the Star Wars movie character Darth Vader is taken exactly from the shape of the helmet of Japanese warriors). This piece of armor protected the warrior from blows from arrows and swords struck at small angles. Warriors attached masks of combat masks - mengu - to their helmets, protecting the warrior and frightening the enemy.

8. Sex and samurai. Sexual relationships between Japanese warriors can be called free. Approximately the same relationships between warriors took place in ancient Sparta. Same-sex relationships typically arose between more experienced samurai masters (mentors) and young warriors who were just beginning to train (novices). This practice of same-sex relationships was called wakashudo (the way of youth). Documentary evidence found says that almost the entire samurai class passed through the “path of youth.”

7. European samurai. Ancient Japanese chronicles say that under special conditions, a non-Japanese person could easily fight alongside the samurai, and becoming one of the samurai was considered a special honor. Such a warrior was given weapons and armor, and was also called a new name, Japanese. This honor could only be bestowed by very powerful leaders, such as the daimyo, or by the person who actually ruled Japan for most of the time - the general, that is, the shogun.

In history there is a mention of four men who had the honor of receiving the title of samurai:

The English navigator and the first Briton to reach the shores of Japan, William Adams, also known as Miura Anjin, played a vital role in the development of trade relations between Japan and Holland and Japan and England.

Dutch navigator and merchant Jan Joosten van Lodestein, known as Yayosu, acted as adviser to the shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu on foreign policy and trade issues.

French naval officer Eugene Collache also took the title of samurai. Japanese name unknown. Upon arrival in France, he was dismissed by court martial as a deserter. He wrote the book Adventures in Japan 1868-1869, which was published in 1874.

Dutch by birth and arms dealer Edward Schnell, Japanese name Hiramatsu Buhei. He was a military instructor and weapons supplier for the Japanese.

6. Number of samurai. There is an opinion that samurai were chosen warriors and there were very few of them. In reality, samurai were armed servants close to the nobility. Subsequently, samurai became associated with the bushi class - middle and upper class warriors. A simple conclusion suggests itself - there were significantly more samurai than is commonly believed; more than 10% of the Japanese population were samurai. And since there were many of them, they had a significant influence on the history of the empire; It is believed that today every Japanese has a piece of the blood of great warriors.

5. Samurai clothes. Samurai were, in a sense, standards, and the warrior's clothing style had a significant influence on the fashion of an entire era. Samurai almost never dressed outrageously. All of their clothing was designed to fit the needs of a warrior. It was intended for freedom of movement and should not restrict movement.

The samurai's clothing consisted of several basic elements: hakama (wide trousers, similar to bloomers), kimono (traditional clothing in Japan, usually silk), and hitatare (a kind of cape, ceremonial clothing that was worn under armor). This suit did not restrict movement and left your hands free. For footwear, samurai wore shoes made of wood and simple sandals.

Perhaps the most characteristic feature was the samurai's hairstyle - hair collected in a bun. This may be due to the fact that wearing a helmet with this hairstyle is more convenient.

4. Samurai weapons. Being warriors, samurai were fluent in many types of weapons. The oldest sword carried by Japanese warriors was the chokuto sword. That's what all the swords were called ancient type, which appeared among Japanese warriors in the 2nd-4th centuries AD. They were straight and had a one-sided sharpening.

The weapons continued to be improved. Subsequently, the swords became more curved and over time turned into the legendary Japanese sword, known to us as the katana - a curved Japanese two-handed sword with a one-sided blade and a blade length of more than 60 centimeters. Without a doubt, the Japanese katana sword is a symbol of the samurai, because, as the samurai code says, the soul of a warrior lives in his sword. Along with the katana, the samurai carried a smaller sword - the shoto, 33-66 centimeters long. Only samurai had the right to wear shoto. Together, the large and small swords were called daisho, which literally translates as “big-small.”

The samurai also had a long bow in his arsenal - yumi, more than two meters long. The bow is made from laminated bamboo, wood, and leather is also used in the work - this manufacturing method has not changed for centuries. The samurai practiced archery almost to the point of fanaticism. Also in battle, Japanese warriors used a spear - yari, a Japanese polearm with many modifications. But for the samurai, the spear was, for the most part, a symbol of personal courage.

3. Education of a samurai. The overwhelming majority of samurai, in addition to being skilled warriors, had an excellent education. Bushido, the samurai code, said that a warrior should always improve and improve himself by any means, even if it does not involve war. Japanese warriors wrote poetry, painted pictures, held tea ceremonies, studied calligraphy, many mastered the art of arranging bouquets - ikebana, read literature and had excellent knowledge of mathematics.

2. The image of a samurai. The armor and weapons of the samurai created a rather impressive appearance, and now in many films Japanese warriors are shown just like that. In reality, everything was not like that. Their height in medieval Japan was approximately 160-165 centimeters, and their physique was thin. In addition, there are many references that it is likely that samurai descended from ethnic group small people Ainu They were much taller and stronger than the Japanese, their skin was white, and their appearance was largely the same as the Europeans.

1. Ritual suicide by ripping open the abdomen - seppuku or hara-kiri - is an immediate attribute of a samurai. Seppuku was committed at a time when a warrior was unable to follow the code of bushido, or when he was captured by an enemy. Ritual suicide was not only done voluntarily, but was also used as punishment, but in any case it was an honorable way to die.

The ritual of seppuku is a fairly lengthy ritual. It began with a washing ceremony. After bathing, the warrior was dressed in all white and brought his favorite food. Immediately after eating, a short sword was placed on the already empty dish. Next, the samurai wrote a dying poem - tanka (a five-line Japanese poetic form consisting of 31 syllables). After this, the samurai took a short sword, wrapped the blade in cloth so as not to cut his hand, and committed suicide by cutting his stomach.

The person nearby had to finish off the samurai by cutting off his head. In most cases it was the closest friend who was given the greatest honor and was given an honorable role. The assistant's greatest skill was to cut off the head so that it hung on a small strip of skin and remained in the arms of the already dead samurai.

Ancient Japanese civilization did not have a significant impact on the ancient and medieval culture of other regions. Its significance for world culture lies elsewhere.

Having developed a unique art, literature, and worldview based on the most heterogeneous and multi-stage elements, Japan was able to prove that its cultural values have sufficient potential both in time and in space, even if they remained unknown to contemporaries in other countries due to the island position of the country . The task of the historian of Japanese antiquity is, in particular, to understand how the foundations of what we now call Japanese culture were laid, which, after a centuries-long period of accumulation of the cultural heritage of other countries, is now making an ever-increasing contribution to the development of universal human culture.

Japanese civilization is young. The people who created it are also young. It was formed as a result of complex and multi-temporal ethnic mergers of settlers who overcame a water barrier, separating

Clay figures. traveling the Japanese islands from the mainland.

Pertschjomon. The earliest inhabitants

VIlI-I millennium BC e. r, _

In Japan there were, in all likelihood, proto-Ainu tribes, as well as tribes of Malay-Polynesian origin. In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. from the southern part of the Korean Peninsula there is an intensive migration of the proto-Japanese Wa tribes, who managed to significantly assimilate the population of southern Japan (the Japanese language, according to the latest research by S. A. Starostin, shows the greatest kinship with Korean).

And although in that era all the tribes inhabiting the territory of Japan were at the level of the primitive communal system, even then, probably, one of the leading stereotypes of the Japanese worldview was laid down, which can be seen throughout the history of this country - the ability to assimilate skills and knowledge, received as a result of contacts with other peoples. It was after assimilation with local tribes at the turn of the IV-III centuries. BC e. Cultivation of irrigated rice and metal processing begins.

The period lasting six centuries (until the 3rd century AD) is called “Yayoi” in Japanese historiography (after the quarter in Tokyo, where

the remains of this culture were discovered for the first time). The Yayoi culture is characterized by the creation of stable communities whose basis of life was irrigated agriculture. Since bronze and iron penetrated Japan almost simultaneously, bronze was used mainly for the manufacture of religious objects: ritual mirrors, swords, bells, and iron was used for the production of tools.

The ability to assimilate foreign samples becomes especially noticeable with the emergence of statehood, dating back to

III-IV centuries n. e. At this time, the conquest of the alliance of tribes of Southern Kyushu into Central Japan took place. As a result, the so-called Yamato state begins to form, the culture of which is characterized by hitherto unprecedented homogeneity.

