Modern Chinese culture. Culture of China. Traditional culture of China. Lion dance - video

Each of the great classical cultures of the East is unique. The peculiarity and uniqueness of Chinese traditional culture comes down primarily to that well-known phenomenon, which at the level of everyday consciousness has long been given a fairly accurate name - "Chinese ceremonies". Of course, in any society, and even more so where there are traditions dating back to ancient times, a significant place is occupied by rigidly formulated stereotypes of behavior and speech, historically established norms of relationships, principles social structure and administrative-political structure. But if we are talking about Chinese ceremonies, then everything recedes into the shadows. And not only because in China the network of mandatory and generally accepted norms of behavior was the most dense. In communal-caste India, there were apparently no fewer similar regulations and prohibitions, however, only in China, the ethical and ritual principles and the corresponding forms of behavior were decisively brought to the fore already in antiquity and so hypertrophied that over time they replaced the ideas of religious and mythological perception. world, so characteristic of almost all early societies. Demythologization and even to a large extent desacralization of ethics and ritual in ancient China resulted in the formation of a unique socio-cultural "genotype", which for millennia was the main one for the reproduction and autonomous regulation of society, the state and the entire culture of ancient China. This had far-reaching consequences for China. In particular, the place of mythical cultural heroes was taken by the skillfully demythologized legendary rulers of antiquity, whose greatness and wisdom were most closely associated with their virtues. The place of the cult of the great gods, primarily the deified first ancestor Shandi, was taken by the cult of real clan and family ancestors, and the "living gods" were supplanted by a few abstract deities - symbols, the first and main among which was the impersonal naturalistic Sky. In a word, mythology and religion on all counts receded under the onslaught of desacralized and desacralizing ethical and ritual norms into the background. This process found its most complete and vivid completion in the teachings of Confucius.

In Confucianism, the concept of “li” (“ethics-ritual”), covering related concepts (“rules of conduct”, “rite”, “custom”, “decency”, etc.) became the highest symbol of ritualized ethics, turned into the most general characteristics correct, even idealized, social structure and human behavior: “The ruler guides his subjects through li”, “Overcoming oneself and turning to li constitutes humanity. On the day when they overcome themselves and turn to Li, the under heaven will return to humanity.”

Non-isolation of ethics from a syncretic set of norms, covering morality, customs, law, rituals, ceremonies, rituals, etc. and its practical merging with ritual and with the "moral theory of human actions" helped Confucianism, at first a purely philosophical teaching, to gradually master religious functions, effectively using not only reason, but also faith in its sermon. With the acquisition of powerful social and spiritual sanctions of official-state, rational-philosophical, emotional-psychological, religious, Confucian and Confucianized ethical-ritual norms and values have become indisputably binding on all members of society, from the emperor to the commoner.

The social functioning of these norms was a rigid automatism acquired from the cradle of a stereotype. This was what main force"Chinese ceremonies", clearly prescribed to each Chinese in accordance with his status, which, by the way, could change. A commoner in China more than once even became an emperor, especially since he could become a Taoist, a Buddhist monk, and later a Muslim or a Christian. But in one respect, the Chinese have always, from birth to death, not changed: he voluntarily or involuntarily, consciously or unconsciously remained the bearer of the unshakable principles of the Confucianized complex of ethical and ritual norms.

If India is the realm of religions, and the religious thinking of the Indian is saturated with metaphysical speculations, then China is a culture of a different type. Social ethics and administrative practice have always played a greater role here than mystical abstractions and individualistic searches for salvation. If in India the individual sought to dissolve in the spiritual Absolute and thereby save his immortal soul from the shackles of matter, then the true Chinese valued the material body above all else, i.e. his life. Ethically determined rationalism also determined the norms of the social and family life of the Chinese.

The specificity of the religious structure and psychological characteristics of thinking, of the entire spiritual orientation in China is visible in many ways. Here, too, there is a higher divine principle - Heaven. But the Chinese Sky is not Yahweh, not Jesus, not Allah, not Brahman, and not Buddha. This is the highest supreme universality, abstract and cold, strict and indifferent to man. You cannot love her, you cannot merge with her, it is impossible to imitate her, just as there is no point in admiring her. True, in the system of Chinese religious and philosophical thought, there existed, in addition to Heaven, both Buddha (the idea of him penetrated China along with Buddhism from India at the beginning of our era), and Tao (the main category of religious and philosophical Taoism). Moreover, Tao in its Taoist interpretation (there was also a Confucian interpretation of Tao in the form of the Great Path of Truth and Virtue) is close to the Hindu Brahman. "However, neither Buddha nor Tao, but precisely the Sky has always been the central category of the supreme universality in China.

Traditional Chinese culture is not characterized by a relationship of the type God - a person, direct or mediated by the figure of a priest (theologian), as was typical of other cultures. Here the connection is of a fundamentally different type: “The sky as a symbol of a higher order is an earthly society based on virtue”, mediated by the personality of the ruler overshadowed by heavenly grace. This imperative, reinforced a hundredfold by Confucianism, determined the development of China for millennia. As you know, the main content of the teachings of Confucius is reduced to the proclamation of the ideal of social harmony and the search for means to achieve this ideal, the standard of which the sage himself saw in the reign of the legendary sages of antiquity - the very ones who shone with virtues. Having criticized his age and putting high the centuries of the past, Confucius, on the basis of this opposition, creates the ideal of a perfect person who must have humanity and a sense of duty. Confucianism with its ideal is highly moral man was one of the foundations on which the gigantic centralized empire with its powerful bureaucratic apparatus was based.

However, neither society as a whole, nor a person in particular, no matter how they were shackled by the official dogmas of Confucianism, could always be guided only by them. After all, the mystical and irrational remained outside Confucianism, to which a person always attracts. The existential function of religion under these conditions fell to the lot of Taoism (the philosophy of Lao Tzu, an older contemporary of Confucius) - a doctrine that aimed to reveal to man the secrets of the universe, eternal problems life and death. At the center of Taoism is the doctrine of the great Tao, the universal Law and the Absolute, dominating everywhere and in everything, always and without limits. No one created him, but everything comes from him; invisible and inaudible, inaccessible to the senses, nameless and formless, it gives rise, name and form to everything in the world; even the great Heaven follows the Tao. To know the Tao, to follow it, to merge with it - this is the meaning, purpose and happiness of life. Taoism gained popularity among the people and the favor of the emperors thanks to the preaching of longevity and immortality. Based on the idea that the human body is a microcosm similar to the macrocosm (the universe), Taoism has proposed a number of recipes for achieving immortality:

1) restriction to a minimum in food (the path studied to perfection by Indian ascetics - hermits);
2) physical and breathing exercises, ranging from innocent movements and postures to instructions for communication between the sexes (here you can see the influence of Indian yoga);
3) committing over a thousand virtuous deeds;
4) taking pills and the elixir of immortality; it is no coincidence that the fascination with magical elixirs and pills in medieval China caused the rapid development of alchemy.

In II-III centuries. Buddhism penetrates China, and the main thing in it is what was associated with the relief of suffering in this life and salvation, eternal bliss in future life- perceived by the common people. The tops of Chinese society, and above all the intellectual elite, drew much more from Buddhism. Based on the synthesis of ideas and ideas extracted from the philosophical depths of Buddhism, with traditional Chinese thought, with Confucian pragmatism, one of the most profound and interesting, intellectually saturated and still enjoying considerable attractiveness of the currents of world religious thought arose in China - Chan Buddhism ( Japanese Zen).