Period from the 4th to the beginning of the 7th century. is called kurgan (“kofun jidai”) based on the type of burial, the structure and inventory of which are distinguished by the features of strong Korean and Chinese influences. Nevertheless, such large-scale construction - and currently more than IO thousand mounds have been discovered - could not have been successful if the very idea of mounds was alien to the population of Japan. The Yamato mounds are probably genetically related to the Kyushu dolmens. Among the objects of funerary cult, Haniwa clay sculpture is of particular importance. Among these brilliant examples of ancient ritual art are images of dwellings, temples, umbrellas, vessels, weapons, armor, boats, animals, birds, priests, warriors, etc. From these images, many features of the material and spiritual life of the ancient Japanese are restored. Construction of structures kurgan type was obviously associated with the cult of ancestors and the cult of the Sun, which is reflected in the monuments of early Japanese writing that have reached us (mythological and chronicle codes “Kojiki”, “Nihon Shoki”).

The cult of ancestors is of particular importance for the original Japanese religion.

gyi - Shintoism, and therefore for the entire culture of Japan. Along with the above-mentioned openness to foreign influences, the cult of ancestors represents another powerful driving force development of Japanese civilization, a force that ensured continuity in the course of historical evolution.

At the state level, the cult of ancestors was embodied in the cult of the sun goddess Amaterasu, considered the ancestor of the ruling family. Among the cycle of myths dedicated to Amaterasu, the central place is occupied by the narrative

Ancient Japanese

civilization

Detail of a clay figurine. III-

II millennium BC e.

Clay figurine. End of the Jomon period. II century BC e.

about her hiding in a heavenly cave, when the world plunged into darkness and remained in it until the gods, with the help of magical techniques, managed to lure the goddess out of her refuge.

The pantheon of early Shintoism included the ancestral deities of the clans, who occupied a leading place in the social structure of Japanese society during the period when myth was formed as a category state ideology. The ancestral deities were considered multifunctional protectors of the clans that traced their origins from them. In addition to tribal deities, the Japanese also worshiped numerous landscape deities, which, as a rule, had local significance.

By the middle of the 6th century. in the state of Yamato, a certain political stability was achieved, although the mitigation of centrifugal tendencies still remained one of the main concerns of the ruling family.

To overcome the ideological fragmentation sanctified by the tribal and regional cults of Shinto, the Japanese rulers turned to the religion of a developed class society - Buddhism.

It is difficult to overestimate the role that Buddhism played in the history of Japan. In addition to its contribution to the formation of a national ideology, the doctrine of Buddhism formed a new type of personality, devoid of clan attachment and therefore more suitable for functioning in the system of state relations. The process of Buddhist socialization was never completely completed, but nevertheless at this stage historical development Buddhism served as the cementing force that ensured the ideological homogeneity of the Japanese state. The humanizing role of Buddhism was also great, introducing positive ethical standards of community life that came to

Clay vessel. Jomon period.

VPI-I thousand before and. 3.

Dancer. Haniwa. Kofun period. Mid-3rd to mid-6th century. n. e.

change to Shinto taboos.

Along with Buddhism, a material complex serving the needs of this religion also penetrates into Japan. The construction of temples, the production of sculptural images of Buddhas and bodhisattvas, and other objects of worship begin. Syntonism at that time did not yet have a developed tradition of constructing indoor places of worship for holding services.

The layout of the first Japanese Buddhist temple complexes, with their orientation from south to north, generally corresponds to Korean and Chinese prototypes. However, many design features of construction, for example, the anti-seismicity of structures, indicate that temples and monasteries were erected with the direct participation of local craftsmen. An important property of many of the first Buddhist temples in Japan was also the absence of prayer rooms, a feature inherited from compositional construction Shinto shrines. The interior was not intended for prayers, but for the preservation of temple shrines.

The most grandiose Buddhist religious building was the Todaiji Temple, the complex of which occupied more than 90 hectares (erected in the mid-8th century). The temple symbolized the power of the state. In addition to purely religious needs, it was also used for secular ceremonies of national significance, for example, for conferring official ranks. Todaiji's "Golden Pavilion" ("condo") was rebuilt several times after devastating fires. It is currently the largest wooden structure in the world. Its height is 49, width is 57. length - 50 m. It houses a giant statue

space Buddha Vairocana, 18 m high. However, the “gigantomania syndrome” was overcome quite quickly, and in the future nothing similar to the Todaiji temple complex was built. The desire for miniaturization in the 7th-8th centuries became characteristic. continental Buddhist sculpture almost completely suppresses the local iconographic tradition.

Bronze Buddhist statues were either imported from Korea and China or made by visiting craftsmen. Along with bronze sculpture from the second half of the 8th century. The production of lacquer, clay and wooden Buddhist images, the appearance of which is noticeably influenced by the local iconographic canon, is becoming increasingly common. Compared to sculpture, monumental temple painting occupied a much smaller place in the visual canon.

The sculpture depicted not only Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. Since Buddhism brought with it a concept of personality that was more individualized than the one that Shintoism had developed by that time, it is no coincidence that from the middle of the 8th century. There is an interest in portraiture of prominent figures of Japanese Buddhism (Gyoshin, Gien, Ganjin, etc.). However, these portraits are still devoid of a person’s personal traits and tend towards typification.

By 710, the construction of the permanent capital Hapa was completed, which was a typical bureaucratic city with a certain layout, similar to the capital of Tang China, Chang'an. The city was divided from south to north by nine streets, and from west to east by eight. Intersecting at right angles, they formed a rectangle measuring 4.8 by 4.3 km, in 72 blocks of which, together with the nearest suburbs, according to modern estimates, up to 200 thousand people could live. Hapa was then the only city: the level of development of agriculture, crafts and social relations had not yet reached the stage when the emergence of cities would become a universal necessity. Nevertheless, the colossal concentration of population in the capital at that time contributed to the development of product exchange and commodity-money relations. B VIII century Japan had already minted its own coin.

The construction of a capital on a continental model was one of the important measures to transform Japan from a semi-barbarian kingdom into an “empire,” which was to be facilitated by numerous reforms that began to be actively carried out in the middle

now 7th century In 646, a decree consisting of four articles was promulgated. According to Article 1, the previous hereditary system of ownership of slaves and land was abolished; Instead, state ownership of land was proclaimed and fixed salaries were allocated in accordance with official ranks. Article 2 prescribed a new territorial division of the country into provinces and districts; the status of the capital was determined. Article 3 announced the census of households and the compilation of registers

Ancient Japanese

civilization

for the redistribution of land. Article 4 of the Statement of Painting CANCELLED THE FORMER ARBITRARY sanction. V-

labor conscription and established the amount of in-kind household taxation on agricultural and handicraft products.

The entire second half of the 7th century. marked by increased government activity in the field of legislation. Subsequently, individual decrees were brought together, and on their basis, in 701, the drafting of the first universal legislation “Taihoryo” was completed, serving

Wall painting with additions and modifications

GroGchshtsy Tokamatsu-ts IYA mi base of feudal law-

dzuka. Vj V. H. E.

dating throughout the Middle Ages. According to "Taihoryo" and "Eroryo" (757 r.), the administrative and bureaucratic apparatus of the Japanese

The state was a complex and branched hierarchical system with strict subordination from top to bottom. The economic basis of the country was the state monopoly on land.

During the 7th-8th centuries. The Japanese state is trying to ideologically substantiate existing and newly created governance institutions. First of all, the mythological and chronicle collections “Kojiki” (712) and “Nihon Shoki” (720) should have served this purpose. Myths and records of historical and semi-legendary events were subjected to significant processing in both monuments. The main goal of the compilers was to create a state ideology, in other words, to combine “myth” and “history”: the narrative of the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki is divided into the “era of gods” and “era of emperors.” Consequently, the then position of the royal family, as well as other most powerful families from among the tribal aristocracy, was justified in the role played by the ancestral deities during the “era of the gods.”

The compilation of the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki marks an important stage in the creation of a national ideology based on Shinto myth. This attempt should be considered very successful. The myth was brought into line with the realities of history, and the system of sacred genealogies played an outstanding role in the events of Japanese history until the 20th century.

Simultaneously with the active involvement of Shintoism in state building, Buddhism is losing its position in this area. This becomes especially noticeable after the failed coup undertaken by the Buddhist monk Dokyo in 771. To avoid the pressure of the Buddhist clergy, who settled in the temples and monasteries of Hapa, in 784 r. the capital was moved to Nagaoka, and in 794 to Heian. Although largely deprived of state support, Buddhism nevertheless greatly contributed to the formation of an individual who stood out from the group and constantly participated in the process of its socialization. This is its enduring significance in Japanese history.

Despite the fact that the compilation of the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki pursued the same goals, only the Nihon Shoki was recognized as a “real” dynastic chronicle. Although both monuments were composed in Chinese (“Kojiki” - with great use of the phonetic notation of the “manyōgan” hieroglyphs), “Kojiki” was recorded by Ono Yasumaro from the voice of the storyteller Hieda no Are. Thus, the usual Shinto “oral channel” for transmitting sacred information was used. Only then, according to the beliefs of traditionalists, did the text become a true text.