Buddhism existed in China for almost two millennia, having changed greatly in the process of adaptation to Chinese civilization. However, it had a huge impact on traditional Chinese culture, which was most clearly manifested in art, literature and

especially in architecture (oval complexes, graceful pagodas, etc.). Buddhist and Indo-Buddhist philosophy and mythology had a considerable influence on the Chinese people and their culture. Much of this philosophy and mythology, from the practice of gymnastic yoga to the concept of hell and heaven, was adopted in China. Buddhist metaphysics played a role in the development of medieval Chinese natural philosophy. The ideas of Chan Buddhism about an intuitive impulse, sudden insight, etc. had an even greater impact on the philosophical thought of China. In general, it can be said that the classical chinese culture is a fusion of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism.

IN political history China, legalism and Confucianism played a significant role in the development of Chinese statehood and the functioning of the political culture of imperial China. The Legists were the main force opposing Confucianism precisely in the sphere of social policy and ethics. The doctrine of legalism, its theory and practice in a number of important points are radically opposed to what the Confucians proposed. In contrast to the Confucians with their primacy of morality and customary law, their call for humanity and a conscious sense of duty, the cult of ancestors and the authority of the personality of the sage, legalists as realists put the unconditional primacy of the Law as the basis of their doctrine, the strength and authority of which must be kept on cane discipline and cruel punishments. Neither family, nor ancestors, nor traditions, nor morality - nothing can resist the law, everything must bow before it. Laws are developed by the wise reformers, and the sovereign publishes them and gives them strength. He is the only one who can become above the law, but he should not do this either. The ministers and officials, servants of the sovereign, who govern the country in his name, carry out the law and put into practice its norms; respect for the law and administration is ensured by a specially introduced strict system of mutual responsibility and cross denunciations, which, in turn, rests on the fear of severe punishment even for minor offenses; punishments for obstinacy are balanced by rewards for obedience: those who succeeded in agriculture or military prowess (only these two types of occupations were considered worthy by legists, the rest, especially trade, were persecuted) could count on assigning them the next rank, which increased their social status.

It is essential that Confucianism staked on high morality and ancient traditions, while legalism placed above all administrative regulations, based on severe punishments and the demand for absolute obedience of a deliberately stupid people. Confucianism was oriented towards the past, while Legalism openly challenged this past, offering extreme forms of authoritarian despotism as an alternative.

The crude methods of legalism were more acceptable and effective for the rulers, because they made it possible to firmly hold centralized control over private owners, which was of great importance for the strengthening of the kingdom and success in their fierce struggle for the unification of China. Testing the ideas of legalism in practice (the foundation of the Qin dynasty in the 3rd century BC, its fall and the emergence of the Han dynasty) turned out to be sufficient to reveal its inconsistency for China at that time. The frankly totalitarian doctrine of the Legalists, with its contempt for the people in the name of the prosperity of the state, turned out to be unviable; Legalism was defeated, but in order to preserve the already established imperial structure, for the prosperity of its ruling elites, who exercised their power with the help of a powerful administrative and bureaucratic apparatus created through the efforts of the Legalists, a doctrine was needed that would be able to give this whole system a decent and respectable appearance. Confucianism turned out to be such a doctrine. The synthesis of Confucianism and Legalism turned out to be not so difficult, because they had a lot in common. As a result of the reforms of the Han Emperor Wudi, the original Confucianism was modified and became the state ideology.

Social injustice, internecine wars, popular uprisings, various kinds of troubles in society give rise to utopias. The dream of an ideal society where there is neither violence nor wars, where all people in equally enjoy earthly goods without offending or oppressing each other, lives in every nation, and the Chinese nation is no exception. Already in the ancient era of Chinese history, the concepts of "Datong" ("great unity" or "great harmony") and "Taining" ("great balance" or "great calm") were developed, with which the entire history of socio-political and, naturally, China's utopian thought.

A vivid expression of utopian ideas about a happy country is the "Peach Spring" by Tao Yuan Ming, which has become synonymous with a beautiful, joyful, comfortable society. Utopian motifs can also be found in such narratives as "Traveler to the West", "Flowers in the Mirror", in the stories of Liao Zhai and other literary works. Social and utopian ideas of reorganization of the world, property equality, egalitarian distribution of earthly goods, reasoning about honest and wise officials who do not know other thoughts than "serve the people" are found in the works of many political thinkers - from Confucius and Mo-tzu to Kang Yuwei and Sun Yat-sen, who, having become acquainted with the theories of Western socialism (scientific and non-scientific), did not perceive them in their pure form, but remade them in a Chinese way.

Chinese art also has a peculiar appearance. Like the art of Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia and India, its roots go back to the 11th millennium BC. In those distant times, various tribes attacked the peoples of China, conquered them, and in the 13th century. Mongols ruled China. But these foreign invaders could not lead Chinese art astray from its own path - it can be said that no other art has created such strict, clear, original and enduring traditions as Chinese. Buddhism was transferred from India to China, but the Chinese did not accept the Buddha ready-made, but created their own image; the same thing happened with temple architecture. Chinese pagodas are fundamentally different from Indian temples.

The peculiarity of Chinese art is that in it poetry, painting and calligraphy do not know the boundaries that usually separate these art forms, regardless of their specific features. These three types of art are inspired and determined by the nature of the hieroglyphic expression and with the help of the same tool - the brush - reflect the deep essence of being, "life force", fill each of these forms with life and a kind of harmony. The goal of Chinese aesthetics is to reach the true essence of the life-giving sources of the harmony of life: the art and the art of living are one and the same. As in painting, so in poetry, every stroke depicting a tree branch or characters should always be "a living form, it is this desire to reveal the essence that is inherent in calligraphy, poetry and painting. But only painting unites all three types of art.

If painting in China is a holistic art form, in which poetry and calligraphy are an integral part of a painting, recreating the harmony and mystery of the universe in all its manifestations, then poetry is considered the quintessence of art. It transforms inscribed signs, revered almost like a shrine, into sound, and its highest purpose is the connection of human genius with the primary sources of the life forces of the world. Imbued with the ideas of Confucianism and Taoism, Chinese poetry combines reason and detachment, it seeks to penetrate reality and convey with all its sharpness the spirit of life, the “impalpable thrill of sounds”, which is facilitated by the musicality inherent in the multi-tonal Chinese language. It is no coincidence that ancient Chinese poetry is inseparable from music.

Calligraphy was also given great importance in Russian culture. “... They signed excellently, all these old abbots and metropolitans of ours, and with what taste sometimes ...<...>... the same English font, but the black line is a bit blacker and thicker than in English, but the proportion of light is broken; and note too: the oval has been changed, a bit rounder and, in addition, a stroke is allowed, and a stroke is the most dangerous thing! A flourish requires extraordinary taste; but if only it succeeds, if only the proportion is found, then such a font cannot be compared with anything, so much so that one can fall in love with it ”(Dostoevsky F.M. Idiot).

In China, calligraphy exalts the graphic beauty of hieroglyphs. By pursuing this main art form in the country, every Chinese rediscovers inner harmony of his Self, enters into communication with the Universe. Not limited to simple copying, calligraphy awakens the expressiveness of movement and the imaginary power of signs, calligraphy should be a complete reflection of the state of mind. The calligrapher must also use the pictorial possibilities of hieroglyphs, their figurative power. This is how the skill of the famous calligrapher Zhang Xu, who lived in the Tang era, is described: “He embraces everything: landscapes, animals, plants, stars, storms, fires, wars, feasts - all the events of the world, and expresses them in his art”^. Thus, poetry, calligraphy and painting formed a single art in China, a traditional form that uses all the spiritual depths of the adherents of this art: drawn out melodies and spaces, magical gestures and visible images.