The text of Nihon Shoki appears from the very beginning as a written text. In view of the active spread of Chinese writing, which created new opportunities for recording and storing important cultural values, Japanese society was faced with the question of which speech - written or oral - should be recognized as more authoritative. Initially, the choice was made in favor of the first. For some time, the Chinese literary language became the language of culture. It served primarily the needs of the state. Chronicles were written in Chinese and laws were drawn up. Works of Chinese philosophical, sociological and literary thought were used as textbooks in public schools established in the 8th century.

Medieval Japanese poetry is now known throughout the world. But the first of the poetic anthologies that have come down to us is “Kaifuso”

Decomposition of the birth layer

During the 2nd-3rd centuries.

the increase in clans, their division into large and small and the settlement of individual groups in different places of the country, as well as the development of exchange contributed to the strengthening of inter-tribal and inter-tribal ties. This, coupled with the struggle against surrounding non-Japanese tribes, caused a trend towards larger inter-tribal affiliations. The process of unification was not carried out peacefully, but during a fierce inter-tribal struggle. The weaker clans were absorbed by the stronger ones. Japanese chronicles report submission large quantity

clans inhabiting the central part of the Honshu Peninsula, the strongest group of clans - Yamato. Similar tribal associations arise in Tsukushi.

Significant changes also occurred within the genus. In economic life, the main unit becomes the community - mura, which is an association of several consanguineous groups of 15-30 people each. Gradually, these consanguineous groups are separated from the mura into special family communities.

Wars between tribes took on a different character: the vanquished began to be subject to tribute, and the captives became slaves. Slaves were either used within the family community or exported to neighboring countries. “History of the Younger Han Dynasty” reports, for example, about the dispatch in 107 AD. e. from Japan to China 160 slaves. In an environment of constant wars, the importance of military leaders, the general tribal leader (“king”) and the elders of the largest clans grew. Most of the war booty and prisoners fell into their hands. At the same time, continuous wars had a heavy impact on the position of ordinary members of the clan and caused significant damage to the economy. The decomposition of the tribal organization was accompanied by further changes in the socio-economic system. Along with slaves, who were mainly used as domestic servants, a new category of unfree people appeared - be. They were initially simple tributaries of the victorious clan; later, Chinese and Korean settlers conquered by the clans were turned into be.

Despite its island position, Japan was constantly influenced by the higher Chinese and

Imperial Gardens in Kyoto - former
residences of the emperors.

Confucianism, which came to Japan first through Korea - in the 4th-5th centuries, also left a significant imprint on the psychology of the Japanese. and then directly from China - in the 6th century. It was then that Chinese became the language of educated Japanese; official correspondence was conducted in it and literature was created. If the penetration of Confucianism entailed the spread of the Chinese language, then the Chinese language, taking root in the highest spheres of the country, largely served the purpose of promoting Confucian influence. It is not surprising that the Confucian doctrine of the deification of ancestors, veneration of parents, unquestioning subordination of the inferior to the superior, and the most detailed regulation of the behavior of any member of society are firmly embedded in all spheres of human psychology.

Confucian ideas are well expressed in the following saying: “The relationship between the superior and the inferior is like the relationship between the wind and the grass: the grass must bend if the wind blows.”

Buddhism and Confucianism began to play the role of a kind of ideological and moral superstructure in Japan.

However, in the system of religious doctrines of Japan, the truly Japanese religion of Shinto occupied a dominant place. Shinto (Way of the Gods) This is an ancient Japanese religion.

Shintoism is free from the religious idea of a “central authority” of the Almighty, it teaches mainly the cult of ancestors and the worship of nature. There are no other commandments in Shintoism, except for the communal instructions to maintain cleanliness and adhere to the natural order of things. He has one general rule of morality: “Act according to the laws of nature, while sparing the laws of society.” According to Shinto beliefs, the Japanese have an instinctive understanding of good and evil, therefore, observing duties in society is also instinctive: if it were not so, then the Japanese “would be worse than animals, whom no one teaches how they should act.” Information about Shintoism in the ancient books “Kojiki” and “Nihongi” gives a sufficient idea of this religion.

Such writings combine two ideas - the idea of blood tribal unity and the idea of political power. The reflection of the first is in the expansion of the tribe in time: in relation to the past, in the connection from the birth of all things in general; in the inclusion of everything foreign into the tribe, in subordination to it, in drawing the genealogical line along the main representatives - gods, leaders, kings - as a manifestation of the unity of the tribe. Reflection of the second - in the view

political power as the fulfillment by gods, leaders, kings of the will of the highest gods. Japanese chronicles claim that initially chaos reigned in the world, but then everything became harmonious: the sky separated from the earth, the feminine and masculine principles became isolated: the first in the person of the goddess Izanami, the second in the person of her husband Izanagi.

The Mikado Emperor in the minds of the Japanese, due to his “divine” origin, is related to the entire people; he is the head of the nation-family. Even the shoguns, who dominated Japan for more than three hundred years, called themselves representatives of the Mikado. The idea of the Mikado, sanctified by Shintoism, has not disappeared from the consciousness of the Japanese today, although, of course, its regulating power has weakened significantly.

Even modern Japanese, although outwardly seemingly not attaching serious importance to this idea, subconsciously sincerely revere it. To this day, various rituals are performed in Shinto shrines in honor of the imperial family (according to some sources, there are more than one hundred thousand of them).

Shintoism formed among the Japanese a special view of the world of things, nature, and relationships. This view is based on five concepts.

The first concept states that everything that exists is the result of the self-development of the world: the world appeared on its own, it is good and perfect. The regulating power of being, according to Shinto doctrine, comes from the world itself, and not from some supreme being, as with Christians or Muslims. The religious consciousness of the ancient Japanese rested on this understanding of the universe, who was surprised by the questions of representatives of other faiths: “What is your faith?” or even more - “Do you believe in God?”

The third concept asserts the unity of nature and history. In the Shinto view of the world there is no division into living and non-living; for a Shinto adherent, everything is living: animals, plants, and things; the deity kami lives in everything natural and in man himself. Some believe that people are kami, or rather, kami are located in them, or, ultimately, they can later become kami, etc. According to Shinto, the world of kami is not an otherworldly abode, different from the world of people. Kami are united with people, so people do not need to seek salvation somewhere in another world. According to Shinto, salvation is achieved by merging with the kami in everyday life.

The fourth concept is related to polytheism. Shinto arose from local nature cults, the worship of local, clan and tribal deities.

The primitive shamanic and witchcraft rituals of Shinto began to come to a certain uniformity only in the 5th-6th centuries, when the imperial court began to take control of the activities of Shinto temples. At the beginning of the 8th century. A special department for Shinto affairs was created at the imperial court. The fifth concept of Shinto is related to the national psychological basis. According to this concept, the Shinto gods, the kami, did not give birth to people in general, but only to the Japanese.

In ancient times, the cult action in Shinto consisted of worshiping the deity of a particular temple, which, in essence, had no relation to other temples. The rituals of Shinto shrines consisted of pleasing the local deity. This simplicity of the ceremony, requiring only offerings and simple ritual actions from people, was the most important reason for the persistence of Shinto over the centuries. For the ancient Japanese who lived in rural areas, its temple, its rituals, its annual colorful holidays have become a necessary part of life;

this is how his fathers and grandfathers lived, this is how he himself lived, without making any effort; This was the custom, this is what all relatives and neighbors do.

Despite the lack of unity in the veneration of deities, the structure of Shinto shrines is nevertheless uniform. The core of each temple is the honden (shrine), which houses the shintai (shrine, deity). Adjacent to the honden is a haiden, i.e., a hall for worshipers. There are no images of gods in the temples, but some temples are decorated with images of lions or other animals. At the Inari temples there are images of foxes, at the Hie temples - monkeys, at the Kasuga temples - an image of deer. These animals are seen as messengers of their respective deities. All this testifies to the connection between Shinto and numerous specific folk beliefs.

Ancients

folk beliefs

Usually, folk beliefs are understood as ancient religious practices that are not associated with the church hierarchy. This is a complex of ideas and actions based on prejudices, superstitions, etc. Although folk beliefs differ from the temple cult, the connections are obvious. Let us turn, for example, to the ancient cult of the fox, which the Japanese have worshiped since time immemorial.

In some areas of Japan, especially on the coast, since ancient times, local residents worshiped the turtle. Fishermen considered the turtle (kame) to be the deity (kami) of the sea, on whom their luck depended. Huge turtles off the coast of Japan are often caught in fishing nets.

The fishermen carefully pulled them out of the nets, gave them sake to drink and released them back into the sea.

Also in ancient Japan there was a peculiar cult of snakes and mollusks. In fact, nowadays the Japanese fearlessly eat them, but some types of snakes and shellfish are still considered sacred. These are tanisi, inhabitants of rivers and ponds. Some scholars believe that reverence for tanishi came to Japan from China. According to legend, in the Aizu area there once stood the Wakamiya Hachiman Temple, at the foot of which there were two ponds. If someone caught tanisi in these ponds, then at night in a dream he heard a voice demanding her return.

Sometimes patients specifically caught tanishi in order to hear the voice of the kami of the pond at night and demand recovery for themselves in exchange for the release of tanishi. Old Japanese medical books indicated that tanishi was a good remedy for eye diseases; There are, however, legends that only those who do not eat tanisi are cured of eye diseases.

In ancient times, the shark (same) in Japan was considered a creature endowed with divine power, i.e. kami. There were various legends about the shark. One of them tells that a shark once bit off a woman’s leg. The woman's father asked the spirits of the sea to avenge his daughter in prayers. After some time, he saw a large school of sharks in the sea chasing one predator. The fisherman caught her, killed her and found his daughter’s leg in her stomach.

Fishermen believed that a shark could help avoid misfortune at sea and even carry a drowning person to the shore on its back.

It was believed that schools of fish followed the sacred shark. If a fisherman was lucky enough to meet her, he returned with a rich catch. The Japanese also idolized the crab. An amulet made from its dried shell was believed to protect against evil spirits and diseases. It was said that one day crabs appeared in a coastal area where no one had ever seen them. Fishermen caught them, dried them and hung them on trees; Since then, evil spirits have avoided these places.

There is still a legend that the Taira warriors

defeated

in an internecine war with the Minato clan, they plunged into the sea and turned into crabs there. Therefore, in some rural areas it is believed to this day that the crab's belly resembles a human face.

Koshin (year of the Monkey) is the name of one of the years of the ancient cyclical chronology used in Japan until 1878. This chronology consists of repeating 60-year cycles.

The cult of koshin is associated with Taoism, brought to Japan from China. Taoists believed that on the night of the New Year, a certain mysterious creature living in the body of every person leaves him during sleep and rises into the sky, where he reports to the heavenly ruler about sinful deeds. Based on this report, the heavenly lord can take a person's life, so it was recommended to spend the nights of kosin without sleep. In Japan, this custom has become very widespread. Gradually, it also absorbed elements of Buddhism and Shintoism.

Many deities from the Buddhist pantheon naturally entered the popular pantheon of Japanese deities. Thus, the Buddhist saint Jizo gained great popularity in Japan. In the courtyard of one of the temples in Tokyo, a statue of Jizo was erected, entangled in straw ropes. This is the so-called Shibarare Jizo - “bound Jizo”; if any valuables were stolen from a person, he tied up Jizo and promised to release him when the loss was discovered.

Researchers classify the ancient folk beliefs of the Japanese as follows:
Production cults (mainly associated with agriculture and fishing);
- healing cults (providing supposed cures for diseases);
- cults of patronage (aimed at protection from epidemics and other external disasters);
- cult - guardian of the hearth (who protected the house from fire and maintained peace in the family);
- the cult of luck and prosperity (which gave acquisitions and blessings of life);

- a cult of scaring away evil spirits (aimed at getting rid of various evil spirits - devils, water creatures, goblin).

Harmony of the tea ceremony. Special mention should be made of the so-called tea ceremony (chanoyu in Japanese). This ceremony is one of the most original, unique and ancient arts. It plays a significant role in spiritual and public life Japanese for several centuries. Tyanoyu is a strictly prescribed ritual in which the tea master participates - the one who brews the tea, pours it, and those who are present and then drink. The first is the priest performing the tea action, the second are the participants in the action, joining in it. Everyone has their own, covering both sitting posture, all movements, facial expression, and manner of speech.

Chanyu aesthetics, his refined ritual obeys the canons of Zen Buddhism. According to legend, it originates from China from the time of the first patriarch of Buddhism, Bodhidharma. One day, the legend says, while sitting in meditation, Bodhidharma felt that his eyes were closing and against his will he was falling asleep. Then, angry with himself, he tore out his eyelids and threw them to the ground. An unusual bush with succulent leaves soon grew in this place. Later, Bodhidharma's disciples began to brew these leaves

hot water

- the drink helped them stay cheerful.

In fact, the tea ceremony originated in China long before the advent of Buddhism. According to many sources, it was introduced by Lao Tzu. It was he who in the 5th century.

BC e., according to legends, he proposed a ritual with a cup of “golden elixir”. This ritual flourished in China until the Mongol invasion. Later, the Chinese reduced the ceremony with the “golden elixir” to simply brewing dried leaves of a tea bush.

In Japan, the art of tyanoyu received its logical conclusion.

Gautama learned four holy truths: life at its core is suffering; the cause of suffering is the passions, needs, desires of people; to get rid of suffering, one must stop all desires;

this can only be done by escaping reality and achieving “highest enlightenment” - nirvana. From the time Gautama became Buddha (Buddha in Sanskrit means “enlightened”, “one who has achieved insight”, and the Japanese also borrowed this concept), he began to be called Shakya-Muni (saint from the Shakya family).

Later life

Buddha dedicated himself to preaching his teachings. He died at 80 years old. Followers, including in Japan, began to endow him with various supernatural abilities: he could be invisible, fly through the air, walk on water, hold the sun and moon in his hands, etc. Gradually, Buddha acquired other divine qualities in people’s imaginations . The main thing in Japaneseized Buddhism is avoidance of everyday reality. Buddhism preaches renunciation of passions, proclaims the futility of worldly worries, and calls for peace of mind. A Buddhist, as follows from the canons, should escape from samsara (the material, sensory world) in order to move into the world of nirvana. According to the teachings of Buddha, samsara is the illusory world, and nirvana is the true world. Reality, as follows from the tenets of Buddhism, is the movement of specific particles - dharmas. Everything in the world is formed from a combination of dharmas. Buddhist scholastics count from 70 to 100 varieties of dharmas. Also distinguished

certain groups dharmas: dharmas of being and non-being (that which is born and disappears, and that which exists forever); dharmas of excitement and peace (that which is subject to passion and vanity, and that which strives for calm);. In this regard, human death is understood as the collapse of one dharma structure and the emergence of another in the form of a person, animal, insect, plant, etc. Life, according to Buddhism, is a chain of endless rebirths. To ensure a “good rebirth” for yourself, not to be reborn, say , into a snake or an insect, a person must observe the precepts of Buddhism. The idea of man's place in the world is set out in numerous messages of the Buddha. Their essence is clearly visible in the Buddha's address to his disciples before his death.

Take care of your soul; know; that it is eternal; Are you not convinced that forgetting her, your pride and selfishness will bring you innumerable suffering?

Be attentive to everything that surrounds you; don't you see that all this is the eternal “self”? Don't you know that all this will eventually fall apart and be dispelled? Do not be afraid of suffering, follow my precepts and you will get rid of them. Do everything with your soul - and you will be my faithful students. My friends... Do not forget that death is only the disintegration of the body. The body was given to us by our parents. It is nourished by food, so illness and death are inevitable. But you know that Buddha is not the body, it is Enlightenment. The body will disappear, but the wisdom of enlightenment will remain forever. Enlightenment will live with you in the form of Dharma. Anyone who has seen my body has not yet seen me. I was seen by one who knew my teaching. After my death, my Dharma will be your teacher. Follow this Dharma and you will be faithful to me.”

Naturally, such a huge religion in terms of the number of adherents could not maintain unity and quite soon began to split into sects. The most significant split occurred in the 1st century, when two directions emerged within Buddhism: Hinayana and Mahayana.

In Japan, many Chinese and Korean monks who brought Buddhism created their own sects. A struggle developed between sects based on the doctrines of Hinayana and Mahayana. The latter was perceived by the Japanese as more acceptable, so Mahayanist temples began to appear everywhere.

Mahayana (lit. - great chariot) means, in contrast to Hinayana (lit. - small chariot), “the broad path of salvation.” According to the teachings of the Mahayana, not only a monk, as in the Hinayana, can be saved, but anyone who follows certain commandments and regulations.

Buddha is not seen as a teacher, but as a god. It is believed that there have been countless Buddhas, and that the next Buddha will replace the current one in more than eight million years. In the Mahayana pantheon there are more than a thousand Buddhas who will come to people in the future. There are even more bodhisattvas.

According to Buddhist canons, a bodhisattva is an enlightened person who renounces nirvana in order to help all people achieve enlightenment.

Bodhisattvas “bring people closer to the Buddha” and come to their aid when they call.