Confucianism left a deep imprint on all aspects of Chinese society, including the functioning of the family, namely, the Confucian ancestor cult and the cult of filial piety contributed to the flourishing of the cult of the family and clan. The family was considered the core of society, its interests far exceeded the interests of the individual, who was considered only in the aspect of the family, through the prism of its eternal interests - from distant ancestors to distant descendants. The growing son was married, the daughter was given in marriage at the choice and decision of the parents, and this was considered so normal and natural that the problem of love did not arise. Love could come after marriage, or it might not come at all (in a wealthy family, a man could compensate for her absence with a concubine, and the wife had no right to prevent this). However, this did not interfere with the normal existence of the family and the fulfillment of a conscious social and family duty - the birth of children, primarily sons, who were called upon to continue the family line, to strengthen the position of the family through the ages.

Hence the constant trend towards family growth. As a result, large families, which included several wives and concubines of the head of the family, a considerable number of married sons, many grandchildren and other relatives and household members, became very common throughout the history of China (the lifestyle of one of them is well described in the classic Chinese novel " Sleep in the red chamber"). The further process of development of the family led to the emergence of a powerful branched clan of relatives who held tightly to each other and sometimes inhabited entire villages, especially in the south of the country.

The strength and authority of these clans were recognized by the authorities, who willingly provided them with the solution of various small claims and internal village affairs. And the clans themselves jealously watched the preservation of these rights for them - it was customary to bring to the court of relatives all concerns, both civil and property, and purely intimate: there was nothing sacred, personal, personal, which the family and clan should not have known. Violation of traditions was not encouraged: the strict norms of the cult of ancestors and the corresponding upbringing suppressed selfish inclinations in childhood. From the first years of life, a person got used to the fact that the personal, emotional, his own on the scale of values is incommensurable with the general, accepted, rationally conditioned and obligatory for everyone. Obedience to elders was one of the important foundations of the social order in imperial China.

Despite the changes taking place in the structure of the family in modern China, it still remains the basic unit of society. Now sociologists distinguish four categories of families: incomplete nuclear, extended (nuclear and other relatives), large (two or three nuclear families) families. Studies show an increase in extended families (21.3%) and a strengthening of extended family ties (21.6%), and such families are not identical to the natural clans of former times.

Taoism also played a significant role in Chinese culture, with which the development of science and technology in traditional China is closely connected. An even more fundamental fact is that Chinese society was agrarian, and the centralized bureaucracy, first of all, had to solve complex technical problems related primarily to irrigation and the protection of water resources. Therefore, astronomy (the significance of calendar calculations and astrological beliefs), mathematics, physics, and hydraulic engineering in their engineering applications had a high status. In general, the centralized feudal-bureaucratic type of social system in the early stages favored the development of the sciences.

Almost half of the most important inventions and discoveries on which our lives are based today came from China. If the ancient Chinese scientists had not invented such nautical and navigational instruments and devices as the tiller, compass and multi-tiered masts, there would have been no great geographical discoveries. Columbus would not have sailed to America and the Europeans would not have founded colonial empires.

Through China, stirrups came to Europe from the Great Steppe, helping to stay in the saddle, without which medieval knights could not, sparkling with armor, rush to the aid of noble ladies in trouble. Then the age of chivalry would not have come. If guns and gunpowder had not been invented in China, bullets would not have appeared that pierced armor and ended knightly times. Without Chinese paper and printing devices in Europe, books would have been rewritten by hand for a long time. There would also be no widespread literacy. It was not Johannes Gutenberg who invented movable type, it was not William Harvey who discovered blood circulation, it was not Isaac Newton who discovered the first law of mechanics. All of this was first thought of in China.

Many remarkable results have been obtained in Chinese science. In mathematics, decimals and the empty position to represent zero; what has been in Europe since the 17th century. called "Pascal's triangle", in China by the beginning of the XIV century. was considered the old fashioned way solving equations; what is known as the gimbal of the Cardan (14th century) should really be called the Ding Huan gimbal (2nd century). In China, during the Tang Dynasty (7th-10th centuries), mechanical clocks were invented. The development of silk weaving led to such fundamental inventions as the drive belt and chain transmission. When creating blowers for metallurgy, the Chinese were the first to use the standard method of converting circular and translational motion into each other, the main area of \u200b\u200bapplication of which in Europe was the early steam engines. The essay “Description of grasses and trees of the southern region” (340) contains a message about the world's first case of using some insects (ants) to fight others (mites and spiders). The tradition of biological plant protection is still maintained today. Thus, numerous myths collapse when we find the true origins of many things that are familiar to us. It should be remembered that modern world is a fusion of eastern and western cultural layers.

There is another opinion on this matter. Both riding, and stirrups, and their natural addition - the heel on the boot, without which effective riding is impossible - were invented in Europe (on the Don and in the Northern Black Sea region). “The relationship between rider and horse began in the Copper Age society known as the Sredny Stog culture, which flourished in what is now Ukraine six millennia ago... Mogila (Ukraine)... Equestrian tribes quickly spread across the eastern steppes, but it took them longer to penetrate into the settled western regions. Horse-drawn chariots reached the Middle East by 1800 BC, about two millennia after the birth of horseback riding” (Anthony D., Telegin D., Brown D. The birth of horseback riding // In the world of science. 1992. No. 2 pp. 36).

Traditional transcription - Harvey.

IN Lately medical specialists were convinced of the undoubted effectiveness of such methods of ancient medicine of China, India, Tibet and Mongolia as acupuncture, cauterization, massage, etc. in the treatment of various kinds of functional disorders and pain syndromes. These methods are a kind of reflexology, when the impact on the diseased organism is carried out by irritating strictly defined areas of the skin - acupuncture points (biologically active points).

Ancient Chinese doctors developed a doctrine according to which the human body circulates " Vital energy"- chi, which is an integral function of all the activity of the organism, its energy, vitality tone. Another postulate of Chinese and Oriental medicine in general is the doctrine that the form of manifestation of vital energy is the interaction and struggle of such "polar forces" as yang (positive force) and yin (negative force). On the principle of yang-yin (it describes the picture of the world in the religious and philosophical thinking of the ancient Chinese), Eastern scientists base the relationship of organs to each other and their connection with the integument of the body. By regulating metabolism, i.e. oppositely directed processes of assimilation and dissimilation, phenomena of excitation and inhibition, etc. it is possible to affect 44 individual organs (or the whole body) and change its energy levels. From these positions, illness is an imbalance in the distribution of energy between yang and yin. Measurements in the distribution of energy are carried out by influencing acupuncture points, the number of which is 696.

According to the scheme of Oriental medicine, the "vital energy" in the process of its circulation passes successively all the organs and makes a circuit in a day. Therefore, one or another organ is most susceptible to treatment at a certain moment of the day, which finds parallels in the studies of biological rhythms, which are becoming more widespread in modern medicine and biology.

Recently, in China and other countries of the world, more and more attention has been paid to therapeutic wushu gymnastics, which simultaneously acts as a kind of wrestling, the art of self-defense, delivering aesthetic pleasure. In the ancient Chinese city of Luoyang, international wushu competitions are held. Gymnasts from many countries: the USA, Japan, Canada, France, Singapore, Thailand, etc., together with the Chinese, participate in nine types of competition: exercises with a saber, a pike, a ball, two swords, fighting with bladed weapons and without weapons. The popularity of wushu is a clear example of how the old traditions of Chinese culture enter the modern life of the country, how they get the right to live in modern Chinese society with its rapid economic development, computers, electronics and ultra-modern discos.

The enduring values of Chinese traditional culture include:

- an intuitive way of thinking based on an undivided idea of the world, consonant with the ideas of modern physics, in particular, quantum field theory;
- emphasis on the development of culture, the moral self-improvement of a person, the harmony of interpersonal relations and relations between the individual and society;
- moral and ethical foundations: respect for elders, help to one's neighbor, harmony in society;
- traditional legal views on the priority of moral and ethical norms;
- traditions of family relations;
- the desire for a combination of power and duty, justice and benefits, the interests of the individual and the masses.