Bodhisattvas are helped by arhats, that is, saints who have achieved knowledge of the fundamental truths of existence and spread the teachings of Buddhism among the masses of the population. The number of adherents of Buddhism at the end of the 6th-7th centuries. n. e. increased at such a rapid pace that Emperor Kammu, fearing a monastic “invasion,” in 794 moved his capital from Nara to Uda County. Of course, Buddhism in Japan underwent its further and deeper transformation much later. But already at the beginning of this transformation, Japanese Buddhism, focusing on the internal problems of man, recommended a national approach to experiencing reality. Unlike classical Buddhism, which preaches the renunciation of desires, Japanese promotes a reasonable attitude towards them. According to the canons of Japanese Buddhism, only unrealistic desires are the cause of anxiety and anxiety. “Enlightenment” (satori in Japanese) is not associated with giving up the pleasures of life. Having achieved enlightenment, as already follows from the practice of modern sects, the Japanese should enjoy life.

Confucianism in Japan

Modern Tokyo.

Confucianism is usually understood as a religious and philosophical system that arose in China 2500 years ago.

However, during the victorious spread of this system throughout various Asian countries, including Japan, the Chinese language did not have a separate word to denote the concept of “religion”: the hieroglyph jiao (ke in Japanese) used in such cases in translation also denoted religion , and teaching. It was in this understanding that the Japanese perceived Confucianism.

According to the teachings of Confucius, the character ren consists of two semantic elements: “man” and “two”. Confucius believed that a person has an innate sense of humanity, which manifests itself in communication with another person.

Confucius taught that it is better to die than to refuse to honor one's parents. This situation was received very well in Japan. In addition, the ideas of Confucianism were presented in Japan in special treatises, which were intensively introduced into the minds of people. The state took care of the dissemination of xiao ideas among its subjects. This was explained by the fact that the principle itself included in its orbit not only the relationship between father and son, but also society as a whole: the relationship between the emperor and ministers, between local authorities and the population. Filial piety (unconditional submission to the father) extended to the entire state hierarchy, meaning submission to the existing order. It should be pointed out that if Buddhism can be considered an individual psychological system for regulating behavior, then Confucianism can be considered a moral and ethical system, on the basis of which the behavior of people in society is built. In addition, Shinto and Buddhism, which were dominant in Japan, turned out to be significant obstacles to the ideas of Confucius. Therefore, in ancient times Confucianism did not take over in wide circles population. In general, Confucian monuments were translated into Japanese only in the late Middle Ages, after which this teaching gained mass popularity.

Writing in ancient Japan

Although the Japanese language is built on the same hieroglyphic basis as Chinese, the commonality of the two languages is limited to writing. The Japanese language itself, its grammar and vocabulary are not languages of an analytical nature, like Chinese, but of an agglutinative structure. And they are genetically different. The Japanese did not have the original Japanese written language and wrote down their ancient chronicles in Chinese writing. Chinese characters were not adapted to the phonetic structure of the Japanese language, which created great difficulties not only in the writing and reading system, but also in understanding the Japanese text. Chinese characters in the Japanese text were read in the Japanese way and often denoted completely different realities than in the Chinese text. This prompted the Japanese to turn to the syllabary alphabet, two phonetic varieties of which - hiragana and katakana - are combined under common name

kana. Using kana, the Japanese began to write down words for which there were no Chinese characters. In addition, kana turned out to be convenient for denoting service verbs and grammatical particles.

A unique combination of two writing systems was created - hieroglyphic and phonetic.

Neolithic and the emergence of metals.................................................... ........................................................ ... 3

Decomposition of the generic layer................................................................... ........................................................ ........ 5

Religion in ancient Japan................................................................. ........................................................ ........ 6

Shinto (Way of the Gods)................................................... ........................................................ .................... 7

Ancient folk beliefs................................................................... ........................................................ .. 9

Buddhism in ancient Japan................................................................. ........................................................ ..... 12

Confucianism in Japan................................................... ........................................................ ...... 14

Writing in ancient Japan.................................................... ............................................. 15

The influence of Chinese civilization and statehood on neighboring countries and peoples was very noticeable. It, in particular, stimulated the acceleration of social, economic and especially political development of China's close neighbors throughout its history, be it the ancient nomads of the Xiongnu (Huns) or the Xianbei, Jurchens, Mongols or Manchus. But this affected not only the nomads, especially those who found themselves in the orbit of its direct influence. This influence was much more significant. Through Nanzhao it reached the Thais and Tibeto-Burmese tribes, but in Vietnam it simply set the tone, determined internal organization state and society.

Japan is in many ways close to Vietnam in this sense. It's not just about borrowing someone else's, even more high culture, although this also played a role. What is meant is something else: the proximity of a highly developed civilization inevitably had its impact both directly and indirectly, and such an impact played a particularly large role precisely in those periods of the history of a particular country when the basic parameters of the existence of a given society and state were determined. For Japan, which was in the zone of influence of Chinese civilization, influence of this kind was completely obvious and self-evident. The only question is what role it played in the process of formation of both countries. So, how it happened.

Neolithic and the emergence of metals.

Japan is an ancient, distinctive state. Without exaggeration, we can say that the European reader knows Japan both very well and still very poorly. The latter relates mainly to the spiritual life of the Japanese, their national psychological characteristics.

The history of Japan begins with the Neolithic. Located on an archipelago that stretches from north to south along the eastern coast of the Asian continent (its main islands: Hokkaido (the least populated) in the north, Honshu and Shikoku in the center and Kyushu in the south). Japan contains more than three thousand islands.

From time immemorial, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, floods, mountain falls and hurricanes have accompanied the life of the Japanese; Last but not least, natural disasters contributed to the development of such national qualities as courage, patience, self-control, and dexterity. Is it any wonder that nature evokes in the souls of the Japanese both a feeling of doom and at the same time a feeling of awe.

Although natural conditions The Japanese islands had a noticeable influence on the formation of the national psychology of the Japanese, but the determining factor here, as elsewhere on earth, was, of course, the method of production.

Since ancient times, the Japanese have been engaged in hunting, maritime fishing, and animal husbandry, but the majority of the population has cultivated rice fields for centuries.

Questions of the ethnogenesis of the Japanese still cause controversy today, giving rise to the most contradictory hypotheses and theories, none of which can explain the totality of facts accumulated by science.

Apparently, already in the 5th - 4th millennium BC, the Neolithic existed in Japan. The oldest Neolithic monuments in Japan are shell middens, distributed mainly along the Pacific coast. Based on the contents of these heaps, it can be concluded that the population was primarily engaged in gathering and fishing. They contain remains of edible shells and fish, harpoons, sinkers and fishhooks. Later heaps often contain bones of freshwater fish, deer, wild pigs, and birds. Together with hunting tools (obsidian arrowheads, ground axes and daggers) and fishing These piles contain hand-made pottery, richly decorated with rope (jomon) designs typical of early Japan. Clay female figurines indicate the existence of matriarchy. The population lived in settlements in large dugouts and buried the corpses right there in shell heaps. The bones lie on their backs in a crouched position and are often sprinkled with red ochre. The Japanese Neolithic is characterized by a relatively high level of cultural development with a generally slow pace of this development at the last stage.

In more advanced, southern regions in the 1st millennium BC. e. Grinding tools characteristic of the Late Neolithic appear in abundance, and metal products appear in burials. The ceramics are well-fired, sometimes made on a potter's wheel, most often smooth or with simple ornaments (yayo type). The population had already settled in the interior of the islands and was familiar with agriculture and the beginnings of cattle breeding.

With the advent of the Metal Age, property differentiation began to emerge, as evidenced by burials in double urns and rich grave goods (bronze mirrors, swords and daggers). This differentiation intensifies in the so-called Kurgan era (early Iron Age).

The ethnicity of the ancient population of the archipelago has not yet been completely clarified. As has already been indicated, both the Ainu and other southern tribes and, later, tribes of Mongol-Malay origin took part in the formation of the Japanese people.

From the middle of the first millennium BC. e. The so-called proto-Japanese tribes penetrate the Japanese islands through the Korea Strait from the south of the Korean Peninsula. With their arrival, domestic animals appeared on the islands - horses, cows, sheep, and the emergence of irrigated rice culture dates back to this period. The process of cultural development of alien tribes and their interaction with the local Austronesian-Ainu population occurred until the 5th century. Rice cultivation finally became the main focus of the economy on the Japanese Islands.

In a later period, the island population finally adopted elements of Chinese and Korean culture from Korea, as well as from China. By this time, the assimilation of the remnants of the Ausronesian population had been completed in the south of Kyushu. At the same time, the process of settling the forested north of the island of Honshu began. The local Ainu population of this island partially mixed with the newcomers, and was partially pushed to the north.

These processes have led to the fact that Japan is currently one of the most homogeneous ethnic composition countries of the world, the basis of the nation (more than 99 percent of the population) are the Japanese. The Ainu are now preserved only in Hokkaido; their number does not exceed 20 thousand.

History of Japan from the 1st century. BC e. already known from written sources. The earliest information is contained in Chinese historical monuments: “History of the Elder Han Dynasty” and “History of the Younger Han Dynasty” provide information about Japan in the 1st century. BC e. - P in. n. e., in “History of Wei” (Weizhi) and “History of Song” (Song-shu) - information about Japan II - V centuries. n. e. The Japanese chronicles “Kojiki” (8th century AD) and “Nihongi” (8th century AD) are more detailed than the Chinese, as far as Japan itself is concerned, but less accurate. Their chronology is very confusing and until the 6th century. n. e. little reliable. In addition, they contain many later layers.

According to the Japanese belief system - Shintoism, the Japanese nation originates from the sun goddess Ama-terasu, whose direct descendant was the legendary Emperor of Japan Jimmu (Jimmu-Tenno), who ascended the throne of the Yamato state in 660 BC. e. and marked the beginning of an unbroken dynasty of Japanese emperors. In Japan, it is customary to divide the history of the country into eras of the reign of one or another emperor. The personality of the emperor, the very idea of imperial power has always acted as the most important cementing factor in the national identity of the Japanese.

Decomposition of the birth layer.

At the beginning of our era, Japanese tribes did not inhabit the entire territory of the archipelago, but only part of the islands of Honshu and Kyushu. In the north of Honshu lived the Ainu (Ebisu), in the south - the Kumaso (Hayato). It is clear that such cohabitation of tribes in one territory could not favorably influence the future fate of the weaker ones. While the Japanese tribes were at the stage of a patriarchal clan, captives and immigrants from the mainland were accepted into the clan and became its full members. Korean and Chinese migrant craftsmen were especially readily accepted. The bulk of the free members of the clan were engaged in agriculture. They sowed rice, millet, and beans. Agricultural tools were made of stone or wood.

During the 2nd - 3rd centuries. the increase in clans, their division into large and small and the settlement of individual groups in different places of the country, as well as the development of exchange contributed to the strengthening of inter-tribal and inter-tribal ties. This, coupled with the struggle against surrounding non-Japanese tribes, caused a trend towards larger inter-tribal affiliations. The process of unification was not carried out peacefully, but during a fierce inter-tribal struggle. The weaker clans were absorbed by the stronger ones.

Japanese chronicles report the subordination of a large number of clans inhabiting the central part of the Honshu Peninsula to the most powerful group of clans - Yamato. Similar tribal associations arise in Tsukushi.

Significant changes also occurred within the genus. In economic life, the main unit becomes the community - mura, which is an association of several consanguineous groups of 15 - 30 people each. Gradually, these consanguineous groups are separated from the mura into special family communities.

Despite its island position, Japan was constantly influenced by the higher Chinese and Korean culture. The beginning of relations between Japan and China, traced through historical monuments, dates back to the 1st century. BC e., and in the 3rd century. n. e. Japan and China exchange embassies from time to time. These ties between Japan and China, and especially with Korea, were of great positive importance for the historical development of Japan in this period.

Religion in Ancient Japan.

Buddhism entered Japan from India through Korea and China in the 6th century. Buddhist preachers immediately appreciated all the benefits of an alliance with Shintoism. Where possible, they tried to use Shinto beliefs to promote the ideas of Buddhism. Confucianism, which came to Japan first through Korea - in the 4th - 5th centuries, also left a significant imprint on the psychology of the Japanese. and then directly from China - in the 6th century. It was then that Chinese became the language of educated Japanese; official correspondence was conducted in it and literature was created. If the penetration of Confucianism entailed the spread of the Chinese language, then the Chinese language, taking root in the highest spheres of the country, largely served the purpose of promoting Confucian influence. It is not surprising that the Confucian doctrine of the deification of ancestors, veneration of parents, unquestioning subordination of the inferior to the superior, and the most detailed regulation of the behavior of any member of society are firmly embedded in all spheres of human psychology. Confucian ideas are well expressed in the following saying: “The relationship between the superior and the inferior is like the relationship between the wind and the grass: the grass must bend if the wind blows.”

Buddhism and Confucianism began to play the role of a kind of ideological and moral superstructure in Japan. However, in the system of religious doctrines of Japan, the truly Japanese religion of Shinto occupied a dominant place.

Shinto (Way of the Gods).

This is an ancient Japanese religion. Although its origins are admittedly unknown, no one doubts the fact that it originated and developed in Japan outside of Chinese influence.

The Japanese usually do not seek to delve into the essence and origin of Shinto; for him it is history, tradition, and life itself. Shinto is reminiscent of ancient mythology. The practical goal and meaning of Shinto is to affirm the originality of the ancient history of Japan and the divine origin of the Japanese people: according to Shinto, it is believed that the Mikado (emperor) is a descendant of the spirits of heaven, and every Japanese is a descendant of second-class spirits - kami. For the Japanese, kami means the deity of ancestors, heroes, spirits, etc. The Japanese world is populated by myriads of kami. The devout Japanese thought that after death he would become one of them.

“Act according to the laws of nature, while sparing the laws of society.” According to Shinto beliefs, the Japanese have an instinctive understanding of good and evil, therefore, observing duties in society is also instinctive: if it were not so, then the Japanese “would be worse than animals, whom no one teaches how they should act.” Information about Shintoism in the ancient books “Kojiki” and “Nihongi” gives a sufficient idea of this religion.

Japanese chronicles claim that initially chaos reigned in the world, but then everything became harmonious: the sky separated from the earth, the feminine and masculine principles became isolated: the first in the person of the goddess Izanami, the second in the person of her husband Izanagi. They gave birth to the sun goddess Amaterasu; The moon god Tsukiyemi and the god of wind and water Susanoo entered into a struggle with each other. Amaterasu won and remained in heaven, and Susanoo was banished to the country of Izumo on earth. Susanoo's son, Okuninushi, became the ruler of Izumo. Amaterasu did not accept this and forced Okuninushi to hand over the reign to her grandson Ninigi. Ninigi descended from heaven and took over the government of Izumo State. As a sign of power, he was given three sacred objects - a mirror (a symbol of divinity), a sword (a symbol of power) and a jasper (a symbol of the loyalty of his subjects). From Ninigi came Jimmutenno (the title tenno means “Supreme Ruler”; retained by the reigning house to this day; rendered in European languages by the word “emperor”), the mythical first emperor of Japan - the Mikado. The mirror, sword and jasper have long remained the emblem of the Japanese imperial house.

Shintoism formed among the Japanese a special view of the world of things, nature, and relationships. This view is based on five concepts.

The first concept states that everything that exists is the result of the self-development of the world: the world appeared on its own, it is good and perfect. The regulating power of being, according to Shinto doctrine, comes from the world itself, and not from some supreme being, as with Christians or Muslims. The religious consciousness of the ancient Japanese rested on this understanding of the universe, who was surprised at the questions of representatives of other faiths: “What is your faith?” or even more - “Do you believe in God?”

The second concept emphasizes the power of life. According to mythology, the first sexual encounter occurred between the gods. And therefore sex and moral guilt are never connected in the minds of the Japanese. Everything that is natural, according to this principle, must be respected; only the “unclean” is not respected, but any “impure” can be purified. This is precisely what the rituals of Shinto shrines are aimed at, developing in people inclinations to adapt and adapt. Thanks to this, the Japanese were able to accept almost any innovation or modernization after it had been purified, adjusted, and coordinated with Japanese tradition.

The third concept asserts the unity of nature and history. In the Shinto view of the world there is no division into living and nonliving; for a Shinto adherent, everything is living: animals, plants, and things; the deity kami lives in everything natural and in man himself. Some believe that people are kami, or rather, kami are located in them, or ultimately they can later become kami, etc. According to Shinto, the world of kami is not an otherworldly abode, different from the world of people. Kami are united with people, so people do not need to seek salvation somewhere in another world. According to Shinto, salvation is achieved by merging with the kami in everyday life.

The fourth concept is related to polytheism. Shinto arose from local nature cults, the worship of local, clan and tribal deities. The primitive shamanic and witchcraft rituals of Shinto began to come to a certain uniformity only from the 5th - 6th centuries, when the imperial court began to take control of the activities of Shinto temples. At the beginning of the 8th century. A special department for Shinto affairs was created at the imperial court.