At the same time, it should be noted that Chinese culture, for all its solidity and continuity of development, includes many elements, the presence of which can only be explained by borrowings. In the history of China, a pattern is observed: periods of prosperity were accompanied by an intensive exchange with outside world, a period of decline - fenced off from the outside world, fear of cultural exchange.

A significant role in China's cultural contacts with the outside world was played by the Great Silk Road, which was laid in the 2nd century BC. BC. by the embassy of Zhang Nian, sent by Emperor Wu to Bactria. Since that time, the transportation of Chinese silk to the West began, and China became known in Europe as "Sepsa" ("Country of Silk"). Born in 76 BC The great Roman poet Virgil wrote poems in praise of silk. Along this route, not only silk was transported from East to West, but also Arabic incense, gems, muslin and spices from India. Glass, copper, tin, lead, red corals, fabrics, dishes, and gold were brought from West to East. The Great Silk Road stretched for almost 12 thousand km through the then known lands, linking Xi'an (the capital of the late Han Dynasty) and Gades (modern Cadiz) on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean.

Caravans of heavily laden camels continued to plod along the "Silk Road" when a new "Maritime Silk Road" appeared, inaugurated in 100 BC. captain of the Greek ship Hippalos. The sea route was less dangerous and more economical, so maritime trade between East and West developed rapidly, reaching unprecedented levels during the Tang (618-907), Song (960-1279) and Yuan (1260-1368) dynasties. Seven expeditions to the "western seas" undertaken by the famous admiral Zheng He in 1405-1433. also stimulated the further development of China's trade.

Along these land and sea "silk routes" was not only trade, but the cultural exchange of China with other countries that contributed to the appearance of Chinese culture. Thus, the history of relations between China and India in the Tang and Song eras shows that the interaction of local and foreign cultures was bilateral; that Buddhist philosophy, Indian visual arts, architecture, music, medicine, yoga, etc. they did not at all absorb Chinese culture and were not absorbed by it, but were intertwined and made up a single indissoluble whole.

The Tang Dynasty also saw the great rise of Islam, that new force that was destined to have such a significant impact on relations between East and West. The first Arab embassy in China appeared in 651, and the conquest of Persia by the Arabs in 652 brought them close to the zones of Chinese influence. The Arabs began to play an extremely important role as intermediaries in the cultural and commercial exchange between East and West. It was through them that such ancient Chinese inventions as the compass, paper, typography, and gunpowder came to Europe.

Not only rolls of silk, boxes of porcelain and tea went along the trade routes from China to Europe, various moral, philosophical, aesthetic, economic and pedagogical ideas were spread, which were destined to have an impact on the West. Painting, sculpture, architecture and handicrafts of China made a great contribution to the development in the 18th century. European rococo style. The influence of Chinese architectural styles can be seen in the lines of some of the palaces of European rulers. Chinese-style parks have also become very popular in the West, and their influence is still felt today.

In the field of philosophy, the attention of European scholars was attracted primarily by Confucianism. Confucius gained a reputation as an enlightened sage, the creator of ethical and political doctrine. The outstanding German philosopher G. Leibniz was one of the first to recognize the importance of Chinese thought for Western culture. He believed that if China sent to Europe enlightened people capable of teaching "the aims and practice of natural theology," this would help Europe more quickly return to its high ethical standards and overcome a period of decline. The great Russian writer and thinker L.N. Tolstoy discovered that his views were in many respects close to the philosophy of Lao Tzu, and at one time he was even going to translate the Tao Te Ching (The Book of the Way and Virtue) into Russian. Some European thinkers of the Enlightenment saw the educational system of feudal China as an example to follow. 18th century German theologian X. Wolf preferred the Chinese education system with its separate schools for children and adults. He believed that this system is consistent with the nature of the human spirit. Chinese schools not only taught reading and writing, but also conducted ethics classes with students, introduced them to the methods of acquiring knowledge.

The influence of Chinese culture can also be seen in the literature and art of the West. Some believe that the well-known fairy tale "Cinderella" is a Western version of the "Yu Yang Za Zu" legend written by Duan Chengshi during the Tang era. The Chinese classical play The Zhao Orphan has been translated into English, Italian and French. Under her influence, Voltaire wrote the five-act play The Chinese Orphan, in which he outlined the norms of Confucian morality. There are many such examples.

However, one should not forget that China and the West mutually influenced each other. While the West was influenced by China's rich cultural heritage, the latter, in turn, adopted the advanced scientific and technological achievements of the West, its philosophical and artistic ideas. All this contributed to the strengthening of friendly ties and mutual understanding between the cultures of the world.

L I T E R A T U R A

Vasiliev L.S. History of the Religions of the East. M., 1988.

Story ancient east/ Ed. IN AND. Kuzishchin. M., 1988.

Kulikov Ts.S. The Chinese about themselves. M., 1988.

PervlolyuvL.S. Word of Confucius. M., 1992.

Chauffeur E. Golden Peaches of Samarkand. M., 1981.

The culture of China is one of the most ancient and original in the world.

culture

The culture of China influenced the development of the cultures of neighboring peoples who inhabited the territories of present-day Mongolia, Tibet, Indochina, Korea and Japan. China is home to one of the most ancient civilizations in the world, and perhaps the only one where the physical type of the population has not changed for thousands of years. The artistic culture of China has 5,000 years.

Chinese philosophy

Within the framework of this culture, such significant phenomena on a global scale as Confucianism and Taoism were created.

Confucius statue in Beijing
Confucianism- the ethical and philosophical doctrine developed by Confucius (551-479 BC) and included in the religious complex of China, Korea, Japan and some other countries. Confucianism is sometimes seen as a philosophy, sometimes as a religion. The central problems of Confucianism are questions about the ordering of relations between rulers and subjects, the moral qualities that a ruler and a subordinate should have, etc.
Taoism- the doctrine of the Tao or "the way of things", a Chinese traditional teaching, including elements of religion and philosophy. Its founder was Lao Zi (real name Li Er (Li Boyang, Lao Dan), an ancient Chinese philosopher.

According to legend, he was born in 604 BC. At the center of the doctrine of Taoism is the doctrine of the great Tao, the universal Law and the Absolute. Tao is ambiguous, it is an endless movement. Tao is a kind of law of being, the cosmos, the universal unity of the world. Tao dominates everywhere and in everything, always and without limits. No one created it, but everything comes from it, in order to then, having completed the circuit, return to it again. Invisible and inaudible, inaccessible to the senses, constant and inexhaustible, nameless and formless, it gives rise, name and form to everything in the world. Even the great Heaven follows the Tao. In Taoism, two opposite principles interact: yin and yang, which flow into one another and cannot exist without each other. Yin - negative, passive, feminine; yang - positive, active, masculine.

Taoist temple in Wuhan
Each person, in order to become happy, must embark on this path, try to cognize the Tao and merge with it. According to the teachings of Taoism, the human microcosm is eternal in the same way as the universe-macrocosm. Physical death means only that the spirit separates from the person and dissolves into the macrocosm. The task of a person in his life is to ensure that his soul merges with the world order of Tao. How can such a merger be achieved? The answer to this question is contained in the teachings of the Tao.

Moism - d ancient Chinese philosophical school, the program direction of which was the improvement of society through knowledge. The school of philosophy was founded by the ancient Chinese thinker Mo Tzu. After his death, Mohism split into three currents.

In the V-III centuries. BC e. Moism was a serious competitor to Confucianism as the dominant ideology of China. Mo Tzu considered Confucian rites and ceremonies a senseless waste of public funds and called for personal submission to the will of heaven. Confucius made a distinction between love for the family and parents and love for other neighbors, and Mo Tzu called for loving everyone equally without distinction.

Energy "chi"

Chinese philosophical concept of cosmic qi, or energy (force) that pervades the universe. The Chinese believe that qi gave rise to the cosmos and the Earth and two principles: the “negative” and “positive” principles of yin and yang, which in turn gave rise to everything else (“the darkness of things”). Every physical change that occurs in the world is considered by the Chinese to be the result of qi.

Feng Shui

Feng Shui(literally "wind and water"), or geomancy - the Taoist practice of the symbolic exploration of space. It is believed that with the help of Feng Shui, you can choose the "best" place for building a house or burial, the "correct" breakdown of the site; a feng shui specialist can predict events.

The purpose of feng shui is to find favorable flows of qi energy and use them for the benefit of a person.

Building in Hong Kong with feng shui applied in architecture

Calligraphy

Traditional and simplified hieroglyphs
Calligraphy is considered an art form in China and is equated with painting and poetry as a method of self-expression.

Chinese porcelain

The history of the development of porcelain in China has a millennium. Exact date occurrence is unknown. Some attribute the origin of porcelain in China to the Han Dynasty (206-221 AD).
Ceramics in China has been known since ancient times, but only in bronze age(1500-400 BC) the Chinese learned how to make especially strong adhesives and make ovens for high-temperature firing. This allowed them to make more durable, glazed earthenware. Real porcelain appeared only in the Sui era. It is smooth and polished, it sounds when you hit a porcelain product. Thin porcelain appears transparent.

the great Wall of China

It stretches for 8851.8 km across the whole of Northern China. 6260 km of the walls are made of brickwork, 2232.5 km of natural rock mass. About 360 km are moats filled with water.
The construction of the wall began in the IV-III centuries. BC e., when individual Chinese states created defensive structures from the raids of the nomadic peoples of Central Asia.
After the unification of China under the rule of the Qin dynasty in 221 BC. e. Emperor Shi Huangdi ordered to connect a number of defensive lines into a single wall. At present, in the western part, the Great Wall retains its original form, in the eastern part it is badly destroyed and in some places is only an earthen rampart.
The wall has a width at the base of about 9 m and at the top about 6 m, the height of the wall is 10 m. Approximately every 200 m there are quadrangular watchtowers on it, and on the outside there are high defensive battlements with loopholes. The upper plane of the wall is paved with slabs and used to be a wide protected road along which military units and carts could move. Currently, some sections of this plane are asphalted and used as roads. The wall passes through mountainous places, repeating the curves of the relief and organically blending into the surrounding landscape.

Stone carving crafts of China

This is a kind of jewelry in China, associated with the processing of ornamental stones of various origins and colors. As raw materials, Chinese artisans used corals, marble, jadeite, soapstone (soapstone), pink quartzite (transparent varieties), and jade.

Chinese jade product depicting domestic scenes and landscape

Music

Chinese music has a specific sound. This is explained by the fact that the instruments do not have 7 usual notes, but 5 or 13. Chinese instruments are divided into 4 types: percussion, wind, string and bow. The most common tool is banhu. It is a five-stringed instrument played with a bow the length of a human hand. The sound of a banhu can be compared to a violin.

Among plucked-hammer instruments, guzheng and yangqin (the zither family) are popular. They are played with special hammers. There is a second way: with the help of tweezers with your fingers.

Architecture

The traditional architecture of China has a number of features inherent only to it, and the architectural decor contributes to recognition Chinese buildings worldwide.

Small Wild Goose Pagoda
Most buildings in ancient China were built of wood. First of all, wooden poles were driven into the ground, which were connected at the top with beams. Then the roof was erected, then covered with tiles. The openings between the pillars were filled with bricks, clay, bamboo or other material, i.e. the walls did not carry the function of the supporting structure. The tree has a certain flexibility and elasticity, therefore, compared to stone, wooden structures are more resistant to earthquakes.

Peking Opera ("Opera of the East")

It originated at the end of the 18th century and combines music, vocal performances, pantomime, dance and acrobatics. Peking Opera embodied the specifics of the ancient Chinese theater.

Kung Fu

Chinese martial arts.

Chinese inventions

It is difficult even to simply list everything that was invented in China. The four great inventions of ancient China: paper, printing, gunpowder, and the compass. It was these discoveries that contributed to the fact that many areas of culture and arts became the property of the masses. The inventions of ancient China made long-distance travel possible, which made it possible to discover new lands.

Printed books, porcelain, silk, mirrors, umbrellas and kites, scissors, bell, watermill, saddle, cannon, paper money, drum, oar, fork, dagger-axe (ge), varnish, noodles, steamer, fermented drink, hand crossbow, cast iron bomb, borehole, cupola, fan, vertical stern rudder, wind generator, winnower, business card, suspension bridge on steel chains, high-alcohol beer, gas cylinder, board game go, two-jet flamethrower...

Chinese flamethrower
... junk, blast furnace, domino, Toothbrush, playing cards, coke as fuel, stone arch bridge with open lintels, fishing reel, gimbals...

gimbal suspension
... ink, puppet theater, sea and land mines, multi-stage rocket, fire lance, plow blade, chopsticks...

Food sticks
... relief map, belt drive, restaurant menu, horse harness, whistle, seismometer...
Reconstruction of Zhang Heng's seismometer using a pendulum sensitive to earth shocks. Placed in 133 in Luoyang, it recorded earthquakes 400-500 km away
... a seed drill, a steelmaking process, a stirrup, a wheelbarrow, toilet paper, fireworks, chemical weapons, a yoke, a chain drive, cast iron, a sluice... And that's not all! For the first time, it was in China that they began to use salt for food, cultivate soybeans, tea, diagnose and treat diabetes, and apply therapeutic fasting. The Chinese developed porcelain manufacturing technology a thousand years before the Europeans. The country invented acupuncture, the traditional Chinese medical practice of inserting needles into specific points on the body for healing and pain relief.
Let's talk about the history of one invention - paper.

the invention of paper

Fragments of hemp wrapping paper dated to the reign of Wu-di (141-87 BC)
The earliest known piece of paper with an inscription on it was discovered in the ruins of the Chinese tower Tsakhartai in Alashani, where the Han Dynasty army left their positions in 110 AD. e. after the Xiongnu attack. In the III century. paper became widely used for writing, replacing the more expensive strips of bamboo rolled into scrolls, scrolls and strips of silk, and wooden tablets. In the papermaking process developed in 105 by Cai Lun, a boiling mixture of mulberry bark, hemp, old fabrics, and old fishing nets is pulped, pounded to a paste, and then mixed with water. A reed sieve in a wooden frame is lowered into the mixture, pulled out and shaken. The resulting sheets of paper are dried and then bleached under the influence of sunlight.
Literary heritage of China huge, but unfortunately its difficult-to-translate content makes much of it inaccessible to Western readers.

Modern culture of China

When people talk about the culture of China, they mean mainly ancient China. Little is written about the modern culture of this country, more often the story comes down to the peculiarities of life, customs and cuisine.

The modern architecture of China strictly adheres to the traditions that have developed throughout the entire historical development. This also applies to the architectural appearance of a modern Chinese city. However, gradually, with mid-nineteenth V., chinese architecture begins to acquire other features, European.
The economic development of China has also changed the face of the country: foreign banks and commercial organizations, entertainment and service facilities, embassies and hotels appeared on the streets of cities. Such buildings required clarity of forms and the use of modern materials, so the traditions of Chinese architecture were not always acceptable for new buildings. Gradually, the unique buildings of ancient Chinese architecture fade into the background.

But Chinese architects are trying to skillfully combine European style with Chinese culture, creating unique buildings.
The Chinese keep their unique culture. For example, the government did not allow the opera house to be taller than the buildings built in the Forbidden City. But the Chinese do not discard innovations, for example, they build a subway. And in general, the culture of modern China is constantly enriched with new trends in all areas of culture.

contemporary painting

In area genre painting of the many artists I would like to highlight creativity Li Zijian (b. 1954).