The fifth concept of Shinto is related to the national psychological basis. According to this concept, the Shinto gods, the kami, did not give birth to people in general, but only to the Japanese. In this regard, the idea that he belongs to Shinto takes root in the minds of the Japanese from the very first years of his life. This implies two most important factors in the regulation of behavior. First, the assertion that the kami are most intimately connected only with the Japanese nation; secondly, the Shinto point of view, according to which it is funny if a foreigner worships the kami and practices Shinto - such behavior of a non-Japanese is perceived as absurd. At the same time, Shinto does not prevent the Japanese themselves from practicing any other religion. It is no coincidence that almost all Japanese, in parallel with Shintoism, consider themselves adherents of some other religious doctrine. Currently, if you sum up the number of Japanese by belonging to individual faiths, you will get a number that exceeds the total population of the country.

In ancient times, the cult action in Shinto consisted of worshiping the deity of a particular temple, which, in essence, had no relation to other temples. The rituals of Shinto shrines consisted of pleasing the local deity. This simplicity of the ceremony, requiring only offerings and simple ritual actions from people, was the most important reason for the persistence of Shinto over the centuries. For the ancient Japanese, who lived in the countryside, his temple, his rituals, his annual colorful holidays became a necessary part of life; this is how his fathers and grandfathers lived, this is how he himself lived, without making any effort; This was the custom, this is what all relatives and neighbors do.

Ancient folk beliefs.

The deity in the form of a fox, the Japanese believed, had the body and mind of a man. In Japan, special temples were built in which people supposedly possessing the nature of a fox gathered. To the rhythmic sounds of drums and the howls of priests, parishioners with a “fox nature” fell into a state of trance. They believed that it was the spirit of the fox that infused its powers into them. Therefore, people with a “fox nature” considered themselves, in some way, sorcerers and seers who predicted the future.

The wolf has long been worshiped in Japan. This animal was considered the spirit of the Okami Mountains. People asked Okami to protect the crops and the workers themselves from various misfortunes. Thus, fishermen still ask him to send a favorable wind.

In some areas of Japan, especially on the coast, since ancient times, local residents have worshiped the turtle. Fishermen considered the turtle (kame) to be the deity (kami) of the sea, on whom their luck depended. Huge turtles off the coast of Japan are often caught in fishing nets. The fishermen carefully pulled them out of the nets, gave them sake to drink and released them back into the sea.

Also in ancient Japan there was a peculiar cult of snakes and mollusks. In fact, nowadays the Japanese fearlessly eat them, but some types of snakes and mollusks are still considered sacred. These are tanisi, inhabitants of rivers and ponds. Some scholars believe that reverence for tanishi came to Japan from China. According to legend, in the Aizu area there once stood the Wakamiya Hachiman Temple, at the foot of which there were two ponds. If someone caught tanisi in these ponds, then at night in a dream he heard a voice demanding her return. Sometimes patients specifically caught tanishi in order to hear the voice of the kami of the pond at night and demand recovery for themselves in exchange for the release of tanishi. Old Japanese medical books indicated that tanishi was a good remedy for eye diseases; There are, however, legends that only those who do not eat tanisi can be cured of eye diseases.

There are places in Japan where they still believe in the sacred okoze fish. This little one had a very large place in ancient legends. She was considered a representative of the kami of the mountains. The hunters wrapped the okoze in white paper and uttered something like a spell:

“Okoze, if you send me luck, I will turn you around and let you see the sunlight.” Many fishermen hung dried okoze at the doors of their huts in the hope that they would have good luck and the house would receive protection from evil spirits. When fishermen got into trouble, they promised the kami of the sea to bring a gift to okoze if he would have mercy and save them.

There were also beliefs that the tombo dragonfly, which was associated with courage and even the national spirit, would bring good luck and happiness to the Japanese. The dragonfly was perceived as a warlike insect, so it was customary to wear items with the image of a dragonfly. This custom has survived to this day; The image of a dragonfly can be seen on the boy’s things and clothes. This attitude towards the dragonfly comes from the depths of Japanese history, when Japan was called “the land of the dragonfly.” And now you can still find the word “dragonfly” in literature as a synonym for Japan.

Fishermen believed that a shark could help avoid misfortune at sea and could even carry a drowning person to the shore on its back. It was believed that schools of fish followed the sacred shark. If a fisherman was lucky enough to meet her, he returned with a rich catch.

The Japanese also idolized the crab. An amulet made from its dried shell was believed to protect against evil spirits and diseases. It was said that one day crabs appeared in a coastal area where no one had ever seen them. Fishermen caught them, dried them and hung them on trees; Since then, evil spirits have avoided these places. There is still a legend that the Taira warriors, defeated in an internecine war with the Minato clan, plunged into the sea and turned into crabs there. Therefore, in some rural areas it is believed to this day that the crab's belly resembles a human face.

Along with the veneration of animals, the worship of mountains, mountain springs, stones, trees, etc. spread in Japan. For the peasant, nature has long served as a reliable source of life, which is why he deified it in his ideas. The contemplation of individual stones, trees, etc. brought true pleasure to the Japanese. Among the trees, this is, of course, willow.

The Japanese idolized the weeping willow (yanagi). Its graceful thin branches, swaying under the slightest breath of wind, evoke high aesthetic feelings in them. Many poets have sung the praises of Yanagi since ancient times, and artists often depicted it in engravings and scrolls. The Japanese compare everything graceful and elegant to willow branches.

The Japanese considered Yanagi to be trees that brought happiness and good luck. Chopsticks were made from willow, which were used only on New Year's Day.

Initially, religions that came to Japan from the mainland had a huge influence on beliefs, as already indicated. This can be illustrated by the example of the Kosin cult.

Koshin (year of the Monkey) is the name of one of the years of the ancient cyclical chronology used in Japan until 1878. This chronology consists of repeating 60-year cycles. The cult of koshin is associated with Taoism, brought to Japan from China. Taoists believed that on the night of the New Year, a mysterious creature that lives in the body of every person leaves him during sleep and rises into the sky, where he reports to the heavenly ruler about sinful deeds. Based on this report, the heavenly lord can take a person's life, so it was recommended to spend the nights of kosin without sleep. In Japan, this custom has become very widespread. Gradually, it also absorbed elements of Buddhism and Shintoism.

Researchers classify the ancient folk beliefs of the Japanese as follows:

· production cults (mainly associated with agriculture and fishing);

· healing cults (providing supposed cures for diseases);

· cults of patronage (aimed at protection from epidemics and other external disasters);

· cult - the guardian of the home (who protected the house from fire and maintained peace in the family);

· cult of luck and prosperity (which gave acquisitions and blessings of life);

· cult of scaring away evil spirits (aimed at getting rid of various evil spirits - devils, water creatures, goblin).

Special mention should be made of the so-called tea ceremony (chanoyu in Japanese). This ceremony is one of the most original, unique and ancient arts. It has played a significant role in the spiritual and social life of the Japanese for several centuries. Tyanoyu is a strictly prescribed ritual in which the tea master participates - the one who brews the tea, pours it, and those who are present and then drink. The first is the priest performing the tea action, the second are the participants in the action who join in it. Each person has their own style of behavior, which includes their sitting posture, all movements, facial expressions, and manner of speech. Chanyu aesthetics, his refined ritual obeys the canons of Zen Buddhism. According to legend, it originates from China from the time of the first patriarch of Buddhism, Bodhidharma.

One day, the legend says, while sitting in meditation, Bodhidharma felt that his eyes were closing and against his will he was falling asleep. Then, angry with himself, he tore out his eyelids and threw them to the ground. An unusual bush with succulent leaves soon grew in this place. Later, Bodhidharma's disciples began to brew these leaves with hot water - the drink helped them stay alert.

In fact, the tea ceremony originated in China long before the advent of Buddhism. According to many sources, it was introduced by Lao Tzu. It was he who in the 5th century. BC e., according to legends, he proposed a ritual with a cup of “golden elixir”. This ritual flourished in China until the Mongol invasion. Later, the Chinese reduced the ceremony with the “golden elixir” to simply brewing dried leaves of a tea bush.

In Japan, the art of tyanoyu received its logical conclusion.

Buddhism in Ancient Japan.

This religion penetrated, as already noted, into Japan in the 6th century, when Buddhist monks began to penetrate the Japanese islands. Buddhist holy books written in Chinese were the first to appear in Japan. Traditional forms of Japaneseized Buddhism have their own characteristics.

As already indicated, the founder of Buddhism (Buddha) was born in the 6th century. BC. in the princely family of the Shakiyas (the Mighty), he was named Siddhartha, and when he came of age, he was given the name Gautama. That is, the Japanese fully accept the legend of Gautama. Just like the fact that Gautama’s father kept his son-heir away from worldly affairs, carried him on a gilded chariot, hiding him from the eyes of prying eyes. The young prince knew no worries, bathed in luxury and did not know real life. Once he did see an old beggar, another time a cripple, a third time a dead man, and a fourth time a wandering hermit. What he saw shocked Gautama and changed his fate. He renounced a rich inheritance, left his wife and son, and at the age of 29 became a wandering ascetic.