The artist graduated from the Painting Department of the Guangzhou Academy of Fine Arts in 1982 and moved to Los Angeles in 1988. Despite the fact that he has been living in the United States for about 22 years, the main theme of his paintings is the life of his native China, local customs, people and life.

“The culture of my native Hunan has had a profound effect on me. Simple and dilapidated buildings, nature, rivers and people in my hometown are all an endless source of inspiration for my work,” says Li Zijian. Looking at the paintings of the artist, it is impossible to resist a kind smile. He is touched by his ability to see the important in the most ordinary, love for people and the world around him.

And here is a modern Chinese watercolor - artist Zhao Kailin.

UNESCO World Heritage Sites in China

In the list of objects world heritage UNESCO in China has 41 names.
29 objects are included in the list according to cultural criteria, 8 objects - according to natural, 4 - according to mixed criteria.
16 objects (Mount Taishan, the Great Wall of China, the palaces of the emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties in Beijing and Shenyang, the Mogao caves, the tomb of the first emperor of the Qin dynasty, the complex of ancient buildings in the Wudangshan mountains, the temple and tomb of Confucius and the estate of the Kong family in the city of Qufu, historical the Potala Palace Ensemble in Lhasa, the Classical Gardens in Suzhou, the Summer Palace and the Imperial Park in Beijing, the Temple of Heaven: the imperial sacrificial altar in Beijing, the rock carvings in Dazu, the metropolitan cities and Longmen cave temples, the tombs of the emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties, cave Yungang temples, the tombs of the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo) are recognized as masterpieces of human creative genius.
10 sites (Taishan and Huangshan Mountains, Jiuzhaigou, Huanglong and Wulingyuan Landscape Landmark Areas, Wuyishan Mountains, Three Parallel Rivers National Park (Yunnan Province), South China Karst deposits, Sanqingshan Mountain National Park, Danxia) are recognized as natural phenomena or spaces of exceptional natural beauty and aesthetic importance.
Naturally, it is impossible to talk about all the objects within the framework of one article. Interested readers may refer to other sources. We will only talk about some of them.

Mount Taishan

A mountain with a height of 1545 m in the Chinese province of Shandong. Mount Taishan has great cultural and historical meaning and is one of the five sacred mountains Taoism. It was considered the dwelling place of Taoist saints and immortals. In China, Mount Taishan is associated with sunrise, birth, renewal. The temple on top of the mountain has been the goal of numerous pilgrims for 3000 years. Now you can climb the mountain by lift.

Jiuzhaigou National Park ("Valley of the Nine Villages")

A nature reserve in northern Sichuan province in central China. It is known for its multi-level waterfalls and colored lakes.

Wudangshan

Small mountain range in Hubei province. The Wudangshan Mountains are famous for their Taoist monasteries and temples, there was a Taoist university that studied medicine, pharmacology, nutrition systems, meditation and martial arts. Even during the Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220), the mountain began to receive special attention from the emperor. During the Tang Dynasty (618-907), the first temple was opened here - the Temple of the Five Dragons.
In the XV century. Emperor Yongle summoned 300,000 soldiers and equipped the mountain, building numerous temple complexes. At that time, 9 temples, 9 monasteries, 36 sketes and 72 shrines, many gazebos, bridges and multi-tiered towers were built, forming 33 architectural ensembles. Construction in the mountains lasted 12 years from 1412.

Pingyao ancient city

Central street of the city

It's the only one medieval city China, which has completely preserved its historical architectural appearance.

Sky Temple

Temple and monastery complex in central Beijing, including the only round-shaped temple in the city - the Harvest Temple (this is the main temple of the complex, often called the Temple of Heaven). The area of the complex is 267 hectares.
The complex was built in 1420 during the reign of the Ming Dynasty. It was originally called the Temple of Heaven and Earth, but after the construction of a separate Temple of the Earth in 1530, it began to perform the function of worshiping Heaven.

Three parallel rivers

A national park located in the Sino-Tibetan Mountains in the northwest of Yunnan Province.
On the territory of the park there are the upper reaches of the three largest rivers in Asia: the Yangtze, the Mekong and the Salween, which flow in gorges up to 3,000 m deep. In this section, the rivers flow almost parallel from north to south. After turning the Yangtze to the north, it flows through the famous Leaping Tiger Gorge.
The Three Parallel Rivers are the richest region in terms of biodiversity in China and the entire temperate zone of the Earth. Due to the complex and diverse climate, many species of plants and animals live in the “Three Rivers” region: over 6,000 species (about 20%) of all rare and valuable plants of China grow in it. Also, more than 25% of all species of the PRC fauna live here.

Tulou

In Chinese architecture, a residential complex of a fortress type, common in the provinces of Fujian and Guangdong, is square or round in shape. The first tulou were built by representatives of the Hakka people, who, during internecine wars, migrated from the north to the southern regions of China during the Tang dynasty. Faced with a hostile attitude towards them from the local population, the migrants were forced to build closed residential buildings of the fortress type.
Round tulou have a diameter of 50-90 m, the thickness of the outer walls is from 1 to 2.5 m, they have narrow loopholes on the upper tiers and a minimum number of powerful entrance gates. Inside the fortress there were living quarters, a well, and large food supplies were kept.

Other sights of China

Victoria Peak (Hong Kong)

The highest point of Hong Kong Island. The mountain got its name in honor of Queen Victoria. Another name is Mount Austin. Victoria Peak is a hill with several peaks (the highest height is 554 m above sea level). On the mountain there are buildings, parks, cafes, observation platforms, popular among tourists, as they offer a picturesque view of Hong Kong.
You can get to the top on foot, by road, by funicular.

Beijing National Stadium

It is also called "Bird's Nest". This is a multifunctional sports complex, created for the 2008 Summer Olympic Games in Beijing. In this stadium, in addition to holding sports, the opening and closing ceremonies of the 2008 Olympic Games took place. The construction of the stadium began in December 2003 and was completed in March 2008. Its capacity is 91,000 people.

Hong Kong Disneyland

Opened in 2005. During the construction of the park, Disney Corporation tried to take into account the peculiarities of Chinese culture, customs and traditions, including the observance of Feng Shui rules.
The territory of Disneyland is divided into four thematic parts: Main Street USA, Adventure World, Fantastic World and Future World.
Main Street USA is made in the architectural style of the Wild West. Here you can see vintage cars, openwork signs and villas, inside of which there are shops and restaurants.

In the world of adventure around huge tree, where Tarzan lives, a river flows along which you can take a short cruise. During the trip there are hippos, geysers, labyrinth caves.
Favorite cartoon characters live in the Fantastic World. There is also a 3D cinema where you can watch 3D movies.
Future World has rollercoasters and go-karts.

shanghai museum

Museum of Ancient Chinese Art. Founded in 1952. The museum has collected about 120 thousand items. The most valuable are the collections of bronzes, ceramics, calligraphy, furniture, jade figurines, ancient coins, paintings, prints and sculptures. 11 galleries and 3 special exhibition halls are constantly operating.

Statuette of a camel from the collections of the museum
The museum houses items of national importance, including one of three existing examples of "transparent" bronze mirrors from the Han Dynasty.

The history of the Celestial Empire has more than one thousand years, so it is not surprising that during the entire existence of this country an amazing culture has been formed, which is so different from the development paths of other states. The fact that China has played a role in creating this uniqueness for a long time was in isolation, practically not intersecting with Western countries and not adopting from them cultural values. In addition, the more active planting of the communist ideology also could not but affect the development of the civilization of the Celestial Empire. So, what is the culture of China?