Gautama, according to the Japanese interpretation, spent six years wandering, living on alms. One night, sitting under the Bo (Bodhi, which means “knowledge”) tree in deep thought, he understood the meaning of existence - enlightenment descended on him. Gautama learned four holy truths: life at its core is suffering; the cause of suffering is the passions, needs, desires of people; to get rid of suffering, one must stop all desires; this can only be done by escaping reality and achieving “highest enlightenment” - nirvana.

From the time Gautama became Buddha (Buddha in Sanskrit means “enlightened”, “one who has achieved insight”, and the Japanese also borrowed this concept), he began to be called Shakya-Muni (saint from the Shakya family).

Buddha devoted his subsequent life to preaching his teachings. He died at 80 years old. Followers, including in Japan, began to endow him with various supernatural abilities: he could be invisible, fly through the air, walk on water, hold the sun and moon in his hands, etc. Gradually, Buddha acquired other divine qualities in people’s imaginations .

The main thing in Japaneseized Buddhism is avoidance of everyday reality. Buddhism preaches renunciation of passions, proclaims the futility of worldly worries, and calls for peace of mind.

A Buddhist, as follows from the canons, should escape from samsara (the material, sensory world) in order to move into the world of nirvana. According to the teachings of Buddha, samsara is the illusory world, and nirvana is the true world. Reality, as follows from the tenets of Buddhism, is the movement of specific particles - dharmas. Everything in the world is formed from a combination of dharmas. Buddhist scholastics count from 70 to 100 varieties of dharmas. There are also certain groups of dharmas: the dharmas of existence and non-existence (that which is born and disappears, and that which exists forever); dharmas of excitement and peace (that which is subject to passion and vanity, and that which strives for calm); dharma of mental states (feeling of favorable, unfavorable and indifferent attitude towards the environment); cognitive dharmas (sensation, perception, representation); dharmas of consciousness and subconsciousness (abstractions controlled by consciousness and what is not controlled by consciousness).

Dharmas, according to Buddhism, never disappear, but are only combined into various structures. In this regard, human death is understood as the collapse of one dharma structure and the emergence of another in the form of a person, animal, insect, plant, etc. Life, according to Buddhism, is a chain of endless rebirths. To ensure a “good rebirth” for yourself, not to be reborn, say , into a snake or an insect, a person must observe the precepts of Buddhism. The idea of man's place in the world is set out in numerous messages of the Buddha. Their essence is clearly visible in the Buddha's address to his disciples before his death.

“True teaching illuminates the path of life for you! Rely on him; don't trust anything else. Be your own light. Rely only on yourself; don't rely on others. Take care of your body, take care of its cleanliness; do not give in to temptation; don't you know that temptations will bring you suffering? Take care of your soul; know; that it is eternal; Are you not convinced that forgetting her, your pride and selfishness will bring you innumerable suffering? Be attentive to everything that surrounds you; don't you see that all this is the eternal “self”? Don't you know that all this will eventually fall apart and be dispelled? Do not be afraid of suffering, follow my precepts and you will get rid of them. Do everything with your soul - and you will be my faithful students.

My friends... Do not forget that death is only the disintegration of the body. The body was given to us by our parents. It is nourished by food, so illness and death are inevitable. But you know that Buddha is not the body, it is Enlightenment. The body will disappear, but the wisdom of enlightenment will remain forever. Enlightenment will live with you in the form of Dharma. Anyone who has seen my body has not yet seen me. I was seen by one who knew my teaching. After my death, my Dharma will be your teacher. Follow this Dharma and you will be faithful to me.”

Of course, early Buddhism was somewhat different from the one that penetrated Japan. Thus, in early Buddhism the emphasis was not on ideological issues, but on the norms of human behavior. These norms did not deny what was contained in the already tested codes of life acceptable to a particular ethnic group. As a result, Buddhism quickly gained numerous adherents. His victorious march from India across South and East Asia began in the 3rd century. BC e. At the turn of the new era, Buddhism spread to China in the 4th century. in Korea and in the VI - VII centuries. established itself in Japan.

Mahayana (lit. - great vehicle) means in contrast to Hinayana (lit. - small vehicle) “ wide path salvation." According to the teachings of the Mahayana, not only a monk, as in the Hinayana, can be saved, but anyone who follows certain commandments and regulations. Buddha is not seen as a teacher, but as a god. It is believed that there have been countless Buddhas, and that the next Buddha will replace the current one in more than eight million years. In the Mahayana pantheon there are more than a thousand Buddhas who will come to people in the future. There are even more bodhisattvas.

According to Buddhist canons, a bodhisattva is an enlightened person who renounces nirvana in order to help all people achieve enlightenment. Bodhisattvas “bring people closer to the Buddha” and come to their aid when they call. Bodhisattvas are helped by arhats, that is, saints who have achieved knowledge of the fundamental truths of existence and spread the teachings of Buddhism among the masses of the population.

The number of adherents of Buddhism at the end of the 6th - 7th centuries. AD increased at such a rapid pace that Emperor Kammu, fearing a monastic “invasion,” in 794 moved his capital from Nara to Uda County.

Of course, Buddhism in Japan underwent its further and deeper transformation much later. But already at the beginning of this transformation, Japanese Buddhism, focusing on the internal problems of man, recommended a national approach to experiencing reality. Unlike classical Buddhism, which preaches the renunciation of desires, Japanese promotes a reasonable attitude towards them. According to the canons of Japanese Buddhism, only unrealistic desires are the cause of anxiety and anxiety. “Enlightenment” (satori in Japanese) is not associated with giving up the pleasures of life. Having achieved enlightenment, as already follows from the practice of modern sects, the Japanese should enjoy life.

Buddhism for the Japanese ethnic group, therefore, has been a life-affirming religion since ancient times.

Confucianism in Japan.

Confucianism is usually understood as a religious and philosophical system that arose in China 2500 years ago. However, during the victorious spread of this system throughout various Asian countries, including Japan, the Chinese language did not have a separate word to designate the concept of “religion”: the hieroglyph “jiao” (in Japanese “ke”) used in such cases in translation meant both religion and teaching. It was in this understanding that the Japanese perceived Confucianism.

According to the teachings of Confucius, the character “ren” consists of two semantic elements: “man” and “two”. Confucius believed that a person has an innate sense of humanity, which manifests itself in communication with another person. In a broad sense, “ren” means a set of principles of relationships: mercy, restraint, modesty, kindness, compassion, love for people, altruism. Duty, according to Confucius, means the highest law “ren”; it unites the sum of moral obligations that a person assumes voluntarily. The sense of duty is realized in norms of behavior (etiquette, rituals, decency). In order for all this to manifest itself in relationships between people without tension, people must have the basics of moral and aesthetic knowledge. Such knowledge is acquired, according to Confucius, only through the assimilation of legal regulations, sayings and imitation. In this regard, loyalty in the sense of submission and unconditional adherence to authority must be unshakable. A special principle that, according to Confucius, permeates the entire society is “xiao” - filial piety, the love of a son for his parents, and above all for his father.

As in traditional Confucianism, Japanese followers of Confucius believe that, according to xiao, children should not only do the will of their parents and serve them faithfully, but also love them with all their hearts. If a person does not love his parents, much less recognize his filial responsibilities, he is a worthless creature.

Confucius taught that it is better to die than to refuse to honor one's parents. This situation was received very well in Japan. In addition, the ideas of Confucianism were presented in Japan in special treatises, which were intensively introduced into the minds of people. The state took care of spreading the ideas of "xiao" among its subjects. This was explained by the fact that the principle itself included in its orbit not only the relationship between father and son, but also society as a whole: the relationship between the emperor and ministers, between local authorities and the population. Filial piety (unconditional submission to the father) extended to the entire state hierarchy, meaning submission to the existing order. It should be pointed out that if Buddhism can be considered an individual psychological system for regulating behavior, then Confucianism can be considered a moral and ethical system, on the basis of which the behavior of people in society is built. In addition, Shinto and Buddhism, which were dominant in Japan, turned out to be significant obstacles to the ideas of Confucius. Therefore, in ancient times, Confucianism did not take hold of wide circles of the population. In general, Confucian monuments were translated into Japanese only in late Middle Ages, after which this teaching gained mass popularity.

Writing in Ancient Japan.

References:

1. Fedorov I. A. “Ancient civilizations”

2. Kabanov S. E. “History of Ancient Japan”

3. “Encyclopedia for children”