Celestial architecture: pagodas and wooden palaces

Chinese buildings are difficult to confuse with any other. Such characteristic features as bilateral symmetry, the presence of patios, the length in breadth, the observance of a strict hierarchy in the arrangement of rooms, as well as the decorative decoration of walls and roofs - all this makes the architecture of China recognizable and inimitable.

Despite the fact that recently Western-style buildings have been actively erected in the Middle Kingdom, traditional Chinese architecture still does not lose its relevance. Proof of this is the numerous temples, pagodas and palaces that are adjacent to high-rise buildings made of concrete and glass.

As we have already said, Chinese buildings necessarily have bilateral symmetry - it should symbolize harmony, balance and balance. Interestingly, unlike Western houses, Chinese buildings are not extended upwards, but in breadth. This makes it possible to use the entire area allotted for construction by placing green courtyards, separate buildings and covered galleries-transitions inside the buildings. Their location is usually subject to a strict hierarchy - the most significant cases are located along the central axis, while the less significant ones are located on the edge.

Compliance with the requirements of Feng Shui is another characteristic feature of Chinese buildings.. So, most of them are located to the water in front, and to the hills - in the back.

As for the material of traditional buildings, wood has always been in special esteem here - almost all buildings were built from it, while stone houses were very rare.

The roofs of Chinese buildings attract attention - most of them have a stepped structure with a varying level of inclination. Temples and palaces usually have flowing roofs with slightly raised corners, which are covered with tiles and decorated with ceramic or wooden figures.

Chinese paintings

In the traditional culture of China, an important place is given to painting, which amazes any Westerner with its fine organization and complex emotional component. This type of art was an important component of the culture of ancient and medieval China, and does not lose its relevance to this day, organically intertwined with modern Western fine arts without losing its originality.

It is interesting that during the imperial period there were practically no professional painters here - officials and the aristocracy were engaged in drawing. Chinese painting reached its peak during the Tang and Song dynasties.

A distinctive feature of the artistic culture of China is that the paintings are scrolls made on silk, paper or bamboo plates, which were hung on the wall. Many of them were supplemented by several poetic lines that reflected internal state the author of the picture.

The most common Chinese painting motifs are mountain and river landscapes, images of flowers and bamboo, birds and animals, as well as portrait painting. Along with full-color images, the use of ink occupied an important place.

Graphics and calligraphy are considered inseparable from painting in China. The art of beautiful writing of hieroglyphs is at a premium here.

literary heritage

The history of Chinese literature has its roots in hoary antiquity - the first texts found by archaeologists date back to the era of the Shang Dynasty. The leading place in the culture of the Celestial Empire is traditionally occupied by historiography and ethical and philosophical treatises, while fiction plays a secondary role. Collections of Confucian ideas, embodied in the Thirteen Books, the Pentateuch and the Four Books, are considered classics. Dynasty chronicles are also recognized as fundamental in the formation of Chinese literature.

It is impossible to ignore Chinese poetry, which is rightfully considered one of the most ancient in the world.. Until the 20th century, it did not experience Western influence, which made it possible to form four unique directions - fu, ci, shi and qu.

Entertaining novels are a genre of literature that became especially popular during the Ming Dynasty. The most significant of them are the "Three Kingdoms", "Journey to the West" and "River Backwaters".

Music

Like other branches of Chinese artistic culture, the history of music in the Celestial Empire goes back several millennia. For example, The bamboo flute is considered one of the most ancient instruments in the world.. It is easy to guess that until the 20th century, the music of China practically did not intersect with the Western musical tradition, but was closely intertwined with the Middle Eastern, Central and South Asian ones.

Everyone paid great attention to music. According to Confucianism, this branch of culture had a cosmological nature, and was also closely related to society and politics. According to the followers of Taoism, music was supposed to act as a consequence of a person's psycho-emotional reactions and contribute to his connection with the outside world. Well, Chinese Buddhists paid attention to the mystical basis of music, which was supposed to contribute to a person's comprehension of being.

Traditional Chinese music is usually performed solo or in small ensembles. The tools are made from bamboo, wood, metal, silk, gourd, stone and clay.

Embroidery

This kind applied arts occupies an important place in the cultural heritage of China and has more than one thousand years. The earliest examples of embroidery found by archaeologists date back to the Zhou Dynasty - these were items of ritual clothing.

The rapid development of embroidery falls on the reign of the Han Dynasty. It was during this period that the formation of four main directions of this type arts and crafts - Xiang, Yue, Shu and Su.

Chinese embroidery is distinguished by extraordinary tenderness and subtlety of work and is always done with silk threads. It is interesting that initially men, not women, were engaged in it.

Fabric Painting: The Art of Batik in China

In the cultural heritage of the Middle Kingdom, an important place is occupied by such a type of applied art as drawings made on fabric by hand. This direction has a long history, as it is believed that already during the Qin and Han dynasties, the art of batik took place. However, it was not until the Tang Dynasty that batik became widespread. Fabrics decorated with paintings were exported at that time to European countries along the great silk road.

Chinese cuisine

For the Chinese, gastronomy has a special meaning: eating on the go or pairing food with watching TV is considered unacceptable. Chinese cuisine is very different and depends on the area.

cantonese cuisine. It is famous for its light snacks and meat dishes. Most types of local meat are eaten here, except for goat meat and lamb. The most famous dish is dimsan. special kind small snacks.
Sichuan cuisine- spiciness and sharpness prevail, which are achieved through the use of local varieties of pepper, nuts, ginseng, sesame, garlic, and so on.
Anhui cuisine famous for its bamboo and mushroom dish. It has a lot of vegetables and herbs.
shandong cuisine. Seafood and cereals rule the ball here.
Fujian closely intertwined with Japanese. A special place in the preparation of dishes here is occupied by the method of cutting ingredients.
Jiangsu Cuisine famous far beyond the borders of China. It is distinguished by special care in the selection of ingredients, due to which the dishes are very tender.
Hunanese- is famous for the active use of smoked meats, as well as dried products. Dishes are mostly spicy.
Zhejiang cuisine represented by delicate dishes with moderate aromas.

As for the main ingredients, the most important place is occupied by rice, which is consumed boiled and fried. Noodles, cakes and other dishes are also prepared from this cereal. Soy consumption also plays an important role. From it is prepared traditional cheese tofu, as well as soy milk, pasta, oil and vinegar. The Chinese do not ignore vegetables and herbs - Chinese cabbage, celery, bitter cucumber, bean sprouts, mustard leaves and watercress occupy their niche in Chinese cuisine. As for meat, almost all of its types are edible. An important role is also given to spices, including ginger, cloves, sesame oil, dill, star anise.

China is a country of new technologies and old traditions. Each historical epoch has enriched the culture of this country with its values.

The peculiarity of China

Many representatives of the Western world represent the PRC as a closed and backward state, where the traditions of the Middle Ages still exist.

However, those who came to the Middle Kingdom remain delighted with how diverse the modern culture of China is. Perhaps it was isolation that saved his traditions and preserved them to this day. For thousands of years, the state did not let in any foreigners, except for the benefit of trade.

And in 1949, when a revolution took place in the country, the history of China's culture made new round. Now much depended on the communist ideology.

The reformers who came to power decided to give way to progress and forcibly ban all traditions. From 1966 until 1976, the so-called cultural revolution replaced old values with new ones. Which, of course, left its mark. The spiritual culture of China has been greatly changed.

But, having seen all the futility of their actions, the rulers of the PRC in the 80s of the last century abandoned such a policy. And again they began to arouse the interest of the people in their richest heritage, and, it should be noted, not without success.

Today, the culture of China is a very strange symbiosis of old traditions and communist paradigms, as well as European modernism.

Architecture

Construction in the Celestial Empire began with the birth and formation of the entire civilization. Even under the ancient dynasty of the Tang emperors, the Chinese were so successful in their craft that the closest neighbors - Japan, Vietnam and Korea - began to borrow their technologies.

Only in the twentieth century did China begin to actively use the ideas European architecture in order to maximize the use of all free space in small towns. Traditionally, the height of houses in the state did not exceed three floors. Such buildings can be found in many villages of modern China.

Considering the peculiarities of Chinese culture, one cannot fail to mention symbolism. It is present even in architecture. So, the building must be symmetrical on both sides. Such a building symbolizes balance in everything, as well as life balance. Houses traditionally turn out to be wide, and yards are broken inside. Also there may be covered galleries, which should save from the summer heat.

The Chinese do not like to build in height, but prefer to expand their homes. Even indoors, their own laws of architecture apply. Important rooms are usually located in the center, and secondary rooms diverge from them to the sides. Away from the door live old people, closer - children and servants.

Feng Shui

Residents of the Republic love to balance and systematize everything. They are guided by the Feng Shui system - the rules for the arrangement of objects in the house. This art is a philosophical trend that has been nurtured by the culture of China, and it extends to all spheres of life.

So, you need to build a house with a facade to the water, and a back wall to the hill. Talismans and amulets are necessarily hung inside the premises.

Wood is used as building materials. There are no load-bearing walls, the entire load falls on the columns supporting the roof. This is done for safety reasons, since such houses are more resistant to earthquake shocks.

Artistic culture of China

Traditional Chinese painting is called Guohua. During the reign of the Emperors in China, there was no such profession as an artist. Wealthy aristocrats and officials who were not too busy with work painted at their leisure.

The main color was black. People brought out intricate ornaments, armed with tassels from the wool of a squirrel or other animal. The images were applied either on paper or on silk fabric. In addition, the author could write a poem, which he considered the perfect complement to the drawing. After the work was completed, the picture was folded like a scroll. It was decorated and hung on the wall.

Chinese culture has made the landscape a favorite destination. The Chinese call it shan shui, which literally means "water and mountains." Realistic drawing was not required. The artist only displayed his own emotions from what he saw.

Under the Tang emperors, painting was actively interested, and the rulers of the Song dynasty made it a cult. Artists have learned new techniques. At that time, they began to apply blurry contours when depicting distant objects in the picture.

The Ming Dynasty introduced the fashion for images with stories, which were absorbed by the artistic culture of China.

After the formation of the PRC, all traditional styles were forgotten, and the era of realism began. Artists began to paint peasant and working everyday life.

Modern painters are guided by Western cultural values.

Another type of fine art in China was calligraphy, or Shufa. The artist must be able to move the brush correctly and know which ink is best to use.

Features of Chinese literature

Stories about the life of gods and people began to compose three thousand years ago. The very first stories that have survived to this day are divination written on tortoise shells for the Shang emperors.

The culture of China is unthinkable without mythology, as well as without the works of thinkers and spiritual teachers. Popular literature did not include fiction sections. Basically, philosophical treatises or summaries of ethical laws were created. These books were printed under Confucius. They were called "Thirteen Books", "Pentateuchs" and "Tetrabooks".

Without training in Confucianism, a man could not take any decent position in China.

From the time of the Han emperors, records were kept of the activities of the ancestral dynasties. Today there are twenty-four of them. One of the most popular books is The Art of War by the sage Sun Tzu.

The founder of modern literature is Lu Xun.

Musical traditions

If in imperial China artists were not considered anything, then the attitude towards musicians was even worse. At the same time, paradoxically, music has always been an integral part of the culture of the Republic.

In Confucianism, there is even a special collection of songs of the Chinese people called "Shi Jing". The culture of medieval China kept many folk motifs. And with the advent of communist power in the PRC, hymns and marches appeared.

The usual classical scale has five tones, but there are also seven- and twelve-tone ones.

As for the classification of instruments, everything is simple here. The Chinese distinguish several of their groups, depending on what they are made of. So, there are clay, bamboo, silk, leather, metal, stone musical instruments.

Theatrical art

People in China love to go to the theatre. Xiqu is called a classic. This is such a national temple. In it, the artists dance, and recite works, and sing, as well as demonstrate the technique of combat movements and perform acrobatic stunts. The physical culture of China is very developed.

This theater first arose during the reign of the Tang emperors - in the seventh century AD. Each province of China had its own specific differences Xiqu.

Popular to this day main opera in Pekin.

As you can see, the traditional culture of China is very diverse, multifaceted and extremely rich.

Movie

The first session took place in 1898. But its own tape appeared in 1905. Until the outbreak of World War II, Shanghai was the center of cinema. At the time, he was influenced by American pop culture. With the advent of the communists, the number of films produced increased tenfold.

We have a specific attitude towards Chinese cinema, the number of its fans is very modest, while the rest judge it by the daring films of Jackie Chan, Jet Li, Danny Yen. But in vain. The cinematography of the Middle Kingdom is no less diverse than literature, mythology, martial arts, etc.

culture Ancient China is not only one of the most ancient in the history of mankind, but also one of the most unique and original. For five thousand years, it has developed in its own way, away from other civilizations. The result of such a long continuous process has become a rich cultural heritage, which is of great value to world culture.

The development of the culture of ancient China

The culture of ancient China has a rich past, and the beginning of its formation is considered to be the 3rd century BC. e. It is characterized by a wealth of spiritual values, as well as amazing stamina. Despite the endless wars, rebellions and destruction, this civilization was able to maintain its ideals and core values.

Since the Chinese civilization existed in complete isolation until the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e., its culture acquired a number of unique features, which subsequently only strengthened their positions.

The features of the culture of ancient China include:

Pragmatism. Highest value have the values of real earthly life.
Great commitment to tradition.
Deification and poeticization of nature. The central deity was the Sky, mountains and waters, which the Chinese had worshiped since ancient times, were in high esteem.

Rice. 1. Nature in the art of ancient China.

The worship of the forces of nature was reflected in the art of ancient China. Thus, the landscape direction in painting, architecture, and literature arose and became widespread in the country. Only Chinese culture is characterized by such a deep aesthetic penetration into the natural world.

Writing and literature

The writing of Ancient China can be safely called unique. Unlike the alphabetical system, each character - a hieroglyph - has its own meaning, and the number of hieroglyphs reaches several tens of thousands. In addition, ancient Chinese writing is the most ancient, with the exception of cave paintings.

Architecture and painting

A distinctive feature of architecture in ancient China is the complexity of buildings. While many ancient peoples erected ingenuous one-story buildings, the Chinese already in the 1st millennium BC. e. they knew how to build two- and three-story buildings that required certain mathematical knowledge. The roofs were covered with tiles. Each building was decorated with wooden and metal plaques with symbols of prosperity, health and wealth.

Many ancient architectural structures had a common feature - raised corners of the roof, due to which the roof visually looked like it was bent down.

Much attention in ancient China was paid to the construction of monasteries, carefully carved into the rocks, and multi-tiered towers - pagodas. The most famous is the seven-story Wild Goose Pagoda, which reaches a height of 60 meters.

Rice. 3. Monasteries carved into the rocks.

All the painting of Ancient China, as well as other types of art, is permeated with admiration for the beauty of nature and the harmony of the universe, it is filled with contemplation and symbolism.

In Chinese painting, the genres of "flowers-birds", "people", "mountains-waters" were very popular, which for many years did not lose their relevance. Each depicted object carried certain meaning. For example, the pine symbolized longevity, the bamboo symbolized resilience, and the stork symbolized loneliness.

What have we learned?

When studying the topic "Culture of Ancient China", we learned what factors influenced the development of an original and unique ancient Chinese culture. Having learned briefly about the culture of Ancient China, we identified the characteristic features of architecture, writing, painting, and literature.

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